Invasive species in Australia

What are invasive species?

Invasive species are one of the biggest environmental problems currently facing Australia.
Invasive species are plants, animals or parasites that live beyond their normal range and
become pests (Department of Environment and Heritage, 2004). They are the result of
human activities and can impact the environment, economy and/or human health
(Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, 2022).
Some examples of invasive species affecting Australia are outlined below.

Cane toad (Rhinella marina)

Cane toads (CSIRO, 2021).

The cane toad (Rhinella marina), which is native to South and Central America, was
introduced into north Queensland in 1935 to control the cane beetle in the sugar cane
industry (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, 2021). Since
then its numbers and range have increased significantly. There are now estimated to be
around 200 million cane toads in Australia and they can be found across Queensland, the
Northern Territory, Western Australia and down the northeast coast of New South Wales,
(Clarence Landcare and Border Ranges-Richmond Valley Landcare Network, 2021) as shown
below.
Current extent and anticipated distribution of cane toads in Australia (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the
Environment and Water, 2021).

Cane toads are a problem in Australia because they are:

 poisonous – they are toxic and their ingestion can kill native predators
 predatory – they can eat almost anything, including native frogs, small mammals and
snakes
 adaptive – they are robust and can live in a wide variety of habitats
 competitive – they compete with native species for food and habitat (NSW Department
of Planning and Environment, 2021).

Black rat (Rattus rattus)

The black rat (Rattus rattus), which is
rarely black and more often brown or
grey, was accidentally introduced into
Australia, most likely with the arrival of
the First Fleet in 1788 (Australian
Museum, 2022). Since then it has spread
across Australia, as shown below, living
mostly in coastal urban areas.
A juvenile black rat (Australian Museum, 2022)
 Black rats are a problem because
they prey on birds, bird eggs,
invertebrates and lizards,
contributing to the decline in
some bird species. They also eat
food that would otherwise be
available for native animals
(Northern Territory Government,
2015).

Estimated distribution of black rats in Australia (Australian Museum, 2022).

Blackberry (Rubus fructicosus agg.)

The blackberry (Rubus

fructicosus agg.) originates
in Britain and was
introduced deliberately into
Australia in the 1840s for
growing fruit and hedges
(NSW Department of
Planning and Environment,
2023).

Blackberry thickets (Raabus, 2013)

It escaped into the wild and is now one of Australia’s worst weeds, covering around 9
million hectares (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2023).
Blackberry impacts the environment and agriculture because it:
 quickly forms dense thickets that takes over pastures and restricts stock access to water
 reduces native habitat for plants and animals
 provides food and/or habitat for introduced animals such as foxes (NSW Department of
Primary Industries, 2023).
Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides)
Alligator week (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2023).
Alligator weed (Alternanthera
philoxeroides) is a perennial plant that
grows on land in damp soil or on water as
dense floating mats (Queensland
Government, 2021). It is native to South
America and was accidentally introduced to
Australia, most likely in the Newcastle area
via cargo ships during the Second World
War. Since then it has spread and there is
now around 3,950 ha of alligator weed in
NSW alone (NSW Department of Primary
Industries, 2023).

Alligator weed is one of the world’s worst weeds because it impacts terrestrial and aquatic
environments, being a particular threat to wetlands, rivers and irrigated crop lands (NSW
Department of Primary Industries, 2023).
Some of the impacts of alligator weed are:
 restricts water flow in creeks, rivers and drains
 reduces water quality
 kills fish and native water plants
 damages farming irrigation equipment
 increases water loss of irrigated lands
 threatens recreational use of waterways
 creates favourable habitat for mosquitoes (Queensland Government, 2021).

Causes of invasive species

Introduced species
Most invasive species are introduced species. An introduced species are animals, plants,
fungi or micro-organisms that have been moved by people to an environment where they
were not naturally born or bred (Toran, 2021),
Since 1788 there have been more than 3,000 species of plant, 650 species of land animals
and over 200 species of marine organisms introduced into Australia (NSW EPA, 2017).
Deliberate or accident?
Species can be introduced to Australia either accidentally or deliberately.
Accidental introductions have included:
 arriving on or in freight or passenger boats that travel between countries (e.g. black rat,
ants, parasites, fungi, alligator weed)
 unintentionally brought into the country by travellers (e.g. seeds, souvenirs, fungi in soil
on shoes)
 environmental (e.g. strong winds are thought to have blown the monarch butterfly to
Australia) (Plein & Shine, 2017).
Other species have been deliberately brought to Australia:
 for hunting and recreational purposes (e.g. foxes and rabbits)
 as exotic pets (e.g. turtles and snakes)
 for biological control (e.g. cane toad)
 for agricultural reasons (e.g. blackberry, grasses, flowers, shrubs) (Plein & Shine, 2017).

Why do some introduced species become invasive?

Not all introduced species become invasive species.
For example, wheat and cows are both introduced species to Australia that have not
become invasive and in fact have provided significant financial and food supply benefits to
Australia (Australian Museum, 2012).
Other introduced species, however, can quickly spread and take over their new habitats
having significant impacts. This is especially true when an introduced species has no natural
predators and the new environmental conditions are favourable to its wellbeing and
reproduction. For example, within 2 months of the cane toad being introduced its numbers
had increased by 2400% (from 2,400 to 57,600) because there were no natural predators, it
has a year-round breeding cycle and being omnivorous had an abundant food supply (Plein
& Shine, 2017).

Consequences and impacts of invasive species

In Australia, the invasive species have caused significant environmental and economic
impacts.

Degradation and alteration of native habitats

Feral animals, such as rabbits, goats, pigs and camels can degrade the habitat of native
animals by intensive grazing or by compacting the soil with their hooves (Department of
Environment and Heritage, 2004). This degradation has flow-on effects such as increasing
erosion, reducing native vegetation, further degrading native habitats which all puts more
pressure on native species.
Competing for food and habitat
Invasive species also compete with native animals for food and habitat, for example, rabbits
compete with bilbies and bandicoots and take over their burrows (Department of
Environment and Heritage, 2004). Another example is on Christmas Island, where the
invasive yellow crazy ant occupies the burrows of native crabs, leading to a decline in native
crab numbers (Plein & Shine, 2017).

Killing native species

Many feral animals prey on native species. For example, a feral cat in the bush kills about
791 mammals, birds, reptiles and frogs a year and overall feral cats eat about 2 billion
reptiles, birds, frogs and mammals each year (Threatened Species Recovery Hub, n.d.).
Even invasive species that don’t eat native animals can kill them. For example, the chytrid
fungus, introduced into Australia in the 1970s, attacks a frog’s skin making them sick or
killing them (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2020).

Endangering native species

Many species are currently endangered and at risk of extinction due to invasive species. At
least 80% of nationally-listed threatened species are endangered by invasive species (CSIRO,
2021). Just four pests (rabbits, feral pigs, feral cats and a plant pathogen) endanger 800
threatened species (CSIRO, 2021).

Extinction of native species

In Australia invasive species have been the major cause of native animal and plant
extinctions. Since European settlement invasive species have contributed to the extinction
of 79 Australian species, with feral cats and red foxes alone killing off 25 native mammals
(Sheppard & Glanznig, 2021).

Economic costs
Invasive species (mostly weeds, feral cats, rabbits and fire ants) are estimated to have cost
Australia $390 billion over the last 60 years and around $25 billion ear year (Sheppard &
Glanznig, 2021). This cost is due to economic losses (from lost agricultural productivity) as
well as the cost of managing and controlling invasive species (Plein & Shine, 2017).

Ways to overcome or manage invasive species

While it would be ideal to get rid of all invasive species from Australia, this is not possible.
There are different ways of managing invasive species depending on how widespread the
invasion is. Management strategies can be grouped as:
 prevention – before an invasive species enters Australia
 eradication – completely get rid of an invasive species, which is only possible while its
numbers are small
 containment – limit the spread and growth of the invasive species
 control – long-term management of widespread and abundant invasive species to
minimise the damage as much as possible (Sheppard & Glanznig, 2021).

Prevention
Prevention of invasive species is cheaper and more effective than trying to control pests or
weeds once they are established (CSIRO, 2021). Prevention is largely achieved through
quarantine and biosecurity measures as well as education and information. These are
discussed in more detail in the next section.

Eradication, containment and control

Once a species becomes established, there are a range of methods that can be used to
either eliminate, contain or control an invasive species.
Conventional control
Conventional control methods include trapping, fencing, poisoning and shooting:
 Trapping may be of use for large animals (such as feral pigs and goats) but is not
effective for large-scale pest control (such as rabbits). Trapping is labour intensive and
costly.
 Fencing can be useful in protecting specific locations of endangered animals (such as the
bilby). The construction and maintenance of fencing makes it expensive and only
appropriate for small areas.
 Poisoning has been used on feral animals (such as foxes, pigs and rabbits), however, it
may kill native animals.
 Poisoning of weeds may also kill native plants or small insects.
 Shooting is generally used to target large feral animals (such as goats, pigs and camels)
(Plein & Shine, 2017).
Biological control
Biological control uses natural predators, parasites, viruses or disease carrying bacteria to
control pests (Department of Environment and Heritage, 2004). This approach has been
used both successfully and unsuccessfully in Australia.
A famous failure was the introduction of the cane toad to control the cane beetle in sugar
cane plantations. The consequences of this attempt are still being felt today, as described
above.
Two success stories has been the release of the cactoblastis moth that has reduced numbers
of prickly pear and the calicivirus disease that has controlled rabbit numbers (Plein & Shine,
2017).
Native species under threat from invasive species
There are many species of plants and animals that have become extinct or are under threat
because of the impacts of invasive species. Four examples are outlined below.

Bilby (Macrotis lagotis)

A juvenile bilby (Bush Heritage Australia, 2023).

The bilby (Macrotis lagotis) is a native Australian marsupial that grows up to 50 cm and has
long pink ears and blue-grey fur. They are nocturnal, which means they come out after dark
to look for food.
Bilbies were once found across 70% of Australia, however, numbers have fallen since the
early 1900s and with the current population estimated to be fewer than 10,000 (Bush
Heritage Australia, 2023).
Threats to the bilby include:
 invasive species, such as foxes and feral cats
 altered fire regimes
 habitat clearing (WWF Australia, 2018).

“the impact of predators such as foxes and feral cats has had the greatest
effect on greater bilby numbers and continues to be the most serious
problem” (Queensland Government, 2020)
Northern Quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus)

Northern Quoll (Quoll Society of Australia, n.d.)

The Northern Quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus) is a small marsupial with reddish-brown fur with
white spots that grows to between 25 cm to 37 cm. They are omnivores that eat small
mammals, reptiles, birds and fruit and live in a variety of habitats, including rocky areas,
eucalypt forest and woodlands, rainforests, sandy lowlands and beaches, shrubland,
grasslands and desert (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water,
2023).
The Northern Quoll was formerly found across northern Australia from Western Australia to
south-east Queensland, however, its distribution has declined significantly and there is now
thought to be around 100,000 (Australian Wildlife Conservancy, n.d.).
Threats to the Northern Quoll include:
 predation by feral cats and foxes
 ingestion of cane toads
 loss of habitat, due to agricultural and urban development
 changed fire regimes as a result of invasive weeds, such as the gamba grass (Department
of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, 2023).

Predation by feral cats is a major threat to Northern Quolls (Australian

Wildlife Conservancy, n.d.)
Small purple pea (Swainsona recta)
The small purple pea (Swainsona
recta) is a perennial herb that grows to
around 30 cm that flowers in spring
with purple pea-type flowers. It is
generally found in grassy woodlands
and open forests in south-east
Australia (NSW Office of Environment
and Heritage, 2022).
Threats to the small purple pea
include:
 loss or degradation of habitat from
invasive plant species, such as
bridal creeper and St John’s wort
 grazing by feral animals and cattle
 loss of habitat, due to agricultural
and urban development
 changed fire regimes
 soil erosion (NSW Office of
Environment and Heritage, 2022).

Small purple pea (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2016).

Little Mountain Palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana)

The Little Mountain Palm (Lepidorrhachis
mooreana) is a critically endangered palm
tree native to Lord Howe Island. It is found
only on the summit of Mt Gower and its
natural habitat is less than 4 km2
(Department of the Environment and Energy,
2016).
The threats to the Little Mountain Palm are
both caused by invasive species:
 predation of seeds introduced rats
 invasive weeds.

Little Mountain Palm (Department of

the Environment and Energy, 2016)
Adapting to invasive species
Limit the impacts of invasive species
One of the key adaptations to invasive species is to try to manage the impacts or
consequences of the invasive species.
Threatened native species
To manage the impacts of invasive species on endangered or threatened native animals and
plants, we can:
 protect remnant species by creating national parks or fenced wildlife reserves so they
have more habitat
 eradicate, contain or control invasive species using the management approaches
described above
 collect seeds and create seed banks for endangered or threatened plants
 reintroduce animal species and/or revegetate plants to try to re-establish populations in
their natural habitat (Department of the Environment and Energy, 2016).
Agricultural productivity
The agricultural industry constantly has to adapt and respond to new or escalating invasive
species to maintain their productivity. Adaptation responses include:
 controlling weeds in crops and pastures for example, grain growers spend more than
$2.5 billion a year on weed control
 using satellite imagery and sensors to detect pests, weeds and diseases quickly, which
allows fast and targeted control efforts
 new diagnostic and trace tools to detect biological invasions quickly and often
automatically (similar to the detection of COVID-19 fragments in wastewater)
 using drones to collect data and release targeted baiting or control methods, for
example the Rangerbot is used in the Great Barrier Reef to detect Crown of Thorns
starfish infestations and then fire an injection to kill the starfish without damaging any
coral (Sheppard & Glanznig, 2021).

Changing our habits

We can all adapt and respond to invasive species by changing some of our habits.
Following biosecurity controls
Biosecurity controls such as quarantining, inspections of bags and similar protocols are put
in place to keep Australia safe from the accidental or deliberate introduction of invasive
species. This is why it is important that we all follow the necessary rules when entering
Australia by not bringing in prohibited items and declaring everything we need to (Sheppard
& Glanznig, 2021).
Responsible pet ownership
Dogs and cats have been known to kill native wildlife, so it is important that we are
responsible pet owners including:
 registering pets
 walking dogs on a leash
 keeping cats inside, or in an enclosed catio
 never dumping unwanted pets
 keeping pets out of protected areas (Sheppard & Glanznig, 2021).

Government strategies for managing invasive species

Legislation, strategies, and plans
Governments across Australia have legislation, strategies and plans that manage invasive
species by protecting native species at risk and controlling the spread of invasive species.
For example, the Commonwealth Government’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 lists processes that threaten a native species or ecological
community. Invasive species that are listed as key threatening processes include: rabbits
foxes, feral cats, feral pigs, red imported fire ants, Phytophthora cinnamomic and chytrid
fungus (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, 2022).
The Commonwealth Government also develops threat abatement plans and recovery plans
to protect and support the recovery of threatened native species. This includes managing
threatening processes such as invasive species (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the
Environment and Water, 2022).
In addition, the Commonwealth Government has developed national frameworks to address
invasive species including the Australian Weeds Strategy 2017 to 2027 and the Australian
Pest Animal Strategy 2017 to 2027 (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the
Environment and Water, 2022).

Quarantine and biosecurity

The Commonwealth Government implements high standards of quarantine and biosecurity
to help prevent the introduction of invasive species. Examples of these measures include:
 the need for people entering Australia to declare of certain food, plant material and
animal products
 screening luggage of incoming travellers using detector dogs, x-ray machines and/or
luggage inspections
 regulations and permit requirements for imports
 screening all international mail (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2023).

Education and awareness

Governments also provide education and awareness programs as a way of preventing and
controlling invasive species. Governments provide vast amounts of information online and
run education programs for the community and agricultural industry.
Many people don’t know what species are invasive, and to what degree they are a problem
in Australia, so it is important to teach people about current invasive species, their effects
and how we can control them (Sheppard & Glanznig, 2021).
Educating people at a young age as to the risks surrounding invasive species in Australia is a
way of helping the future generations keep invasive species under control in the future. This
will empower the next generation to keep on top of invasive species and their devastating
effects.

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