Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-023-10007-0

REVIEW ARTICLE

Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods

for Network Reconfigurations in Smart Electricity Distribution
Networks
Attia A. El‑Fergany1

Received: 31 July 2023 / Accepted: 18 September 2023

© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Power losses and voltage profiles in electricity distribution networks are a problem, particularly in developing nations.
Many techniques have reportedly been used in the previous ten years to address this issue. Among other solutions, network
reconfigurations (NRs) are regarded as one of the most practical. It is important to conduct a periodic update survey on this
subject because the electricity radial distribution networks (RDNs) are continually evolving. Therefore, a thorough evalu-
ation of the various techniques to address the issues with NRs along distribution networks is provided in this manuscript.
There is discussion of several mathematical, traditional, heuristic-based, and machine-learning strategies. It is important to
understand how the radiality is achieved as well as methods for resolving distribution load flow, particularly with greater R/X
ratios. The most typical test cases used in the literature are listed. In order to enrich this review and make it useful to others,
more than 200 articles (the majority of which were published in the last five years) are referenced inside the body of this
text. The final conclusions and related future insights are presented. At last, this work is an invaluable resource for anyone
involved in this field of study because it offers a comprehensive literary framework that can serve as the foundation for any
future research on NRs and its prospective difficulties. Therefore, academics can use this framework to enhance previous
formulations and approaches as well as suggest more effective models.

Keywords Smart electricity distribution network · Power losses reductions · Voltage profile · Network reconfigurations ·
Radiality
Abbreviations BS Backward sweep
NR Network reconfiguration FS Forward sweep
RDN Radial distribution network BFS Backward/forward sweep
SDN Smart distribution network KVL Kirchhoff’s voltage law
IM Incidence matrix KCL Kirchhoff’s current law
LST Least spanning tree GA Genetic algorithm
RPC Reactive power compensation TS Tabu search
DG Distributed generation MTS Modified Tabu search
SOR Single-objective representation SA Simulated annealing
MOR Multiple-objective representation SA-TS Simulated annealing- Tabu search
ML Machine-learning COA Coyote optimization algorithm
AI Artificial intelligence GWO Grey Wolf optimizer
LF Load flow DTLBO Discrete teaching–learning-based
DLF Distribution LF optimizer
PU Per unit AEO Artificial ecosystem optimizer
AISO Artificial immune systems optimizer
* Attia A. El‑Fergany
WOA Whale optimization algorithm
el_fergany@ieee.org; el_fergany@zu.edu.eg SMA Slime mould algorithm
MWOA Modified whale optimization algorithm
1
Electrical Power and Machines Department, Zagazig SFFA Selective firefly algorithm
University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt

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 A. A. El‑Fergany

BGSO Binary group search optimizer
BFFA Binary firefly algorithm
CSGA Chaotic search group algorithm
CVHIO Corona-virus herd immunity optimizer
EO Equilibrium optimizer
CSA Improved cuckoo search algorithm
ACO Ant colony optimizer
MACO Modified ant colony optimizer
HBMO Honey bee mating optimizer
GFA Golden flower algorithm
GSA Gravitational search algorithm
EAIS Enhanced artificial immune systems
IHS Improved harmony search
MJFO Modified jellyfish optimizer
MMPO Modified marine predators’ optimizer
MFPA Modified flower pollination algorithm
ISCA Improved sine–cosine algorithm
MPSO Modified particle swarm optimizer
PGSA Plant growth simulation algorithm
CDBAS Chaos disturbed beetle antennae search
HBBC Hybrid big bang–big crunch
ISSA Improved salp swarm algorithm
HWCA​ Hybrid water cycle algorithm
IEJA Improved elitist–jaya algorithm
F-PEA Feasibility-preserving evolutionary
optimizer
SAMCS Self-adaptive modified crow search
ISBPSO Improved selective binary particle swarm
optimizer
CPSO-TLBO Chaotic particle swarm optimizer and
teaching–learning-based optimizer
DPSO-HBMO Discrete particle swarm optimizer and
honey bee mating optimizer
dFCM-ANN Dynamic Fuzzy C-Means (dFCM) clus-
tering based ANN approach
QFFA Quantum firefly algorithm
AEFA-PS Artificial electric field algorithm-pattern
search
AOA Archimedes optimization algorithm
ICA Imperialist competitive algorithm
EQPSO Enhanced quantum PSO
EDPSO Enhanced discrete particle swarm
optimizer
SFLA-PSO Shuffled frog leaping algorithm and par-
ticle swarm optimizer
NSGA-II Non-dominated sorted genetic algorithm
MFA Moth flame algorithm
VSI Voltage stability Index
LB Load balancing
List of Symbols
| |
|Iij | Magnitude of branch i–j current
| |
Rij Resistive portion of line i–j
Xij Reactance portion of line i–j
n Number of nodes along RDNs
PDj Load demand pf real power part at jth
node
PGi Delivered real power of ith node
Pi &Qi Net real and imaginary powers injections
in bus i, respectively
PLoss Resistive power loss along RDN
QLoss Reactive power loss along RDN
Ploss Resistive power losses of the line
ij
between the nodes i and j
Qloss  Reactive power losses of the line
ij

IMPHA Iterative minimum-path heuristic between the nodes i and j

algorithm Peff ,j Total effective active power load fed
IEO Improved equilibrium optimizer through node j
ESM Efficient stochastic method Qeff ,j Total effective reactive power fed
MBFO Multi-objective bacterial foraging through node j
optimizer θij Angle of impedance of line i–j
BPSGS Binary particle swarm gravity search |Vi |∠δi , ||Vj ||∠δj Magnitudes of voltages and load angles
| | | |
RL Reinforcement learning at nodes i & j, respectively
DRL Deep reinforcement learning 𝛿ij Difference between δi andδj
HBO Heap-based optimizer | |
|Zij | Impedance magnitude of line between
ISOS Improved symbiotic organisms search | |
ASFLA Adaptive shuffled frogs leaping nodes i and j
| | | |
algorithm |Yij | Line i-j admittance = 1/|Zij |
| | | |
RRA​ Runner-root algorithm 𝛼 and 𝛽 Constants/exponents as specified in the
MSSO Modified shark smell optimizer relevant table
MOT Many optimization techniques Vk and Vk0 Actual and nominal voltages of kth load,
DFA Dragonfly algorithm respectively
QCSOS Quasioppositional-chaotic symbiotic Pk and Qk Operating active and reactive powers at
organisms search kth load, respectively

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Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…

Pk0 and Qk0 Nominal active and reactive powers at

kth load, respectively
Noj Number of objectives to be optimized
𝜔k Weight of the objective number k
OF k Objective number k
| |
|Vref | Nominal node voltage which is typical
| |
equal to 1 PU
nbr Number of lines along RDN
Iirated Maximum thermal current limit for Fig. 1  Portion of a SDN of i-j nodes
branch i
Min Least permissible node voltage
V
V Max Extreme permissible node voltage
P2eff ,j + Q2eff ,j
Qloss = Xij . (2)
1 Introduction ij
| |2
|Vj |
| |
The nature of traditional distribution networks (TDNs) is radial Equations (3) and (4) determine the effective real and
configuration or alternatively named as open ring main units imaginary powers fed into receiving end-bus j, respectively.
[1, 2]. Typically, such types of TDNs consist of distribution
transformers, underground power cables and/or distribu- |V |||V || | |2
| i || j | ( ) |Vj |
tion overhead lines, switchgears including relays and so on Peff ,j = cos 𝜃ij − 𝛿i + 𝛿j − | | cos𝜃
(3)
ij
[1]. Nowadays, the integration of renewable power sources | |
|Zij |
| |
|Zij |
| | | |
including energy storage facilities plus electric vehicles and
charging stations to the TDNs are in action in many countries
[3–8]. The later mentioned make the topologies of the TDNs |V |||V || | |2
| i || j | ( ) |Vj |
| | sin𝜃
are very sophisticated and requires lot of control strategies Qeff ,j =
| |
sin 𝜃ij − 𝛿i + 𝛿j −
| | ij (4)
and energy management frameworks [9, 10]. This previously |Zij |
| |
|Zij |
| |
mentioned justifies the need of such TDNs to be smarter which
shall be called smart distribution networks (SDNs) [11–13]. It may be useful stating that the technical losses com-
Among the key challenges, to operate such SDNs in an opti- prise two types of losses namely fixed and variable. The
mum operation manner with high efficiency which achieve constant/fixed type of losses or alternatively called type
the resiliency for both customers and utilities as well [9, 14]. 2 losses includes hysteresis, and eddy losses in electric
SDNs are intended to reduce the overall system losses and machines, stray losses, sheath losses, etc. and generally
CO2 emissions plus achieving the operation’s resiliency along these kinds of losses are neglected in studying power net-
good protection integrity [15–17]. It may be mentioned that works. On the contrary, the other variable type of losses
the average annual energy losses in European Union countries which depend on the square of absolute of current flow;
could reach up to 8% of total generated energy [18]. For exam- should be treated carefully and to be minimized [24].
ple, in Poland 11.8%, Romania 13.5%, Turkey 19% and Swe- There are many strategies can be used for loss reductions
den 2.3% [18]. However, in developing countries, the figure along the SDNs which include but not limited to: (i) Selec-
may reach up to 20% average [19] which varies from country tion and conductor sizing [25–27], (ii) Reactive power
to another. The two categories of network losses which are compensations (RPCs) [28, 29], (iii) Network reconfigu-
technical and non-technical [18]. Non-technical losses are due rations (NRs) [23, 30–32], (iv) Distributed generations
to thefts, unbilled accounts, and metering errors and this type (DGs) allocations [19, 33, 34], (v) Higher voltage lev-
requires regulations/laws to judge and smart meters [20–22]. els [35, 36], (vi) Solid-state transformers [37, 38], (vii)
On the other hand, the technical losses arises due to the resist- balancing current in phases [39–43], and (viii) Mixture
ances in transformer windings, conductors of transmission of previous solutions. Among these hybrid simultaneous
systems, contact resistances, etc. [23]. Using the calculations solutions are NRs with DGs [44–46], NRs with RPCs [47],
in Eqs. (1) and (2), the resistive and reactive power losses in DGs and RPCs [48, 49], DGs, RPCs and NRs [46], phase
branch i-j (as depicted in Fig. 1) are calculated: balancing and NR [50], phase balancing and DGs [51]
and so on.
P2eff ,j + Q2eff ,j The concept of losses reductions as well as other
Ploss
ij
= Rij . (1) goals using NRs along SDNs are covered in this review
| |2
|Vj | paper. Different traditional and contemporary methods
| |

13
 A. A. El‑Fergany

(including heuristic-based and machine learning) used to n n

2
|V |2 + ||V || − 2|V |||V ||cosδ
achieve these goals are discussed. Various objective func- PLoss =
∑ ∑
Rij .
| i| j
| | | i || j | ij

tion (OF) formulations are announced. There are strate- | | 2 (9)

gies for achieving system radiality. The LF for SDNs is
also reviewed and condensed. For both classic and mod-
ern frameworks, the difficulties and potential insights are
highlighted.
2 Common Formulation of NR Problem
The NR is typically formulated as optimization problem
using single- and/or multiple-objective representations
(SORs and/or MORs) subject to set of operating and design
constraints. Once again, NR refers to the process of alter-
ing an SDNs’ topology by opening and closing switches
in order to enhance the system’s performance. The goal of
NR is to reduce total system power losses plus other many
defined goals in case of many objectives representations,
while keeping all loads powered within the system’s capacity
and operating constraints.
2.1 Single‑Objective Representation
i=1
j=1 |Zij |
| |
i≠j
The fact that Eqs. (8, 9) are precise and frequently uti-
lized in transmission networks may be relevant to men-
tion. However, as the impact of shunt stray capacitance
is disregarded, the simpler expressions of Eqs. (6, 7) are
commonly utilized in distribution systems. The repre-
sented OF in Eq. (5) is subject to the restrictions listed
in subsect. 2.3.
2.2 Multiple‑Objective Representation
The NR problem can be formulated to achieve multiple
objectives to be optimized simultaneously and this can
be expressed as pareto front set or by using weighted sin-
gle objective formulations with many goals. Weights are
decided by the user needs.
The following are only a few of the most typical goals that
have been extensively utilized in the literature. Among these
common objectives are:

The optimization issue of NR with a SOR is non-linear, non- 2.2.1 Active Power Loss Minimization
convex, and combinatorial. Because the power losses (as a ( )
OF 1 = Minimize Ploss (10)
common objective in this case) are a non-linear function
of the line currents, it is a non-linear problem. The OF is
non-convex due to the binary nature (0–1) of the decision
2.2.2 Minimization of Total Node Voltage Deviations
variables, hence the problem is non-convex. Because there
( n )
are so many different switch configurations, it is a combina- ∑ || | | ||
torial challenge. It can be said that the adaption of the NR OF 2 = Minimize ||Vref | − |Vi || (11)
|| | |
is mixed-integer 0–1 non-linear OF. The Power loss can be i=1

formulated in several possible forms as follows.

( )
OF = Minimize Ploss (5) 2.2.3 Maximization of Total Voltage Stability Index (VSI)
( n )
n n
∑
∑ ∑ | |2 OF 3 = maximize VSI(j)
Ploss = 3.|Iij | .Rij , ∀i ≠ j
| | (6) j=2
i=1 j=1
where
n n
∑ ∑ 4 ( )
Ploss = PGi − PDj (7) VSI(j) = ||Vi || − 4. Peff ,j .Rij + Qeff ,j .Xij
i=1 j=1 2 ( )2 (12)
.||Vi || − 4. Peff ,j .Xij − Qeff ,j .Rij

PLoss The following is an example of how many objectives can

n n
⎧ ( ) ( ) ⎫ be optimized simultaneously.
∑ ∑ ⎪ Rij cos δi − δj ( ) Rij sin δi − δj ( )⎪
= ⎨ . Pi Pj + Qi Qj + Qi Pj − Pi Qj ⎬, (8)
| | | |
i=1 j=1 ⎪ ⌈Vi ⌉|Vj | ⌈Vi ⌉|Vj | ⎪
⎩ | | | | ⎭

i≠j

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Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…

⎛ ⎞ most common ways to ensure the validity of radiality are

⎜ ⎟ [55]: (i) Graphical theory using incidence matrix (IM) [30,
⎜ OF 1 ⎟ 56], (ii), and (iii) Least spanning tree (LST) [57].
⎜ ⎟
OF = ⎜ OF 2 ⎟, ∀k ∈ Noj (13)
⎜ OF 3 ⎟ 3.1 Graphical Theory Using Incidence Matrix
⎜ … ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ OF k ⎠ The IM is a rectangular matrix with entries indicating
whether or not the two things are connected to one another
The single-weighted OF can be represented as
(i.e. branch-to-node). The IM, called A, has a size of (n × m)
Noj
∑ matrix of aij entries as depicted in (18) [56, 58], the SDN is a
OF = 𝜔k .OF k graph of n-nodes linked by m-lines. Then, after forming the
k=1 matrix A , radiality could be checked as described in (19).
where The distinct measures to confirm radiality of the suggested
NR of switch combinations are illustrated in Fig. 2 [30].
Noj
∑
𝜔k = 1 (14) ⎧ +1 if branch starts at node i
k=1 ⎪
aij = ⎨ −1 if branch starts at node j , ∀i ∈ n and j ∈ m (18)
The fuzzy membership functions of each objective are ⎪ 0 otherwise
⎩
extracted independently so that the best compromise solu-
tion can be determined. The fuzzy solution can then be cal- {
culated, and the best compromise solution is that having the ±1 → Radiality achieved
det(A) = (19)
least value [52, 53]. otherwise → No radiality

2.3 Equality and Inequality Constraints 3.2 Least Spanning Tree

The following is a list of the equality and inequality A tree that connects a group of network nodes while mini-
boundaries: mizing the overall weight or cost of the edges used to
Power balance:
∑n � �� � � ��
Pi − PD,i = ��Vi �� j=1 �Vj ��Yij �cos 𝜃ij + 𝛿j − 𝛿i
∑n �� ���� �� � � i∀n, i ≠ j Propose combinations of
Qi − QD,i = ��Vi �� j=1 �Vj ��Yij �sin 𝜃ij + 𝛿j − 𝛿i tie-switches for NR
� �� � Yes
(15)
Bus voltage bounds: Any bus is isolated?
| Min | | | | Max |
|V | ≤ |Vi | ≤ |V |, i∀n
| | | | (16) No

Line flow limits: Construct the A matrix & dump slack

node
|Ii | ≤ ||I rated ||, i∀nbr (17)
| | |i |
No Is the A square?
System radiality:
See Sect. 3.
Calculate det(A)

3 System Radiality No det(A) = ±1

Maintaining radiality of the while performing the NRs is Yes

essential to avoid the complications of protection schemes
[13, 54]. Radiality in TDNs necessitates careful planning Radiality achieved
and design, taking into account network architecture, DG
integration, load increase, outages, and cost concerns. The
Fig. 2  Procedures of Radiality’s Checking using the IM

13

Fig. 3  Various methods for solving NRs problem in SDNs
connect them is known as a LST for radiality. In the con-
text of radiality, the nodes often represent places on a map
or in a specific geographic area, while the edges indicate
potential routes, like highways or power lines, that could
connect those places [59, 60]. Nodes and lines, which are
the electrical equivalent of a graph’s vertices and edges in
graph theory, make up electrical SDNs [61]. As a result,
A G graph with V vertices (or nodes) and E edges (or
lines) can be used to illustrate SDN. If every node is radi-
ally connected, a spanning tree will be plainly seen. Edge
weights in the SDN can represent the active power loss
on the line. The edge weight changes when the network
scheme changes because real power loss is proportional
to the square of phase current. When calculating the LST,
the edge weight is assumed to be constant, in contrast to
the normal graph [61].
Numerous approaches, including Prim’s and Kruskal’s
algorithms, can be used to find the LST for a DNs [62].
The node with the minimum weight is chosen by Prim’s
method. Dijkstra’s approach, however, selects the node with
the shortest path weight to the source node. Generally speak-
ing, these algorithms begin by choosing an initial node,
which in the case of a SDN is typically the Slack node, and
then iteratively add edges to the tree while ensuring that no
cycles occur and that the overall weight or cost of the tree
is reduced [57, 63].
13
A. A. El‑Fergany
4 Methods of Achieving NRs Along SDNs
Many procedures are reported by scholars/researchers to
realize the best combinations of open/close switches of tie-
feeder to achieve the best solution for NRs of the SDNs
under study [23, 64, 65]. Generally speaking, there are four
generations of procedures are proposed which may be cat-
egories as follows: (i) Mathematical procedures, (ii) Mod-
ern heuristic-based procedures, and (iii) Machine learning
(ML)-based procedures. Figure 3 describes the motivation
and various categories of reported solutions. Further detailed
survey in this regard are addressed in the subsequent subsec-
tions as follows.
4.1 Mathematical Methods
Graph theory is a mathematical framework that can be used
to model and analyze network topologies. Graph theory can
be used to solve problems related to network connectivity,
flow, and optimization [66, 67]. For example, graph theory
can be used to find the shortest path between two nodes in a
network or to identify critical nodes that are essential for net-
work connectivity [68, 69]. Among the mathematical models
used to tackle the NRs problem are object-oriented analysis
[70], pivot curve analytical tool [71], mathematical represen-
tation [72], and switch opening and exchange sequentially
method [73, 74]. The numerical/iterative method is proposed
by scholars to overcome the drawbacks of analytical method
Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…
[31]. Extended fast decoupled power flow was reported by
[75]. In the same context, A quick and easy approach is sug-
gested that is built using the node–node adjacency matrix
and just requires topological network data, not an optimiza-
tion or LF program [76]. This method of selecting initial
solutions is quick, straightforward, and its computation is
independent of the network dimension, making it appealing
in practice. In [77], in the power flow solution of a mul-
tiphase network, a switch exchange compensation technique
is proposed. This technique has been tested on IEEE 123-bus
feeder.
OPF using Benders decomposition is used to achieve NRs
along RDNs [78]. The study was applied on large scale RDN
which has 1128-branch, and 129-switch, real-world distri-
bution system. On the other hand, extended fast decoupled
power flow is used to attain the same [75].
Classical optimization strategies have been utilized in the
early stages of NR formulations to tackle this issue. Among
them, mixed-integer programming model [79–81], mixed-
integer linear programming model [82, 83], mixed-integer
quadratic programming [84], mixed-integer nonlinear opti-
mization problem [85, 86], mixed-integer second-order
cone programming [87–90], and approximate dynamic pro-
gramming approach [91]. In a common practice, all later
mentioned methods are used to deal with mono-objective
problems and limited constraints. In addition to that, the
solution quality and burden depend on the likely choice of
the initial point. Furthermore, their performances for large
systems are inaccurate, time-consuming and might be fail in
finding final answers.
4.2 Modern Heuristic‑Based Procedures
At last decade, the heuristic-based optimizers are extensively
employed to solve NRs problem with SORs and MORs as
well [14, 65, 92]. Number of scholars use the same tech-
niques to solve mixed problems such as NR and DG place-
ment, NR and RPCs, NR and load balancing (LB), etc.
Hybrid procedures of using two or more techniques for
boosting the performance of the proposed methodology
are reported. All such methodologies based on heuristic
algorithm(s) are organized in Table 1.
4.3 ML Procedures
In few past years, there are a number of attempts of uti-
lizing ML techniques in solving NR problems in SDNs.
Historically, NRs in power systems has been accomplished
through the use of heuristic-based algorithms as extensively
indicated in Table 1 in subsection 4.2. These procedures,
however, are frequently time-consuming and may not nec-
essarily give the greatest outcomes in some cases. ML is a
subfield of AI that involves creating statistical models and
algorithms that let computers automatically learn from data
and enhance their performance on a given task without hav-
ing to be explicitly programmed [160]. A computer system is
trained on a huge amount of relevant data in ML, and it uses
this data to uncover patterns and relationships that allow it
to make predictions or decisions on fresh data [161].
The issue of NRs in SDNs is being addressed more and
more with the use of ML techniques. To improve system
performance, NR involves altering the SDN’s topology by
opening or closing switches. ML algorithms come in many
different varieties, such as supervised learning, unsupervised
learning, RL, and DRL. Each type of algorithm has its own
strengths and weaknesses and is suited to different types of
applications. Table 2 summarizes various types ML proce-
dures used to solve NRs problem in the literature.
5 Distribution load flow (DLF) and load
models
There are several well-known methodologies for addressing
LF in transmission power systems, including: (i) Gauss–Sei-
del, (ii) Newton–Raphson (N-R), and (iii) Decoupled and
Fast Decoupled LF solution methods. In most circumstances,
the N-R technique is successful and viable for transmission
power networks. However, due to the high R/X of SDNs
(alternatively, the system goes into ill-condition), the lat-
ter approaches had trouble convergent for DLF [74]. As a
result, alternative approaches are tried in order to tackle the
DLF challenges [176]. Among these DLF solution meth-
ods are network-topology-based/graph-theory-based DLF
[177–179], backward/forward sweep (BFS) LF method
[176, 180–183], conic programming [184], direct LF method
[185], and load current injection based improved LF [186].
Some of recent reported DLF considering the various load
models/voltage dependent loads [187, 188], an efficient DLF
method [189], and others consider probabilistic LF [190]
were published.
In general, backward sweep (BS) is used to compute the
current across each load or bus, with the assumption that
the voltages at each bus are equal to 1∠0◦ PU (for the first
iteration) using KCL and then updated by the forward sweep
(FS) approach. The FS method, in the same context, is the
approach used to determine the magnitude of voltage at each
node of the circuit using KVL. Complete procedures of BFS
are described in Fig. 4.
It is vital to consider load models in LF solutions to
ensure proper study investigations for panning and opera-
tional aspects [191]. Static/voltage-dependent and dynamic/
frequency-dependent load models are the two different types
of load models. For steady-state research, static load models
are crucial [192, 193].
13
 A. A. El‑Fergany

Table 1  Some of various heuristic-based procedure techniques used for NRs

Refeerences Optimizer Year Objectives Studied systems Remarks
SOR MOR

[93] MTS 2010 ✓ ✗ 16-, 69-, and 118-node systems ○ Time-consuming and premature to optimal
solution,
○ Radiality is checked using Kirchhoff alge-
braic method
[94] TS 2021 ✗ ✓ 33- and 69-bus test systems ○ Considering switching actions costs
○ DG placement plus NRs,
○ Single-weighted OF
[47] SA 2023 ✓ ✗ 69-bus network plus real systems ○ LST is used to check radiality,
○ RPCs plus NRs,
○ Power losses and costs
[95] SA-TS 2000 ✓ ✗ KEPCO’s distribution systems ○ Time-consuming and premature to optimal
solution
[96] GA 2007 ✓ ✗ 69-node test system ○ Sparsity technique is used for radiality,
○ Limited test cases
[97] GWO 2018 ✗ ✓ 33-node test system ○ Tested on small system only
[98] DTLBO 2016 ✓ ✗ 33-bus and 69-bus test systems plus a real ○ Not test on large-scale networks,
system ○ DG placement is considered
[99] COA 2021 ✓ ✗ 69-node and 118-node systems ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Loss minimization
[100] AEO 2023 ✓ ✗ 33-node and 119-node systems ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Loss minimization
[101] AISO 2014 ✓ ✓ 14-bus RDN, and on Administración ○ RPCs plus NRs,
Nacional de Electricidad real system ○ Reliability index is considered plus Loss
minimization
[102] WOA 2020 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69-, and 118-node systems ○ Loss minimization plus maintaining the
voltage profile within acceptable limits
[103] SMA 2022 ✓ ✗ 33-bus system ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Loss minimization, VSI, and load balance,
○ Small system for testing
[104] MWOA 2021 ✓ ✗ 33-bus and 69-bus networks ○ Probabilistic LF is used,
○ Voltage stability and minimize power losses
are considered
[105] SFFA 2019 ✓ ✗ 33-, 70-, and 84-bus networks ○ Real power losses’ minimization,
○ Load varying systems are not considered
[106] BGSO 2014 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69-, and 118-node systems ○ Forward–backward sweep LF,
○ Real power losses’ minimization
[107] BFFA 2023 ✓ ✗ 84-bus real system Medan city ○ Real power losses’ minimization,
[108] CSGA 2022 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69-, 84- and 118-bus networks ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Real power loss minimization
[109] CVHIO 2022 ✗ ✓ 33-bus and 69-bus networks ○ Power resistive loss, and voltage unbalance
minimization, and voltage sag improvement,
and minimizing energy not supplied by
customers,
○ Fuzzy multi-criteria approach is used
[110] EO 2022 ✗ ✓ 16-, 33-, 69-, and 118-node RDNs ○ Reducing loss, enhancing both the voltage
profile, and the reliability indices,
○ Single-weighted OF

13
Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…

Table 1  (continued)
Refeerences Optimizer Year Objectives Studied systems Remarks
SOR MOR

[111] EO 2022 ✗ ✓ 33-bus RDN ○ DG placement is considered,

○ Improving voltage profile and decreasing
power losses plus reliability indices,
○ Single-weighted OF
[112] ICSA 2019 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69- and 118-node systems ○ Decreasing power losses,
○ Radial topology has maintained using con-
nection matrix
[113] ACO 2005 ✓ ✗ Practical RDN of Taiwan Power Company ○ Power loss reduction
[114] MACO 2015 ✗ ✓ 16-bus and 33-bus RDNs ○ Real power loss and energy not supplied
index (ENS) adapted for MO,
○ Set of Pareto solutions is produced
[115] HBMO 2012 ✗ ✓ 33-bus test system ○ Minimize the loss and deviation of the
nodes’ voltage,
○ Single-weighted OF
[116] GFA 2023 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69-and 118-node systems ○ Minimize the real power loss,
○ Radiality maintained
[117] GSA 2023 ✓ ✗ 33-bus RDN ○ Network loss and load balance minimiza-
tions,
○ Single weighted OF
[118] EAIS 2022 ✗ ✓ 33-, 84-, and 136-bus RDNs ○ Network loss and load balance minimiza-
tions,
○ Single-weighted OF
[119] IHS 2022 ✓ ✗ 14-, 33-, 84- and 118-bus RDNs ○ Network loss minimization,
○ Radiality achieved
[120] MJFO 2023 ✓ ✗ 136-bus RDN ○ Total energy not supplied, system average
interruption unavailability index and system
average interruption frequency index are
considered,
○ IM is used for radiality
[121] MMPO 2022 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus RDNs ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Scenarios for light, nominal and heavy
loading levels are considered
[122] MFPA 2016 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69- and 118-node systems ○ RPCs are considered,
○ Network loss minimization,
○ Graph theory based method is used to check
radiality
[123] ISCA 2020 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus RDNs ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Forward–backward sweep based LF tech-
nique is used,
○ Scenarios for light, nominal and heavy
loading levels are considered
[124] MPSO 2009 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus RDNs ○ Power loss minimization,
○ IM is used for radiality
[125] PGSA 2010 ✓ ✗ 69-node RDN ○ Loss reduction and LB,
○ Branch LB and system LB indices are
considered
[126] CDBAS 2020 ✗ ✓ 33-, 69- and 118-bus RDNs ○ Load demand pattern is considered,
○ DG placement is considered,
○ Grey target decision-making model is used

13
 A. A. El‑Fergany

Table 1  (continued)
Refeerences Optimizer Year Objectives Studied systems Remarks
SOR MOR

[127] HBBC 2016 ✗ ✓ Balanced (33- and 94-node RDNs) and ○ RPCs are considered,
unbalanced (25-node RDN)
○ Loss reduction and LB,
○ IM is used for radiality
[128] ISSA 2023 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus RDNs ○ Reduces power losses cost and improve
reliability,
○ Renewable placement is considered,
○ Five scenarios are performed
[129] HWCA​ 2022 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus distribution networks ○ Power loss minimization,
○ Radiality is maintained
[130] IEJA 2019 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus distribution networks ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Various load models with load growth are
considered
[131] F-PEA 2019 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69- and 118-bus test radial networks ○ OpenDSS is used for LF,
○ Improves voltage profile index and Power
loss minimization
[132] SAMCS 2021 ✗ ✓ 33-bus system and the 86-bus Taiwan Power ○ Four Objectives: (i) loss minimization, (ii)
Company refining the voltage profile, (iii) improving
the network reliability, and (iv) minimizing
the operational costs,
○ Renewable resources and responsive
loads are considered
[133] ISBPSO 2019 ✓ ✗ 33-Bus and 94-nodes systems ○ DG placement is considered,
○ Sigmoid function is used for 0/1 produc-
tion,
○ Reduces power losses
[134] CPSO-TLBO 2014 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-nodes systems ○ Minimizes the electrical power loss,
○ Radial structure of the network is checked
[135] DPSO-HBMO 2009 ✗ ✓ 33- and 69-nodes systems ○ Minimize the resistive loss, and deviations
of the nodes’ voltages,
○ LB is considered,
○ Single weighted OF,
○ Radial structure is maintained
[136] IMPHA 2022 ✓ ✗ Real system of urban zone Quito Tenis of ○ Geopositioning constraints is considered,
Ecuador ○ LST is used for a radial topology,
○ CYMDIST is used for modelling
[137] IEO 2023 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-bus distribution networks ○ Time-varying load and generation are
considered,
○ Five scenarios of NR and renewable DG
allocation are considered,
○ Dispatchable and non-dispatchable DG is
considered,
○ Hourly power loss minimization and profit
maximization
[138] ESM 2022 ✓ ✗ 16-, 33-, 69-, 94-, 118-, and 136-bus systems ○ Considering load uncertainty,
○ Low computational time,
○ Stochastic and deterministic models are
reported,
○ Minimize the real power loss
[139] BPSGS 2018 ✓ ✗ 16-, 33-, 69-, and 136-bus systems ○ Considering reliability indices,
○ Minimize the real power loss

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Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…

Table 1  (continued)
Refeerences Optimizer Year Objectives Studied systems Remarks
SOR MOR

[140] HBO 2023 ✗ ✓ 33-bus test system ○ Three different load levels are considered,
○ This study involves improvements to the
voltage profile, as well as cost and gas emis-
sion reductions,
○ Single-weighted OF
[141] ISOS 2023 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-node systems ○ DG placement,
○ Minimizes power losses
[142] ASFLA 2019 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-node systems ○ Loss minimization and VSI improvement,
[143] RRA​ 2017 ✗ ✓ 33- and 69-node systems ○ Minimizes real power loss, and LB,
○ Max/Min technique to pick the best com-
promise solution
[144] MSSO 2021 ✓ ✗ Actual RDN in Kombolcha, Ethiopia ○ Improves system reliability and voltage
profile with low power loss
[145] MSSO 2018 ✓ ✗ 33-bus RDN ○ Minimizes power losses
[146] MOT 2020 ✓ ✗ 33- and 69-node systems ○ DG placement,
○ Four Optimization techniques are used,
○ It uses PSCAD/EMTDC to check voltage
stability
[147] DFA 2016 ✓ ✗ 16-, 33- and 69-bus systems ○ Minimizing real power loss and improving
the voltage profile,
[148] NPSO 2016 ✗ ✓ 33-bus RDN ○ Renewables are considered,
○ Minimization of system power loss, voltage
deviation and energy wastage renewables
[149] QCSOS 2021 ✓ ✗ 33-, 69-, and 118-bus RDNs ○ Minimization of system power loss,
○ DG placement
[150] MOT 2018 ✓ ✗ 33-bus RDN ○ Minimization of system power loss,
○ DG placement
[151] QFFA 2014 ✗ ✓ Practical 47-bus RDN ○ Power quality and reliability enhancement,
○ Single-weighted OF
[152] AEFA-PS 2022 ✗ ✓ Unbalanced 33-node and a real 13-node ○ Lowering values of losses, voltage sag, and
RDNs voltage unbalance
○ Single-weighted OF
[153] Star 2019 ✓ ✗ 33-bus RDN ○ Improves the power quality and unwavering
quality of dispersion frameworks
[154] AOA 2021 ✗ ✓ 33-, and 69-node RDNs, 59-node Egyptian ○ DG placement and load growth are consid-
and 136-node Brazilian RDNs ered,
○ Losses, LB and hosting capacity,
○ Single-weighted OF
[155] ICA 2017 ✗ ✓ 33-bus and 69-bus RDNs ○ Minimizations of losses and reliability
indices,
○ Single-weighted OF
[156] EDPSO 2023 ✗ ✓ 33-, 69-, and real 95-node RDNs ○ Improving harmonic losses, total harmonic
distortion, and power losses,
○ Single-weighted OF
[157] SFLA-PSO 2017 ✓ ✗ 33- and 95-node RDNs ○ Backward-Forward Sweep for LF,
○ Loss minimizations, and VSI maximiza-
tions
[158] NSGA-II 2013 ✗ ✓ 33- and 84-bus test systems ○ Losses minimization and reliability,
○ Pareto chart
[159] MFA 2021 ✓ ✗ Wolaita Sodo 34-bus data networks ○ Minimizes voltage deviation and power loss

13
 A. A. El‑Fergany

Table 2  Some of various types of ML techniques used for NRs

References ML algorithm Year Studied systems Remarks

[162] ANN 1998 16-bus test system ○ Power loss reduction,

○ Small-scale test case
[163] Model-free RL 2023 33- and 136-node test systems ○ Five reinforcement algorithms are applied
○ Comparisons are in place
[164] Deep-Learning 2023 33- and 69-node test systems ○ Voltage-stability-enhancing,
○ Power loss reduction and voltage stability enhancement
[165] Deep Q-Learning 2022 33- and 69-node test systems ○ Reliability improvement,
○ Minimizes the average curtailed power
[166] DRL 2022 33-bus radial system ○ Reduces active energy losses and the cost of switching
manipulations
[167] DRL 2022 33-bus radial system ○ Set-points of DGs in real-time operation,
○ Reducing the cost of operation and the duration of load
shedding
[168] Batch-constrained RL 2020 16-, 33-, 69-, and 118-node RDNs ○ Reduces the cost of operating the system and the difference
between the current policy and the previous operational plan
[169] DRL 2022 33- and 118-node RDNs ○ Active power loss, voltage deviation, and reliability
[170] DRL-MBFO 2021 33-, 69-, and 118-bus RDN ○ Voltage deviation, power loss, statistic voltage stability, and
generation cost,
○ Pareto chart obtained
[171] RL 2020 CIGRE 14-bus and IEEE 123-bus ○ Very small computation times,
test network ○ Active network management solutions
[172] DRL 2020 33-bus RDN ○ Minimizes power loss,
○ Markov decision process is used
[173] RL 2022 33-node RDN ○ Actor-Critic algorithm is used,
○ Minimizes power loss,
○ Iterative Markov process is used for training
[174] dFCM-ANN 2016 33- and 69-bus RDNs ○ Minimizes power loss,
○ The training patterns have only 64 training samples
[175] RL 2019 16-bus distribution test feeder ○ Minimizes the expected total operational cost

To examine the effects of various load models on DGs The values of the real and reactive power exponents used
planning and NRs investigations, static load models are uti- in typical practice for industrial, residential, and commercial
lized to categorize customer classes. Particularly when con- loads are shown in Table 3 [194–196].
ducting studies on voltage stability, it is imperative to take
into account various voltage-dependent load variations. The
residential, industrial, and commercial voltage dependent 6 Benchmark Test Cases
load models described in [194] are used for research were
used. The load models can be stated quantitatively as given A closer look to Tables arranged in Sect. 4, the common test
in Eqs. (20, 21). cases are used to evaluate the performance of NRs along
( )
Vk 𝛼 SDNs complete with defined scenarios that can be utilized
Pk = Pk0 (20) are: (i) 33-node RDN: This is a popular small-scale test
Vk0
case with 33-nodes (12.66 kV bus voltage), 37-branches,
( )𝛽 5-tie switches, 3- lateral sections and having a total load
Vk of (3.73 + j2.30) MVA constant power. The SLD of this
Qk = Qk0 (21)
Vk0 RDN is illustrated in Fig. 5 (ties are shown in dotted line),
and the reader can find the complete data of this test case

13
Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…

Read the system in [74, 139, 197], (ii) 69-node RDN: There are 69-nodes,
data 73-branches and 5 tie-switches in this test case, The SLD
of this 69-bus RDN is illustrated in Fig. 6 (ties are shown
in dotted line), and the reader can find the complete data of
Initialize the nodes voltages this test case in [139, 198], (iii) 118-node RDN: This is a
more complex test case with 118-nodes (Operating voltage
of 11 kV), 132-branches, 13-lateral sections, 14-tie switches
and having a total load of (22.709 + j17.042) MVA constant
k=1
power. Its SLD is illustrated in Fig. 7 (ties are shown in dot-
ted line) and the reader can find the complete data of this
test case in [139, 197, 199], (iv) 136-node RDN: This is
Estimate the load currents at a more complex test case with 136-nodes (Operating volt-
each node using KCL age of 13.8 kV), 135-branches and 21-tie switches between
nodes 8–74, 10–25, 16–84, 39–136, 26–52, 51–97, 56–99,
k=k+1

63–121, 67–80, 80–132, 85–136, 92–105, 91–130, 91–104,

Implement FS sweep to update 93–105, 93–133, 97–121, 111–48, 127–77, 129–78, and
nodes voltages using KVL 136–99 and having a total load of (22.709 + j17.041) MVA.
Figure 8 shows the SLD of this RDN and the reader can find
the complete data of this 1136-node RDN test case in [197,
No Errors Satified?
200], and (v) Real-world power systems: Real-world RDNs,
in addition to synthetic test cases, can be used to evaluate
the performance of network reconfiguration methods. Exam-
Yes
ples for these real test RDNs are the Taiwan Power Com-
Record the results pany’s actual network that has 83 sectionalizing switches,
13 tie-switches, and is operated at 11.4 kV with demand of
28.35 + j20.70 MVA [201], Tokyo Electric Power Company
[202, 203] that has 432-bus, 468 switches with 300 A capac-
Fig. 4  BFS procedures for DLF
ity and 6.6 kV operating voltage, the Iraqi power utilities
[204], and many more [205–209].
Table 3  Load types and exponent values
Load type 𝛼 𝛽

Constant power 0.00 0.00

Constant impedance 2.00 2.00
Industrial 0.18 6.00
Residential 0.92 4.04
Commercial 1.51 3.40

Fig. 5  SLD of the 33-node RDN comprising proposed ties

13
 A. A. El‑Fergany

Fig. 6  SLD of the 69-node RDN comprising initial ties

Fig. 7  SLD of the 118-node

RDN comprising initial ties

13
Reviews, Challenges, and Insights on Computational Methods for Network Reconfigurations…
Fig. 8  SLD of the 136-node
RDN (Ties are not shown—See
above text)
7 Conclusions
The electrical SDNs are always changing, so it is crucial
to carry out a recurring update survey on this subject. This
article offers a thorough overview of the most cutting-edge
methods for addressing the problem of distribution network
loss through NRs. It examines the widely utilized approaches
for distribution NRs and provides a thorough analysis of the
pertinent history, the state of the art, and practical demands.
It is based on several published research publications that
comprehensively and continuously describe the study done
on this subject over the past 20 years. The more than 200
citations supplied in this article serve as a representative
sample of the technical assessments now available about the
improvement of SDN’s performance by achieving loss mini-
mization and voltage profile rise. Numerous approaches have
been tried in this survey to tackle the NRs problem as formu-
lations of single and multi-objective with different restric-
tions. A future trend in the era of NRs including machine-
learning procedures is being driven by several approaches
for minimizing SDM’s loss that have been described in the
literature. It can be announced that simultaneous procedures
appear to be the most effective strategy for improving system
performance among those methods that are described in the
literature. In the near future, researchers in this discipline
as well as SDNs will pay greater attention to utilize many
other approaches concerning the AI and machine learning
and considering the various load models.
Funding Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology &
Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyp-
tian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Data Availability The data are available from the corresponding author
upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Research Involving Human and Animal Participants This article does
not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
13

the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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