Anatomy and Physiology  Frenulum – membrane that secures the tounge to
The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
Functions of the Digestive System
 Digestion – breakdown of ingested food.
 Absorption – passage of nutrients into the blood.
 Metabolism – production of cellular energy (ATP).
Digestive System: Overview
 Alimentary Canal/ Gastrointestinal (GI) tract –
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine
 Accessory Digestive Organs – teeth, tounge,
gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
 A continuous, hollow coiled tube that digests food,
breaks it down, and absorbs the fragments through
its lining into the blood.
Digestive Process
Six Essential Activities:
1. Ingestion
2. Mechanical digestion
3. Propulsion
4. Chemical digestion
5. Absorption
6. Defacation
Gastrointestinal Tract Activities
1. Ingestion
 Taking food into the digestive tract.
 Act of putting food into mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion
 Biting: using of teeth to cut the food.
 Mastication: chewing or grinding of food.
3. Propulsion – deglutition and peristalsis
 Deglutition: swallowing
 Peristalsis: waves of contraction and relaxation of
muscles in the organ walls.
4. Chemical digestion – catabolic breakdown of
food.
 Initial digestion: stomach
 Final digestion: small intestine
5. Absorption – movement of nutrients from the GI
tract to the blood or lymph (villi and microvilli)
6. Defacation – elimination of indigestible and
unabsorbed solid wastes (large intestine).
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening.
 Cheeks – form the lateral walls.
 Hard palate – forms the anterior roof.
 Soft palate – forms the posterior rood.
 Uvula – fleshy projection of soft palate.
 Vestibule – space between lips externally and teeth
and gums internally.
 Tounge – attached at hyoid and styloid processes,
and by the lingual frenulum.
the floor of the mouth; limits movement.
 Tonsils – Palatine tonsils and Lingual tonsil
Processes of the Mouth
 Mastication (chewing) of food (mechanical
digestion)
 Mixing masticated food with saliva (chemical
digestion)
- Salivary amylase: enzyme digests starch
- Mucin: slippery protein (mucus); protects soft
lining of digestive system; lubricates food for
easier swallowing
- Buffers: neutralizes acid to prevent tooth
decay
- Anti-bacterial chemicals: kill bacteria that
enter mouth with food.
 Initiation of swallowing by the tounge.
 Allowing for the sense of taste.
 Another antibacterial substance present in saliva is
lactoferrin an iron binding protein.
 In the presence of specific antibody, lactoferrin
which is not saturated with iron enhances the
inhibitory effect of the antibody on
microorganisms.
 Digestion: Digestive function is mainly due to
presence of salivary amylase, lingual lipase
enzymes.
Pharynx
 Serves as a passageway for air and food.
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle
layers.
- Longitudinal inner layer
- Circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating contractions of
the muscle layers (peristalsis)
The Pharynx
 The air passage (trachea) and food passage
(esophagus) cross in the pharynx.
 Swallowing occurs in the pharynx and is a reflex
action.
 During swallowing, the air passage is usually
blocked off, and the trachea moves under the
epiglottis to cover the glottis opening to the
windpipe.
Esophagus
 Runs from pharynx to stomach through the
diaphragm.
 Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic
squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory system
branches off after the pharynx.
Stomach
 Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity ( -
10 in long)
  When full hold about 1 gallon of food.
 Food enters at the cardio esophageal sphincter.
 Food exits at the pyloric sphincter (valve) between
the stomach and small intestine.
Stomach Functions
 Acts as a storage tank for food.
 Site of food breakdown.
 Produces 2-3L/day of gastric juice (HCI, enzymes,
and mucus)
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins.
- Pepsin: an enzyme that breaks down proteins;
secreted as pepsinogen; activated by HCI.
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine.
 Regulated by neutral and hormonal factors.
- Motilin: A polypeptide that has a role in fat
metabolism.
- Gastrin: a hormone that stimulates the
production of gastric acid in the stomach.
- Secretin: a peptide hormone secreted by the
duodenum that serves to regulate its acidity.
(pH 1.5 to 3.5)
Diseases and Disorders
 Heartburn – occurs when the cardio-esophageal
sphincter fails to close tightly and gastric juice
hacks up into the esophagus.
 Hiatal hernia – superior part of the stomach
protrudes above the diaphragm allowing juices to
go into the esophagus.
 Vomiting – reverse movement of food, brought
about by a signal from the medulla.
 It takes 4 hours for the stomach to empty after a
well-balanced meal and 6 hours for a fatty meal.
Small Intestine (4-8 hrs)
 The body’s major digestive organ.
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood.
 Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter
to the ileocecal valve.
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by
the mesentery.
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
 Duodenum
- Attached to the stomach.
- Curves around the pancreas (10 in).
- Most digestion
 Jejunum
- Attaches to the duodenum (8ft long)
- Absorption of nutrients and water.
 Ileum
- Extends from jejunum to ileocecal valve of
large intestine (12ft long)
- Absorption of nutrients and water.
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
 Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme.
 Acid food from the stomach mixes with digestive
juices from accessory glands.
- Pancreas
o Peptidases: digests proteins/breaks
peptide bonds (trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase)
o Pancreatic amylase: digests starch.
o Lipase: needed to digest fat.
o Nucleases: digests nucleic acids.
- Liver – produces bile.
o Bile: breaks up fats
- Gall bladder – storage of bile.
Villi of the Small Intestine
 Finger like structures formed by the mucosa.
 Give the small intestine more surface area.
Microvilli of the Small Intestine
 Small projections of the plasma membrane.
 Found on absorptive cells.
Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients
 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries
Propulsion in the Small Intestine
 Peristalsis is the major means of moving food.
 Segmental movements
- Mix chyme with digestive juices.
- Aid in propelling food.
Peristalsis, involuntary movements of the longitudinal and
circular muscles, primarily in the digestive tract but
occasionally in other hollow tubes of the body, that occur in
progressive wavelike contractions. Peristatic waves occur in
the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
Large intestine (12-24 hrs)
 Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small
intestine.
 Frames the internal abdomen.
Functions of the Large Intestine
 Reabsorption of water.
 Eliminates indigestible food from the body as
feces.
 Does not participate in digestion of food.
Structures of the Large Intestine
 Ileocecal valve – between small and large intestine.
 Cecum – saclike
- 1st part of the large intestine.
 Appendix
- Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
- Hangs from the cecum.
 Colon
- Ascending – travels up the right side.
- Transverse – travel across abdomen.
- Descending – travels down the left side.
 - Sigmoidal colon (aka pelvic colon) last part of  Kill germs.
large intestine. Liver
 Rectum – holding area before release of fecal  Produces bile.
material.  Stored in gall bladder.
 Anus – external body opening.  Brek up fats.
Pancreas
Food Breakdown and Absorption in the Large Intestine  Produces enzymes to digest protein and carbs.
 No digestive enzymes are produced. Stomach
 Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients.  Kill germs.
- Produce some vitamin K and B  Break up food.
- Release gases  Digest proteins.
 Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed.  Store food.
 Remaining materials are eliminated via feces. Small Intestine
 Breakdown food
Propulsion in the Large Intestine - Proteins
 Decreased peristalsis - Starch
(hypomotility or hypoperistalsis) may lead to - Fats
constipation and bacterial overgrowth.  Absorb nutrients.
 Mass movements
- Slow, powerful movements. Large intestine
- Occur three to four times per day.  Absorb water.
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defacation
reflex. Accessory Digestive Organs
 Salivary glands
 Teeth
Diseases and Disorders  Pancreas
 Diarrhea – results when water is not sufficiently  Liver
absorbed by large intestine (can be due to bacteria)
 Gall bladder
 Constipation – results when too much water is
absorbed by the large intestine. Salivary Glands
 Parotid glands – located anterior to ears.
Common Causes of Sudden or Chronic Diarrhea
- Mumps is inflammation of the parotic glands.
 Sudden Diarrhea – food poisoning, traveler’s
 Submandibular glands – located beneath the floor
diarrhea, stomach flu
of the mouth.
 Chronic Diarrhea – celiac disease, food
 Sublingual glands – located under the tounge.
intolerance/allergy, milk/soy protein intolerance,
IBS, medication
Teeth
 The role is to masticate (chew) food.
7 Common Causes of Constipation
 Aids in mechanical digestion.
1. Dehydration
2. Lack of fiber  Humans have two sets of teeth.
3. Disruption of the gut flora  Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
4. Food sensitivities - 20 teeth are fully formed by age two.
5. Autoimmune disease  Permanent teeth
6. Hypothyroidism and hashimotos - Replace deciduous teeth beginning between
7. Bowel obstruction the ages of 6 to 12.
- A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not
7 Solutions for Supporting Healthy Bowel Habits have wisdom teeth.
1. Drink plenty of water. - Teeth are named according to their main
2. Consume enough/ dietary fiber. function.
3. Avoid inflammatory foods.
4. Start taking probiotics. Classification of Teeth
5. Get your thyroid tested.  Incisors – adult (8); child (8)
6. Get tested for autoimmune disease. - They have sharp edges that help you bite into
7. Have an intestinal scope. food.
 Canines – “cuspids” adult (4);child (4)
Mouth - They have a sharp, pointly surface for tearing
 Break up food. food.
 Moisten food.  Premolars – “bicuspid” adult (8)
 Digest starch. - They have a flat surface with ridges for
crushing and grinding food into smaller pieces.
  Molars – adult (12) including 4 wisdom teeth;
child (4)
- Biggest and strongest teeth.
- They have large surface area for grinding up
food and break up the food into pieces small.
Regions of a Tooth
 Crown – exposed part (hardest substance in the
body)
- Outer enamel
- Dentin
- Pulp cavity
 Neck
- Region in contact with the gum.
- Connects crown to root.
 Root
- Periodontal membrane attached to the bone.
- Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves.
Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes
that break down all categories of food.
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes
acidic chyme.
 Endocrine products of pancreas.
Liver
 Largest internal organ/gland in the body.
 Located on the right side of the body under the
diaphragm.
 Consists of four loves suspended from the
diaphragm and abdominal wall by the falciform
ligament.
 Connected to the gall bladder via the common
hepatic duct.
Bile
 Produced by cells in the liver,
 Composition
- Bile salts
- Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin).
- Cholesterol
- Phospholipids
- Electrolytes
Role of the Liver in the Metabolism
 Several roles in digestion.
 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol.
 Degrade hormones.
 Produce cholesterol, blood proteins (clotting
proteins)
 Plays a central role in metabolism.
Metabolism
 A chemical reaction that are necessary to maintain
life.
- Catabolism – substances are broken down,
energy released and captured to make ATP.
- Anabolism – small molecules come together
to form larger molecules.
How to maintain blood glucose (sugar) levels…
 Blood circulates through the liver and glucose is
removed. If the body has an abundance, glucose is
made into glycogen. This is called glycogenesis.
 If the body is low on sugar, the liver will break
down the glycogen into sugar. This is called
glycogenolysis.
Carbohydrate metabolism
 Cellular respiration – glucose is broken down,
releasing chemical energy to form ATP.
 Glucose + 02 = C02 + H2O + ATP
 If too much sugar is in blood, it is converted to
FAT!
Protein metabolism
 Amino acids (make up proteins) are used to make
ATP only when proteins are over abundant or carbs,
and fats are not available.
 Amino acids are oxidized and ammonia (NH3) is
given off (secreted). The rest if the amino acids
enter the citric acid cycle.
Fat metabolism
 Most of it occurs in the liver.
 Fat is broken down into acetic acid. Then it is
oxidized and CO2, H2O, and ATP are formed.
 This occurs when there are low amounts of sugar in
the blood.
Gall Bladder
 Sac found in hollow part of the liver.
 Stores bile from the liver.
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the
presence of fatty food
 Gallstones can cause blockages.
Diseases and Injuries
 Gallstones occur when bile is stored for too long
and fat crystallizes.
 Jaundice – bile enters the blood stream and tissues
become yellow.
Nutrition
 Nutrient – substance used by the body for growth,
maintenance, and repair.
 Categories of nutrients
- Carbohydrates: simple sugars, starches, fiber
(fruit, grain, veggies, some milk and meat)
- Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, fatty
acids
- Proteins: amino acids
Nutrition
  Vitamins: need a balanced diet to obtain essential
vitamins.
 Mineral – body requires 7 minerals (Ca, P, K, S,
Na, Cl, Mg)
 Water
What nutrients do for the body?
 Carbohydrates – broken down to form ATP.
 Lipids – build cell membranes, make myelin
sheath, and insulates the body.
 Proteins – major structure for building cells.
Diseases and Disorders
 Frostbite – when the body is exposed to low
temperatures. Capillaries constrict to keep blood
deeper for the internal organs.
 Shivering – occurs when internal body becomes
too cold; this produces heat.
 Hypothermia – extremely cold body temperature.
This results from prolonged exposure to the cold;
vital signs decrease.
- Warning Signs of Hypothermia are confusion,
shivering, difficulty speaking, sleepiness, and
stiff muscles.
- Treatments of Hypothermia – depends on the
severity of the hypothermia.
- Mild Hypothermia Treatment: remove wet
clothes from victim and replace with dry
clothes and/or wrap in warm blankets; cover
the heat, move to warm environment, do not
exercise to warm up, do not re-warm person in
a warm bath or by massaging or rubbing, drink
a warm sugary drink, avoid drinks with
caffeine or alcohol, and transport victim to an
emergency medical facility for evaluation.
 If the body is hot, capillaries become flushed with
warm blood, releasing heat. Sweating will occur.
Heat stroke or heat exhaustion can occur.
- Sign and Symptoms: no sweating, dry red
skin, dizziness and headache, pinpoint pupils,
vomiting, unconsciousness.
- Prevention: drink enough, no alcohol and
caffeine, cool showering, wear light protection,
do not stay closed car, and limit outdoor time.
 Cleft palate – palate does not form properly;
deformities of mouth, nose, and lips.
 Cystic fibrosis – excessive mucus impairs activity
of pancreas. Fat and fat-soluble vit. Are not
digested.
- People with cystic fibrosis experience a build-
up of sticky mucus in the lungs, digestive
system and other organs.
 PKU – Phenylketonuria (fen-ul-keu-toe-NU-ree-
uh), also called PKU, is a rare inherited disorder
that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to
build up in the body.
- Inherited Disease that can lead to mental
retardation if untreated.
 Inability to use amino acids in food; can cause
brain damage and mental retardation.
 Gastroenteritis – inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract; can be caused by
contaminated food.
 Pyloric stenosis – a birth defect in which a
constricted pyloric sphincter does not allow food to
pass easily into the small intestine.
Symptoms of Phenylketonuria (PKU)
 Learning disabilities
 Mental retardation
 Tremors or jerky movements of limbs
 Skin rash or eczema
 Epilepsy
 Hyperactivity
 Behavioral issues
PKU Treatment
 Controlling blood Phenylalanine (Phe) levels: The
mainstay of treatment for Phenylketonuria (PKU) is
management of Phenylalanine (Phe) levels in the
blood to avoid damage to the brain while
maintaining appropriate nutrients intake.
 Foods that are Phe rich, such as meat, fish, eggs,
dairy nuts must be avoided, a selection of
vegatables, fruit and special low-protein breads and
pastas bring the main allowed diet.
Gastroenteritis – otherwise called as stomach flu is an
infection of the stomach or small intestine by virus or
bacteria.
Treatment
 Mainstay of treatment is rehydration.
 Tetracycline or erythromycin x 3/7.
 Help to eradicate infection, decrease stool output,
and shorten the duration of the illness.
 However, a single dose of ciprofloxacin or
azithromycin (each 1 g) is a better choice.
 Prevention by good hygiene and improved
sanitation
Appendicitis – inflammation of the appendix.
Ulcer – lesion or erosion of mucus membrane, exposed to
secretions of the stomach.
Treatment
 The treatment of appendicitis is appendicectomy.
 Appendicectomy can be elective, emergency, or
interval.
 Two types of appendicectomy.
- Conventional open appendicectomy
- Laparoscopic appendicectomy

Anatomy and Physiology
Urinary System
Functions of the Urinary System
Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine
 Nitrogenous wastes
 Toxins
 Drugs
 Excess ions
Kidneys’ Regulatory Functions
 Production of renin to maintain blood pressure.
 Production of erythropoietin to stimulate red blood
cell production.
 Conversion of vitamin D to its active form.
Kidney – Location of the kidney
 The kidneys are situated against the dorsal body
wall in a retroperitoneal position (behind the
parietal peritoneum)
 The kidneys are situated at the level of the T12 to
L3 vertebrae.
 The right kidney is slightly lower than the left
(because of the position of the liver)
Kidney – Structure of the kidney
 An adult kidney is about 12cm (5 in) long and 6 cm
(2.5 in) wide.
 Renal hilum
- A medial indentation where several structures
enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood
vessels, and nerves)
- An adrenal gland sits a top of each kidney.
Three Protective Layers Enclose the Kidney
 Fibrous capsule – encloses each kidney.
 Perirenal fat capsule – surrounds the kidney and
cushions against blows.
 Renal fascia – the most superficial layer that
anchors the kidney and adrenal gland to
surrounding structures.
Three Regions of the Kidney
 Renal cortex – outer region
 Renal medulla – deeper region
- Renal (medullary) pyramids – triangular
regions of tissue in the medulla.
- Renal columns – extension of cortex-like
material that separate the pyramids.
 Renal pelvis – medial region that is a flat, funnel-
shaped tube.
- Calyces form cup-shaped “drains” that enclose
the renal pyramids.
- Calyces collect urine and send it to the renal
pelvis, on to the ureter, and to the urinary
bladder for storage.
Nephrons – Structural and functional units of the
kidneys.
 Each kidney contains over a million nephrons.
 Each nephron consists of two main structures.
- Renal corpuscle
- Renal tubule
Renal Corpuscle
 Glomerulus – a knot of capillaries made of
podocytes.
 Podocytes – make up the inner (visceral) layer of
the glomerular capsule.
- Foot processes cling to the glomerulus.
- Filtration slits create a porous membrane –
ideal for filtration.
 Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule – a cup-shaped
structure that surrounds the glomerulus.
- First part of the renal tubule.
Renal Tubule – Extends from glomerular capsule and ends
when it empties into the collecting duct.
Cortical nephrons
 Located entirely in the cortex.
 Include most nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons
 Found at the cortex-medulla junction.
 Nephron loop dips deep into the medulla.
 Collecting ducts collect urine from both types of
nephrons, through the renal pyramids, to the
calyces, and then to the renal pelvis.
Glomerulus
1. Fed and drained by arterioles.
 Afferent arteriole – arises from a cortical radiate
artery and feeds the glomerulus.
 Efferent arteriole – receives blood that has passed
through the glomerulus.
2. Specialized for filtration.
3. High-pressure forces fluid and solutes out of
blood and into the glomerular capsule.
Peritubular Capillary Beds
 Arise from the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus.
 Low-pressure, porous capillaries
 Adapted for absorption instead of filtration.
  Cling close to the renal tubule to receive solutes
and water from tubule cells.
 Drain into the interlobar veins.
Blood Supply – One-quarter of the total blood supply of the
body passes through the kidneys each minute.
 Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial
blood supply.
 Renal artery divides into segmental arteries –
interlobar arteries – arcuate arteries – cortical
radiate arteries.
 Venous blood flow, Cortical radiate veins – arcuate
veins – interlobar veins – renal veins.
 There are no segmental veins.
 Renal vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava.
Urine Formation and Characteristic
Glomerular Filtration – the glomerulus is a filter.
 Filtration is a nonselective process.
- Water and solutes smaller than proteins are
forced through glomerular capillary walls.
- Proteins and blood cells are normally too large
to pass through the filtration membrane.
- Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate.
- Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule.
 Filtrate will be formed as long as systemic blood
pressure is normal.
- If arterial blood pressure is too low, filtrate
formation stops because glomerular pressure
will be too low to form filtrate.
Tubular Reabsorption – The peritubular capillaries
reabsorb useful substance from the renal tubule cells, such
as:
 Water
 Glucose
 Amino acids
 Ions
 Some reabsorption is passive, most is active (ATP).
 Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
Tubular Secretion – Reabsorption in reverse
 Some materials move from the blood of the
peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules to be
eliminated in filtrate.
- Hydrogen and potassium ions
- Creatinine
Tubular Secretion – materials left in the renal tubule move
toward the ureter.
 Nitrogenous wastes.
 Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed.
 Tend to remain in the filtrate and are excreted from
the body in the urine.
 Urea – end product of protein breakdown.
 Uric acid – results from nuclei and metabolism.
 Creatine – associated with creatine metabolism in
muscles.
Tubular Secretion – In 24 hours, about 1.o to 1.8 Liters of
Urine are produced.
Urine Vs. Filtrate
 Filtrate contains everything that blood plasma does
(except proteins)
 Urine is what remains after the filtrate has lost most
of its water, nutrients, and necessary ions through
reabsorption.
 Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances
that are not needed.
Urine Characteristics
 Clear and pale to deep yellow in color.
 Yellow color is normal due to the pigment
urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin)
and solutes.
 Dilute urine is a pale, straw color.
 Sterile at the time of formation.
 Slightly aromatic, but smells like ammonia with
time.
 Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
 Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
Solutes normally found in urine.
 Sodium and potassium ions
 Urea, uric acid, creatinine
 Ammonia
 Bicarbonate ions
Solutes NOT normally found in urine.
 Glucose
 Blood proteins
 Reb blood cells
 Hemoglobin
 WBC’s (pus)
 Bile
Ureters – Slender tubes 25-30 cm (10-12 inches) attaching
the kidney to the urinary bladder.
 Continuous with the renal pelvis.
 Enter the posterior aspect of the urinary bladder.
 Run behind the peritoneum.
 Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport.
Urinary Bladder – Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
situated posterior to the pubic symphysis.
 Stores urine temporally.
 Trigone – triangular region of the urinary bladder
base based on three openings.
- Two openings from the ureters (ureteral
orifice)
- In males, the prostate surrounds the neck of the
urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder – Wall of the urinary bladder
  Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called  Diet
the detrusor muscle.  Cellular metabolism
 Mucosa made of transitional epithelium.  Urine output
 Walls are thick and folded in an empty urinary
bladder.
 Urinary bladder can expand significantly without
increasing internal pressure.

Urinary Bladder – Capacity of the urinary bladder

 A moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long
and holds about 500 ml of urine.
 Capable of holding twice that amount of urine.

Urethra – Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the

urinary bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis.

Function
 Females – carries only urine.
 Males – carries urine and sperm. Anatomy and Physiology

Reproductive System
Urethra – Length
 In females: 3 to 4 cm (1.5 inches long)  Gonads – primary sex organs
 In males: 20 cm (8 inches long)  Testes in males
 Ovaries in females
Location
 Females – anterior to the vaginal opening.  Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete
 Males – travels through the prostate and penis hormones.
 Sperm – male gametes
 Prostatic urethra  Ova (eggs) – female gametes
 Membranous urethra
 Spongy urethra Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters. Testes

 Each testis is connected to the trunk via the
Internal urethral sphincter – involuntary and made of spermatic cord which houses:
smooth muscle. - Blood vessels
External urethral sphincter – voluntary and made of - Nerves
skeletal muscle. - Ductus deferens

Micturition Covering of the testes

 Voiding or emptying of the urinary bladder.  Tunica albuginea – capsule that surrounds each
 Two sphincters control the release of urine, he testes.
internal urethral sphincter and external urethral  Septa - extensions of the capsule that extend into
sphincter, the testis and divide it into lobules.

 Bladder collects urine to 200 ml.
 Stretch receptors transmit impulses to the sacral
region of the spinal cord.
 Impulses travel back to the bladder via the pelvic
splanchnic nerves to cause bladder contractions.
 When contractions become stronger, urine is forced
past the involuntary.
 Internal sphincter into the upper urethra.
Micturition
 The external sphincter is voluntarily controlled, so
micturition can usually be delayed.
 Fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.
Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules.
 Tightly coiled structures.
 Function as sperm-forming factories.
 Empty sperm into the rete testes.
The Duct System
 Highly convoluted tube 6 m (20ft) long.
 Found along the posterior lateral side of the testes.
 Temporary storage site for immature sperm.
 Sperm mature as they journey through the
epididymis.
 During ejaculation, sperm are propelled to the
ductus deferens.

Blood composition depends on three factors Vas Deferens

  Runs from the epididymis via the spermatic cord
through the inguinal canal and arches over the
urinary bladder.
 Moves sperm by peristalsis into the urethra.
The Duct System
 Ampulla – end of the ductus deferens, which
empties into the ejaculatory duct.
 Ejaculatory duct – passes through the prostate to
merge with the urethra.
 Vasectomy – outing of the ductus deferens at the
level of the testes prevents transportation of sperm
(form of birth control)
 Ejaculation – smooth muscle in the walls of the
ductus deferens create peristaltic waves to squeeze
sperm forward.
 Urethra
- Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to
the tip of the penis.
- Carries both urine and sperm.
- Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct.
1. Prostatic urethra – surrounded by prostate gland.
2. Membranous urethra – prostatic urethra to penis.
3. Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the length of the
penis to the external urethral orifice.
Accessory Organs and Semen
Seminal Glands (Vesicles)
 Located at the base of the bladder.
 Produce a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of the
semen) that contains:
1. Fructose (sugar)
2. Vitamin C
3. Prostaglandins
 Duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the
ductus deferens on each side to form the
ejaculatory duct.
Prostate
 Encircles the upper (prostatic) part of the urethra.
 Secretes a milky fluid.
 Helps to activate sperm.
 Fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts.
Bulbourethral Gland
 Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate.
 Produce a thick, clear mucus.
 Mucus cleanses the spongy (penile) urethra of
acidic urine prior to ejaculation.
 Mucus serves as a lubricant during sexual
intercourse.
Semen – milky while mixture of sperm and accessory gland
secretions.
Components of accessory gland secretions
 Liquid portion acts as a transport medium to dilute
sperm.
 Sperm are streamlined cellular “tadpoles”.
 Fructose provides energy for sperm cells.
 Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
environment of vagina.
Scrotum
 Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen that
houses the testes.
 Viable sperm cannot be produced at a normal body
temperature.
 Maintains testes at 3 degrees C lower than the
normal body temperature.
Penis – male organ of copulation that delivers sperm into
the female reproductive tract.
Regions of the penis
 Shaft
 Glans penis (enlarged tip)
 Prepuce (foreskin) – folded cuff of skin around
proximal end often removed by circumcision.
Penis
 Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile
tissue around the urethra.
 Erections occur when this erectile tissue fills with
blood during sexual excitement.
Testosterone Production
During Puberty
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins
prodding seminiferous tubules to produce sperm.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) begins activating the
interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
Testosterone
 Most important hormonal product of the testes.
 Stimulates reproductive organ development.
 Underlies sex drive.
 Causes secondary sex characteristics.
 Deepening of voice.
 Increased hair growth.
 Enlargement of skeletal muscles.
 Increased bone growth and density.
Female Reproductive System
Ovaries
 Produces eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen and
progesterone)
 Each ovary houses ovarian follicles consisting of:
- Oocyte (immature egg)
- Follicle cells – layers of different cells that
surround the oocyte.
Ovaries follicles
 Primary follicle – contains an immature oocyte.
 Vesicular (Graafian) follicle – growing follicle
with a maturing oocyte.
  Ovulation – the follicle ruptures when the egg is
mature and ready to be ejected from the ovary:
occurs about every 28 days.
- The ruptured follicle is transformed into a
corpus luteum.
Ovary support
 Suspensory ligaments – secure the ovaries to the
lateral walls of the pelvis.
 Ovarian ligaments – anchor ovaries to the uterus
medially.
 Broad ligaments – a fold of peritoneum, enclose
and hold the ovaries in place.
Duct System
Uterine (Fallopian) tubes
 Form the initial part of the duct system.
 Receive the ovulated oocyte from the ovaries.
 Provide a site for fertilization.
 Empty into the uterus.
 Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine
tubes.
 Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament.
Uterine (fallopian) tube structure
 Infundibulum: distal, funnel-shaped end.
 Fimbriae: fingerlike projections of the
infundibulum.
 Receive the oocyte from the ovary.
 Cilia located inside the uterine tube transport the
oocyte.
Uterus
 Situated between the urinary bladder and rectum.
 Size and shape of a peas, in a woman who has
never been pregnant.
 Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized egg.
Uterine support
 Broad ligament – suspends the uterus in the pelvis.
 Round ligament – anchors the uterus anteriorly.
 Uterosacral ligament – anchors the uterus
posteriorly.
Regions of the uterus
 Body – main portion
 Fundus – superior rounded region above where
uterine tube enters.
 Cervix – narrow outlet that protrudes into the
vagina.
Layers of the uterus
Endometrium
 Inner layer (mucose)
 Site of implantation of a fertilized egg.
 Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menstruation
or memses)
Myometrium – the middle layer of smooth muscle that
contracts during labor
Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum) – the outermost serous
layer of the uterus.
Vagina
 Passageway that extends from cervix to exterior of
body and is located between urinary bladder and
rectum.
 Serves as the canal that allows a baby or menstrual
flow to leave the body.
 Female organ of copulation.
 Received the penis during sexual intercourse.
 Hymen – partially closes the vagina until it is
ruptured.
External Genitalia and Perineum
Vestibule
 Enclosed by labia majora.
 Contains external openings of the urethra and
vagina.
Greater vestibular glands
 One is found on each side of the vagina.
 Secretions lubricate vagina during intercourse.
Clitoris
 Contains erectile tissue.
 Corresponds to the male penis.
The clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is:
 Hooded by a prepuce.
 Composed of sensitive erectile tissue.
 Swollen with blood during sexual excitement.
 The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct.
Perineum
 Diamond – shaped region between the anterior
ends of the labial folds, anus posteriorly, and ischial
tuberosities laterally.
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
Estrogen
 Estrogens are produced by follicle cells.
 Cause secondary sex characteristics.
 Enlargement of accessory organs of the female
reproductive system.
 Developing of breasts
 Appearance of axillary and pubic hair.
 Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips
and breasts.
 Widening and lightening of the pelvis Inset of
menses (menstrual cycle).
Progesterone
 Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum.
  Production continues until LH diminishes in the
blood.
 Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary
sex characteristics.
 Helps maintain pregnancy.
 Prepares the breasts for milk production.

Mammary Gland

Glands
 Present in both sexes, but function only in females.
 Modifies sweat glands.
 Function is to produce milk to nourish a newborn.
 Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogen) to
increase in size.

Mammary Glands
 Areola – central pigmented area.
 Nipple – protruding central area of the areola.
 Lobes – internal structures that radiate around the
nipple.
 Lobules – located within each lobe and contain
clusters of alveolar glands.
 Alveolar glands – produce milk when a woman is
lactating (producing milk).
 Lactiferous ducts – connect alveolar glands to
nipple.
 Lactiferous sinus – dilated portion where milk
accumulates.
  Sometimes widespread effects.

Nervous System
 Chemical and electrical signals
 Responds and stops quickly.
 Targets specific organ.
 Adapts quickly.
 Usually local effects.

Components of the Endocrine System

Endocrine glands
 Secrete their product directly into blood stream.
Chemical signal
 Molecules that are released from one location move
to another location, and produce a response.

Types of Chemical Signals

Intracellular
 Produce in one of part a cell and move to another
Anatomy and Physiology
part of same cell.
Endocrine System
Intercellular
 Released from one cell and bind to receptors on
Functions
another cell.
1. Controls homeostasis.
2. Maintains water balance.
Types of Intracellular Signals
3. Controls uterine contractions.
Autocrine
4. Controls milk production.
5. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium).  Released by cells and have a local effect on some
6. Regulates metabolism and growth. cell type.
7. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure.  Ex. Eicosanoids (released in response to
8. Monitors blood glucose levels. inflammation).
9. Aids the immune system.
10. Reproductive functions. Paracrine
 Released by cells that affect other cell types in
Hormones close proximity.
 Chemical messengers.  Ex. Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion).
 Secreted by endocrine glands or tissues into blood.
 Travel everywhere blood goes. Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators
 Affect only target cells, cells with receptors.  Secreted by nerve cells.
 May affect very distant organs or cells.  Ex. Nervous system function

Endocrinology Pheromones
 Study of endocrine system.  Secreted into environment and modify behavior
and physiology of other individual in same species.
 Diagnosis and treatment of its disorders.
 Ex. Women and menstrual cycles.
Exocrine glands
Hormones and neurohormones
 Release secretions to tissue by ducts.
 Secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites.
Endocrine glands  Ex. Epinephrine and insulin
 Ductless, release into blood.
 Other organs not usually considered endocrine
Endocrine Physiology: Hormone Structure
glands.
 E.g., brain and heart, releasing important
Steroid
substances.
 Lipids synthesized from cholesterol.
Endocrine System  Share structure.
 Chemical signals only.  Four organic rings with varied side groups.
 Slower to respond and stop.  E.g., testosterone and estradiol
 Hormones go everywhere.
Monoamines
 Adapts relatively slowly.
  Small molecules. Types of Hormones
 Synthesized from amino acids tyrosine and
tryptophan. Water soluble
 E.g., thyroxine and epinephrine  Includes proteins, peptides, amino acids.
 Most common.
Peptide Hormones  Ex., growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin, etc.
 Chains from 3 to more than 200 amino acids.
 Considered proteins if > 50 amino acids. Lipid hormones
 Oxytocin, small peptide hormone.  Include steroids and eicosanoids.
 Insulin, a protein.  Ex. LH, FSH, androgens

Endocrine Physiology: Hormone Receptors and Effects Regulation of Hormones

 Blood levels of chemicals: ex. Blood glucose levels
Hormone receptor (insulin).
 Given hormone: fits receptor like key fits lock.  Other hormones: ex. TSH signals thyroid gland to
 Insulin “key”, fits only insulin receptor “lock”. release thyroid hormone.
 Does not stimulate other receptor types.  Nervous system:ex. Epinephrine and fight or flight
 Cell only responds if has proper receptors. responses.
 Negative feedback: tells body when homeostasis is
Peptide Hormones and Most Monoamines reached.
 Hydrophilic, unable to pass into target cell. Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
 Bind to receptor at cell surface. Pituitary Gland
 Hormone, first messenger.  Small gland in the brain.
 Receptor associated with membrane enzyme.  Controlled by hypothalamus.
 Respond by producing second messenger inside  Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
cell.  Secretes at least 6 hormones.
 Often cyclic adenosine monophosphate (Camp)
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Cyclic AMP Growth Hormone:
 Made by removing two phosphates from ATP.  Target tissues: most
 Activates or reactivates cytoplasmic enzymes.  Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles and
 Leads to various metabolic effects. organs.
 E.g., wake up certain genes, producing new  Abnormalities:
enzymes. - Too much GH causes giantism.
 E.g., change permeability of plasma membrane. - Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism.
 E.g., glucagon activating certain metabolic
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
pathways.
 Target tissues: thyroid gland.
Steroid Hormones  Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions.
 Hydrophobic, readily pass into cell.  Abnormalities:
 Bind receptor associated with DNA. - Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges.
- Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks.
 Causes gene to be transcribed.
 Specific protein produced.
Gonadotropins
 Alters metabolism in various ways.
LH (Luteinizing) for females:
 Target tissue: ovaries
Endocrine Physiology: How does Hormone work?
 Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands directly
production.
into bloodstream.
2. Hormones travel to all parts of body.
LH for males:
3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on
target tissue.  Target tissue: testes
4. Response occurs.  Function: sperm production and testosterone.
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating) for females:
Endocrine Physiology: How do hormones cause change?  Target tissue: follicles in ovaries.
 After cell activity of target tissues by increasing or  Function: follicle maturation and estrogen
decreasing cell’s normal processes. secretions.
 Change permeability of cell membrane by opening
or closing ion channels. FSH for males:
 Synthesis of proteins.  Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
 Function: sperm production
Prolactin: Endocrine Glands and their Hormones CON’T
 Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
 Functions: milk production Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):
Posterior Pituitary Gland  Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): - Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat
 Target tissues: kidneys cells.
 Functions: conserve water - Functions: released as part of fight or flight
 Abnormalities: response.
- Diabetes insipidus:
- Low ADH Adrenal Cortex (outer portion):
- Kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute Aldosterone:
(watery) urine.  Type of mineralocorticoids.
- Can lead to dehydration and thirst.  Target tissues: kidneys
 Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and
Oxytocin K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with blood
 Target tissues: uterus pressure and blood volume.
 Functions: increases uterine contractions during Cortisol:
labor.  Type of glucocorticoids.
 Target tissues: most
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones CON’T  Functions: increases breakdown of fat and protein
for energy uses, reduces inflammatory and immune
Thyroid Gland responses.
 One of the largest glands.
 Requires iodine to function. Endocrine Glands and their Hormones CON’T
 Thyroid hormones:
- Target tissues: most Pancreas
- Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is Insulin:
needed for growth  Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscles, adipose
tissue.
Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland  Functions:
 Hypothyroidism: - Regulates blood glucose levels.
 Decreased metabolism. - After meal glucose levels are high and insulin
 Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue. is secreted.
 Low temp, and pulse. - Extra glucose is stores in form of glycogen.
 Dry, cold skin. - Abnormalities:
 Myxedema in adults.
Glucagon
 Cretinism in infants.
 Target tissues: liver
Hyperthyroidism:  Function:
- Regulates blood glucose levels.
 Increased metabolism.
- Between meals glucose levels drop and
 Weight loss, increase appetite, nervousness.
glucagon is secreted.
 Higher temp, and pulse.
- Glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down
 Warm, flushed skin. into glucose.
 Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)
Calcitonin: Endocrine Glands and their Hormones CON’T
 Target tissues: bones
 Functions: secreted when blood Ca2+ levels are Testes
high. Testosterone:
 Target tissues: most
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):  Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ
 Target tissues: bones and kidneys. development and function.
 Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than
calcitonin) Ovaries
- If Ca2+ is low then osteoclasts breakdown Estrogen/Progesterone:
bone matrix and less Ca2+ is lost in urine.  Target tissues: most
- If Ca2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break  Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
down bone matrix and more Ca2+ is lost in development and menstrual cycle.
urine.
Thymus Gland
Thymosin:
 Target tissues: immune system tissues.
 Functions: promotes immune system development
and function.
Pineal Body
Melatonin:
 Target tissues: hypothalamus
 Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and
controls circadian rhythms. Light affects its
function.
Anatomy and Physiology
The Lymphatic System and Immunity
Disease Resistance
Nonspecific Resistance (Innate Immunity)
 Present at birth and includes defense mechanisms
that provide general protection against invasion by
a wide range of pathogens.
Immunity (Adaptive Immunity)
 Involves activation of specific lymphocytes that
combat a particular pathogen or other foreign
substance.
The body system that carries out immune responses in the
lymphatic system.
Lymphatic System
 The lymphatic system consists of several structures
and organs that contain lymphatic tissue, bone
marrow, and a fluid called lymph that flows within
lymphatic vessel.
Lymphatic System and Disease Resistance
Anatomy Overview:
 The Lymphatic System and Disease Resistance –
Phagocytosis, T and B Lymphocytes, Lymphatic
Vessels, Sleen, Lymph Nodes, Thymus.
Functions of the Lymphatic System
1. Drain interstitial fluid.
2. Transport dietary fats.
3. Carry out immune responses.
Lymphatic Vessels and Capillaries
 Lymphatic vessels begin as lymphatic capillaries,
which are closed on one end.
- Lymphatic capillaries are located between cells
of many tissues.
- Lymphatic capillaries merge to form lymphatic
vessels, which have thin walls and many
valves.
Lymph Trunk and Ducts
 from the lymphatic vessels, lymph passes through
lymph nodes and into lymph trunks.
- Lymph trunks include the lumbar, intestinal,
broncho mediastinal, subclavian, and jugular
trunks.
 Lymph trunks then merge to form either the
thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct.
Formation and Flow of Lymph
 Interstitial fluid – lymph capillaries – lymph
vessels – lymph trunks – lymph ducts – subclavian
veins
Lymphatic Organs and Tissues
 Primary lymphatic organs are organs where
immune cells become immunocompetent.
- Red bone marrow
- Thymus
 Secondary lymphatic organs and tissues include:
- Lymph nodes
- Spleen
- Lymphatic nodules
Lymphatic Nodules
 Lymphatic nodules are masses of lymphatic tissue
that are not surrounded by a capsule.
 They are scattered throughout the lamina propria of
mucous membranes lining the gastrointestinal,
urinary, and reproductive tracts and the respiratory
airways.
 Lymphatic nodules in these areas are also referred
to as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)
Disease Resistance Overview
Interactions Animation: Introduction to Disease
Resistance
Innate Immunity
 Innate immunity refers to a wide variety of body
responses that serve to protect us against invasion
of a wide variety of pathogens and their toxins.
 We are born with this kins of immunity.
 Two lines of defense:
- Skin and mucous membranes
- Internal defenses
Non-Specific Disease Resistance
Interactions Animation: Non-Specific Disease Resistance
Skin and Mucous Membranes
 Mechanical defenses
- Skin, mucous membranes, tears, saliva, mucus,
cilia, epiglottis, urine flow, defecating,
vomiting
 Chemical defenses
- Sebum, lysozyme, gastric juice

Internal Defenses
 Antimicrobial proteins
 Phagocytes
 Natural killer cells
 Inflammation
 Fever
Adaptive Immunity
 Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to
defend itself against specific invading agents.
- Antigens are substances recognized as foreign
that provoke immune responses.
 Adaptive immunity has both specificity and
memory and is divided into 2 types.
- Cell-mediated
- Antibody-mediated
Lymphocytes
Anatomy Overview: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems –
Lymhocytes: Activated B Cells and Cytotoxic T cells
Antigens and Antigen Receptors
 Immunogenicity
 Reactivity
 Entire microbes or just arts of microbes may act as
antigens.
- Typically, just certain small parts of a large
antigen molecule act as the triggers for
immune responses. These small parts are
called epitopes.
Antigens and Antibodies
Anatomy Overview:
Antigens and Antibodies
Pathways of Antigen Processing
 For an immune response to occur, B cells and T
cells must recognize that a foreign antigen is
present.
- B cells can recognize and bind to antigens in
lymph, interstitial fluid, or blood plasma.
- T cells only recognize fragments of antigenic
proteins that are processes and presented in a
certain way.
- In antigen processing, antigenic proteins are
broken down into peptide fragments that
associate with MHC molecules.
- The antigen-MHC complex is then inserted
into the plasma membrane of a body cell.
- This process is called antigen presentation.
Cytokines
 Small protein hormones that stimulate or inhibit
many normal cell functions.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
 In cell-mediated immunity:
- An antigen is recognized and bound.
- A small number of T cells proliferate and
differentiate into a clone of effector cells.
- The antigen is eliminated.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Interactions Animation:
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
 In antibody-mediated immunity:
- An antigen is recognized and bound.
- Helper T cells costimulate the B cell and so the
B cell can proliferate and differentiate into a
clone of effector cells that produce antibodies.
- The antigen is eliminated
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
Interactions Animation:
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
Introduction to Disease Resistance
Interactions Animation:
Disease Resistance Overview – section 2… section 4
Self-Recognition and Self-Tolerance
 T cells undergo both positive and negative selection
to ensure that they can recognize self-MHC (self
recognition) antigens and that they do not reach to
other self-proteins (self-tolerance)
 B cells develop tolerance through deletion and
energy.
Stress and Immunity
 Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a field that deals
with common pathways that link the nervous,
endocrine, and immune systems.
- Research in this field indicates that thoughts,
feelings, moods, and beliefs influence your
level of health and the course of disease.
Aging and the Immune System
 Aging results in:
- Increased susceptibility to infections and
malignancies.
- Increased production of autoantibodies.
- Decreased response to vaccines.
- Decreased immune system function.
Homeostatic Imbalances:HIV/AIDS
 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a
condition in which a person experiences an
assortment of infections due to the progressive
destruction of immune system cells by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Homeostatic Imbalances: Allergies
 Allergies occur when a person is overly reactive to
a substance that is well-tolerated by most others.
 When an allergic reaction occurs so does tissue
damage.
 There are 4 types of hypersensitivity reactions,
Type l-lV
Homeostatic Imbalances. Autoimmune Disease
 An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune
system fails to display self-tolerance and, instead,
attacks the person’s own body tissue(s).
Conjunctiva
 Membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball.
 Connects with the transparent cornea.
 Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and keep it
moist.

Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland + ducts

 Lacrimal gland produces lacrimal fluid (tears):
situated on lateral end of each eye.
 Tears drain across the eye into the lacrimal
canaliculi, then the lacrimal sac, and into the
nasolacrimal duct, which empties into the nasal
cavity.

Tears contain:
 Dilute salt solution
 Mucus
 Antibodies
 Lysozyme (enzyme that destroys bacteria)

Function of tears
 Cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the eye

Extrinsic eye muscles

Anatomy and Physiology
 Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye.
Special Senses
 Produce gross eye movements.
Special senses include:
Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the eyeball
 Smell
 Fibrous layer: outside layer
 Taste
 Vascular layer: middle layer
 Sight
 Sensory layer: inside layer
 Hearing
 Equilibrium
Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball.
Special sense receptors
Lens divides the eye into two chambers
 Large, complex sensory organs
 Localized clusters of receptors
Fibrous layer = sclera + cornea
Sclera
Part 1: The Eye and Vision
 White connective tissue layer.
 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes.
 Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
 Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers carrying
information to the brain.
Cornea
 Transparent, central anterior portion.
Anatomy of the Eye
 Allows for light to pass through.
Accessory structures include the:
 Repairs itself easily.
 Extrinsic eye muscles
 The only human tissue that can be transplanted
 Eyelids
without fear of rejection.
 Conjunctiva
 Lacrimal apparatus
Vascular layer
 Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer that contains
External and Accessory Structures
a pigment (prevents light from scattering).
Eyelids
 Choroid is modified anteriorly into two smooth
 Meet at the medial and lateral commissure
muscle structures.
(canthus)
- Ciliary body
- Iris – regulates amount of light entering eye.
Eyelashes
 Pigmented layer that gives eye color.
 Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion that
 Pupil – rounded opening in the iris.
lubricates the eye.
 Ciliary glands are located between the eyelashes.
Sensory layer
Retina contains two layers
1. Outer pigmented layer absorbs light and prevents it
from scattering.
2. Inner neural layer contains receptor cells
(photoreceptors).
- Rods
- Cones
 Electrical signals from photoreceptors via a two-
neuron chain.
- Bipolar neurons
- Ganglion cells
 Signals leave the retina toward the brain through
the optic nerve.
 Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve
leaves the eyeball.
- Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
 Rods
- Most are found toward the edges of the retina.
- Allow vision in dim light and peripheral
vision.
- All perception is in gray tones.
 Cones
- Allow for detailed color vision.
- Densest in the center of the retina.
- Fovea centralis-lateral to blind spot.
- Area of the retina with only cones.
- Visual acuity (sharpest vision) is here.
 No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disc, or blind
spot.
 Cone sensitivity
- Three types of cones.
- Each cone type is sensitive to different
wavelengths of visible light
Internal Structures: The Eyeball
Lens
 Flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure.
 Held in a place by a suspensory ligament attached
to the ciliary body.
 Divides the eye into two chambers
1. Anterior (aqueous) segment
 Anterior to the lens
 Contains aqueous humor, a clear,
watery fluid.
2. Posterior (vitreous) segment
 Posterior to the lens.
 Contains vitreous humor, a gel-like
substance
Aqueous humor
 Watery fluid found between lens and cornea.
 Similar to blood plasma.
 Helps maintain intraocular pressure.
 Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea.
 Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral
venous sinus, or canal Sclemm.
Vitreous humor
 Gel-like substance posterior to the lens.
 Prevents the eye from collapsing.
 Helps maintain intraocular pressure.
Ophthalmoscope
 Instrument used to illuminate the interior of the
eyeball and fundus (posterior wall)
 Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis, degeneration
of the optic nerve and retina.
Physiology of Vision
Pathway of light through the eye and light refraction.
 Light must be focused to a point on the retina for
optimal vision.
 Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea, aqueous
humor, lens, and vitreous humor.
 The eye is set for distant vision (over 20 feet away)
 Accommodation – the lens must change shape to
focus on closer objects (less that 20 feet away)
 Image formed on the retina is a real image
 Real images are:
- Reversed from left to right
- Upside down
- Smaller than the object
Visual fields and visual pathways to the brain
 Optic nerve
- Bundle of axons that exit the back of the eye
carrying impulses from the retina.
 Optic chiasma
- Location where the optic nerves cross.
- Fivers from the medial side of each eye cross
over to the opposite side of the brain.
 Optic tracts
- Contain fibers from the lateral side of the eye
on the same side and the medial side of the
opposite eye.
- Synapse with neurons in the thalamus.
 Optic radiation
- Axons from the thalamus run to the occipital
lobe.
- Synapse with cortical cells, and vision
interpretation (seeing occurs).
Summary of the pathway impulses from the retinal to
the point of visual interpretation
1. Optic nerve
2. Optic chiasma
3. Optic tract
4. Thalamus
5. Optic radiation
6. Optic cortex in occipital love of brain
Physiology of Vision
Visual fields
 Each eye “sees” a slightly different view.
 Field of view overlaps for each eye.
Binocular vision results and provides:
 Depth perception (three-dimensional vision)
Eye reflexes
 Convergence: reflexive movement of the eyes
medially when we focus on a close subject.
 Photo pupillary reflex: bright light causes pupils to
constrict.
 Accommodation pupillary reflex: viewing close
objects causes pupils to constrict.
Clinical Correlation
 Emmetropia – eye focuses images correctly on the
retina.
 Myopia (near-sightedness)
- Distant objects appear blurry.
- Light from those objects fails to reach the
retina and are focuses in front of it.
- Results from an eyeball that is too long.
 Hyperopia (farsightedness)
- Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects
are clear.
- Distant objects are focused behind the retina.
- Results from an eyeball that is too short or
from a “lazy lens”.
 Astigmatism
- Images are blurry.
- Results from light focusing as lines, not points,
on the retina because of unequal curvatures of
the cornea or lens.
Part 2: The Ear: Hearing and Balance
Ear houses two senses
 Hearing
 Equilibrium (balance)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors.
Different organs house receptors for each sense.
Anatomy of the Ear
 The ear is divided into three areas
1. External (outer) ear
2. Middle ear
3. Internal (inner) ear
External (outer) ear
 Auricle (pinna)
 External acoustic meatus (auditory canal).
- Narrow chamber in the temporal bone.
- Lined with skin and ceruminous (earwax)
glands.
- Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
 External ear is involved only in collecting sound
waves
Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity)
 Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the temporal
bone.
 Involved only in the sense of hearing.
 Located between tympanic membrane and oval
window and round window.
Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)
 Links middle ear cavity with the throat.
 Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity so the
eardrum can vibrate.
 Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity.
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Stapes (stirrup)
 Function
- Transmit vibrations from tympanic membrane
to the fluids of the inner ear.
- Vibrations travel from the hammer – anvil –
stirrup – oval window of inner ear.
Internal (inner) ear
 Includes sense organs for hearing and balance.
 Bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth consists of:
- Cochlea
- Vestibule
- Semicircular canals
 Bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph
- Membranous labyrinth is suspended is
suspended in perilymph and contains
endolymph.
Equilibrium
 Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the
vestibular apparatus.
 Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts.
1. Statis equilibrium
2. Dynamic equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
Maculae – receptors in the vestibule.
 Report on the position of the head.
 Help us keep our hear erect.
 Send information via the vestibular nerve (division
of cranial nerve vili) to the cerebellum of the brain.
Anatomy of the maculae
 Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane.
 Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around hair
cells.
 Movements cause otoliths to roll and bend hair
cells.
Dynamic Equilibrium
Crista ampullaris
 Responds to the angular or rotational movement of
the head.
 Located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal.
 Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula (gelatinous
cap).
 If the head moves, the cupula drags against the
endolymph.
 Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse travels
the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum.
Hearing
Spiral organ of Corti
  Located within the cochlear duct.
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane.
 Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending
hair cells.
 Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits
nerve impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe.
Pathway of vibrations from sound waves
 Move by the ossicles from the eardrum to the oval
window.
 Sound is amplifies by the ossicles.
 Pressure waves cause vibrations in the basilar
membrane in the spiral organ of Corti.
 Hair cells of the tectorial membrane are bent when
the basilar membrane vibrates against it.
 An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
(cranial nerve to vili), and the impulse travels to the
temporal lobe.
High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff fibers of the
basilar membrane.
 Receptor cells close to the oval window are
stimulated.
Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy fibers of the
basilar membrane.
 Specific hair cells further along the cochlea are
affected.
Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
 Deafness is any degree of hearing loss.
 Conduction deafness results when the transmission
of sound vibrations through the external and middle
ears is hindered.
 Sensorineural deafness results from damage to the
nervous system structures involved in hearing.
 Meniere’s syndrome affects the inner ear and
causes progressive deafness and perhaps vertigo
(sensation of spinning)
Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste
 Taste buds house the receptor organs.
 Locations of taste buds.
- Most are on the tongue
- Soft palate
- Superior part of the pharynx
- Cheeks
 The tongue is covered with projections called
papillae that contain taste buds.
- Vallate (circumvallate)
- Fungiform papillae
- Filiform papillae
 Gustatory cells are taste receptors.
- Possess gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
- Gustatory hairs protrude through a taste pore.
- Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in
saliva.
 Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex
by several cranial nerves because taste buds are
found in different areas.
- Facial nerve (cranial nerve 7)
- Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve 9)
- Vagus nerve (cranial nerve 10)
 Taste buds are replaced frequently by basal cells.
 Five basic taste sensations
- Sweet receptors respond to sugars, saccharine,
some amino acids,
- Sour receptors respond to H+ ions or acids,
- Bitter receptors respond to alkaloids.
- Salty receptors respond to metal ions.
- Umami receptors respond to the amino acid
glutamate or the beefy taste of meat.

Part 3: Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

Chemoreceptors
 Stimulated by chemical in solution.
 Taste has 5 types of receptors.
 Small can differentiate a wider range of chemicals.

Both senses complement each other and respond to many

of the same stimuli.

Olfactory Receptors and the Sense of Smell

 Olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal cavity
- Olfactory receptor cells (neurons) with long
cilia known as olfactory hairs detect chemicals.
- Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for
detection by chemoreceptors called olfactory
receptors
 Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory filaments
to the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve 1).
 Smells are interpreted in the olfactory cortex.