Advanced Protection

1. Introduction
2. Operating zones of distance relay
3. Distance relay units
4. Distance relay characteristics
5. Distance relay shortcomings
6. Setting and coordination of distance relays
7. Numerical example for distance relay setting
8. Protection of double-circuit lines by distance relay
9. Protection of multi-terminal lines by distance relay
10. Protection of series-compensated lines by distance relay

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 Distance relay is used for protection of transmission and sub-
transmission lines
 Known as voltage-restrained overcurrent relay

 Based on estimation of impedance from relay to the fault point

 Compared to overcurrent protection, distance method is less

dependent on network topology and parameters
 Compared to overcurrent protection, setting and coordination
of distance relays are much simpler
 Settings are valid for a long time

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 VR
ZR 
IR

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  Zone 1: set at 80 to 90 percent of line impedance
 Instantaneous trip
 Zone 2: set at 120 to 150 percent of line impedance
 Zone 2 reach of upstream relay should never exceed zone 1 reach
of downstream relay
 Coordination Delay: approximately 0.3 s
 Remote backup for the downstream relay (only a potion of
downstream line is covered)
 Zone 3: set to cover the whole line plus 120 to 180 percent of
next line
 Zone 3 reach of upstream relay should never exceed zone 2 reach
of downstream relay
 Coordination Delay: 0.8 to 1 s
 Remote backup for the downstream relay (the whole
downstream line is covered)

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 Distance protection is not applicable to short
transmission lines
 2nd zone of long upstream line exceeds 1st zone of short
downstream line
 This problem is due to errors of CT (typically 5%) and PT
(typically 3%) which impose around 8% error on the
estimated impedance
 This will be elaborated by a numerical example in the next
slide

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 Distance protection is not applicable to short transmission lines
 2nd zone of RG is set at:

 Now, suppose a fault occurs on bus R

 Thus, zone 2 reach of RG may far exceed zone 1 of RH

G H R
ZS RG j200 Ω RH j20 Ω RR

ILG ILH ILR

F
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  Trip circuit

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  3 ground units to protect against:
 Single line to ground faults
 Double line to ground faults
 Three phase faults
 3 phase units to protect against:
 Line to line faults
 Double line to ground faults
 Three phase fault

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  Ground units

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  Ground units

 Z 0f  Z1f 
Ea  Z1f  I a  I0 
 Z1f 

1.5  m  2.5

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  Ground units

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  Phase units

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  Phase units

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  Impedance characteristic
 Reactance characteristic
 Admittance (Mho) characteristic
 Quadrilateral characteristic

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 T  k 1 I 2  k 2V 2  k 3VI cos(   )  k 4
k 1  0, k 2  0, k 3  0, k 4  0
k 3V I cos(   )  k 2V 2
 trip
V k3
 cos(   )  trip
I k2

Z seen  Z n cos(   )  trip

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  Incomplete coverage of zone 1
 Sensitivity to fault resistance (Rf)
 Sensitivity to infeed and outfeed effects of remote sources
 Problems related to zones 2 and 3 settings
 Sensitivity to power swing
 Problems related to the protection of double circuit lines
 Problems related to the protection of multi-terminal lines
 Problems related to the protection of series-compensated lines

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  Maximum 70% of the line length is covered by zone 1
 Faults close to the terminals are protected by the 2nd zone
of remote relays

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 VA n * Z * I f 1  R f *( I f 1  I f 2 )
Z seen  
I f1 I f1
If2
 n * Z  R f *(1  )
I f1
 If, prior to fault, direction of power flow is from A to B, VA phasor
leads VB
 Thus, If1 leads If2 and Rf appears as a combination of resistor and
capacitor

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 If2
Z seen  n * Z  R f *(1  )
I f1
 In quadrilateral
characteristic, slope of
the upper boundary may
be adaptive, based on
the direction of power
flow

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 Problems related to zones 2 and 3 settings

If Eb is out of service Zone2  Z1  0.5 Z2

In the presence of Eb

If Eb is considered in zone 2 setting, but it is temporarily out of service, zone 2

may exceed zone 1 of downstream relay

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  Zone 1: set at 80 to 90 percent of line impedance

 Zone 2: set at 120 to 150 percent of line impedance

 Or set to cover the whole line plus 50 percent of next line
 Zone 2 reach of upstream relay should never exceed zone 1
reach of downstream relay

 Zone 3: set to cover the whole line plus 120 to 180

percent of next line
 Zone 3 reach of upstream relay should never exceed zone 2
reach of downstream relay
 Remote backup for the downstream relay (the whole
downstream line is covered)

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  BC is the shortest line connected to bus B
Fault @ F1: V A  Z AB I A  n Z BC (I A  I B  I C  ....)
VA I  I B  I C  ....
Z SeenA   Z AB  n Z BC ( A )
IA IA
 Zone 2  Z AB  0.5 Z BC (1  K 1 )

 I B  I C  ....
K 1 
 IA
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  BC is the longest line connected to bus B
Fault @ F2:
V A  Z AB I A  Z BC (I A  I B  I C  ....)  n Z CD (I F  I D  I E  ....)
VA I  I D  I E  ....
Z SeenA   Z AB  Z BC (1  K 2 )  n Z CD ( F )
IA IA
I F  I A  I B  I C  ....  Zone 3  Z AB  Z BC (1  K 2 )  0.25Z CD (1  K 3 )
 I B  I C  ....
 K 

2
IA
 I  I C  ....  I D  I E  ....
K 3  B

 IA
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P 
25 for single circuit line
50 for double circuit line

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 P 
25 for single circuit line
50 for double circuit line

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  Zone settings of the distance relay adjacent to bus 10 are
accomplished in this example
 Line 18-11 is a short line, protected by current differential relay

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 Short circuit results

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 Zones 1 and 2 settings

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 Zones 3 setting

K 2  K3 No source is connected to bus 17

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 Secondary side settings

CTR  600 / 5
VTR  1000 /1

CTR
Z set (sec.)  Z set ( pri .)*
VTR
Z 1  0.736 
Z 2  1.052 
Z 3  13.72 
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 Max. Load Check
Smax  33.14 MVA
V2 1152
ZC    399.03
Smax 33.14
  75

ZC  Z X 399.03  87.68
 100  78.03  25
ZC 399.03

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35 University Of Tabriz, Advanced Protection
 E af  E 0f  E 1f  E 2f
 (E 0  E1  E 2 )  Z 1f (I 1  I 2 )  Z 0f I 01  Z 0 mf I 02  0
 E a  Z 1f I a  (Z 0f  Z 1f )I 01  Z 0mf I 02  0
 Z 0 f  Z1 f Z 0 mf 
Ea  Z1 f  I a  ( ) I 01  I 02 
 Z1 f Z1 f 
Z 0f  Z 1f Z
I a  I a  I 01  0 mf I 02 Zero Seq. Compensation
Z 1f Z 1f
Z 0  Z1 Z
 Ia  I 01  0 m I 02  I a  m I 01  m  I 02
Z1 Z1
Ea
Z 1f 
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I a University Of Tabriz, Advanced Protection
 Ea  Z1 f I a  ( Z 0 f  Z1 f ) I 01  Z 0 mf I 02
Z 0 f  Z1 f
I a  I a  I 01
Z1 f
 Ea  Z 0 mf I 02 
 seen
Z   Z1 f 1  
 I a  Z1 f I a  ( Z 0 f  Z1 f ) I 01 

 I a  3I 01

 If I01 and I02 are in-phase, the relay will underreach

 If I01 and I02 are out of phase, the relay will overreach

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  Z 0 m I 03    Z 0 m I 04 
 seen1
Z  Z 1 
. x 1    Z seen 2  Z1.(l  x). 1  
  Z I
1 a1  ( Z 0  Z1 01 
) I   Z I
1 a2  ( Z 0  Z1 02 
) I
 I  3I  I  3I
 a1 01  a2 02

 When fault location is close to A (I01 and I03 are out of phase)
◦ R1: Overreach
◦ R2: Underreach
 When fault location is close to B (I01 and I03 are in-phase)
◦ R1: Underreach
◦ R2: Overreach

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 Ea
Z seen 3 
I a 3  m I 03  m I 01
 When fault location is close to A (I01 and I03 are out of phase)
◦ Fault must be seen by R3 as a reverse fault (operation not allowed)
◦ I01 might be much greater than I03 and Ia3 so that denominator becomes
positive and reverse fault is seen as forward fault
◦ Inadvertent operation of R3 is likely to happen
◦ Undesired trip of R3 is more likely to happen when A side source is much
stronger than B side
◦ Zero sequence compensation is not recommended by most relay suppliers

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  I02 and I03 are out of phase

 R2 and R3 will overreach

 Fault may be seen by both relays in the 1st zone
 Fault may be seen by both relays in the 2nd zone

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  When fault location is close to A (I01 and I0AB are in-phase)
R1: Underreach
R2: Overreach
 When fault location is close to B (I01 and I0AB are out of phase)
R1: Overreach
R2: Underreach
 External fault (I01 and I0AB are out of phase)
R1: Overreach
Undesired trip of R1 is likely to happen

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 • Zero Sequence Compensation
• Switched Zero Sequence Compensation
• Real time modification of m coefficient
• Phase reversal of healthy line current
• Pilot Protection

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 • Zero sequence current of each circuit is applied to the
distance relay of adjacent circuit
• Inadvertent trip of healthy line is probable
• In some special configurations, zero sequence current of
adjacent circuit is not available
• This method is rarely used in practice

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 • Zero Sequence Compensation will be accomplished only if
the zero sequence current of protected line is greater than
zero sequence current of adjacent line
• In the above situation, fault is most probably internal
• Again, the zero sequence current of adjacent line may be
unavailable
• This method is also rarely used

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 Ea
Z seen1 
I a1  m I 01

 If I01 and I03 are in-phase and I01 > I03 , m is increased
 If I01 and I03 are out of phase and I01 > I03 , m is decreased
 If the adjacent line is tripped, m will be decreased
 If the adjacent line is out of service and grounded, m will be
decreased
 Zero sequence current of adjacent line is still required
 This method is also rarely used, in practice

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 • When fault is close to R2, it is seen in the 2nd zone of R1
• Line is quickly tripped at R2 side
• Following the operation of R2, phase angle of the current of
adjacent line is reversed
• In this condition, R1 doesn’t have to wait for 0.3 s
• Accelerated zone 2 operation is allowed in this case

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  Communication between local and remote relays
 The most appropriate method to overcome most of the
shortcomings of distance relays
 More expensive than previous approaches
 With advancements in telecommunication technology,
this method has become the most attractive option
 Will be discussed in chapter 8

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  Temporary method for electrification of remote locations
 When phase difference between IA and IC is less than 90°,
infeed effect occurs
 When phase difference between IA and IC is greater than
90°, outfeed effect occurs
 Infeed effect is more likely to happen than outfeed effect

E A Z AT I A  Z TF (I A  I C )
Z seenA  
IA IA
IC
 Z AT  Z TF (1  )
IA

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  Zone 1 setting
◦ Infeed is not considered
◦ Estimated impedance is greater than actual impedance
◦ Only a small portion of line is covered by zone 1

Zone1  0.85 Min (Z AT  Z TB , Z AT  Z TC )

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  Zones 2 and 3 settings
◦ Infeed effect is considered

IC
Zone 2  Z AT  ( Z TB  0.5 Z BD )(1  )
IA
IC
Zone3  Z AT  ( ZTB  Z BD  0.25Z DG )(1  )
IA

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  Voltage reversal
 Current reversal
 MOV and spark gap
 Summary of series-compensated line protection
problems
 Series compensated line protection solutions
 Relay settings for series compensated lines

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  Voltage reversal occurs when inductive current passes through a
capacitive reactance
1: X C  mX L
Voltage reversal conditions: 2 : X C  mX L  X S
V C max
3 : X C  (mX L  X S )
V C max  V S

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  Current reversal occurs when capacitive current passes through
an inductive reactance
1: X C  mX L  X S
Current reversal conditions: 1
2: V  V C max
mX L  X S S
1
XC
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  ABF path is highly capacitive
 Inadvertent operation of R3 is probable

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 v-i characteristic of MOV

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  Capacitor is bypassed by the operation of SG

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  In addition to bypassing the capacitor, a slight
resistive effect is introduced by MOV

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  Voltage reversal affects the operation and directionality of
the relay which may lead to underreach in the internal faults
 Current reversal affects the operation and directionality of
the relay which may lead to underreach in the internal faults
and overreach in the case of external faults
 Spark gap and move operations introduce more uncertainty
and complexity to the problem

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  Conventional distance scheme (without communication
facilities) is not recommended for series compensated lines
 An idea is to wait until the capacitor is bypassed
◦ Fault current may not be sufficient to bypass the capacitor
◦ Long protection delays are not allowed in EHV and UHV
systems
 The best option is to use current-based methods such as
phase comparison (to be discussed in chapter 8)

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  Zone 1 is set in underreach mode

Zone1  0.85 Z AB  2 jX C
 A very small percentage of the line is
covered by zone 1

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  2nd and 3rd zones are set in overreach mode
(capacitors are assumed to be bypassed)
 Time coordination is established between
the 2nd zones of successive relays
 Similarly, time coordination is established
between the 3rd zones of successive relays

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