GENERAL CHEMISTRY II
Size of the Particles (Solids)
FINAL EXAMINATION
Solubility – concerns the maximum amount of solute
dissolved in a given amount of solvent. (for solids)
Soluble – description of liquid that easily dissolves in
solvent.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SOLUBILITY OF A
SUBSTANCE
1. Temperature
- The higher the temperature, the higher the
solubility of the solvent.
- Gas – an example of solute that dissolves in a
solvent
- Ex: Boiling Water - the process of liquid
molecule turning into gas molecule (oxygen) by
evaporation wherein the bubbles seen in the
bottom of the boiling water indicates that the
dissolved molecule starts to disappear.
- As the temperature of the gas increases, the
solubility of gas decreases.
- When the temperature decreases, it will be
hard for the solvent to overcome the
intermolecular force.
2. Pressure
- Force exerted by the substance per unit area
- The higher the pressure, the higher the
solubility of gases
- Directly proportional to the solubility of
gases
- Ex: LPG – the phishing sound indicates that
the pressure decreases in LPG.
- Ex: Carbonated Drink – the space on the top
of the liquid is occupied by the carbon dioxide
(maintains the sweetness of the softdrinks) and
the sound after opening the bottle of softdrinks
indicates that the pressure decreases
- Effervescence – product of carbonated water
that has absorbed carbon dioxide.
3. Nature of Solute and Solvent
- Has something to do with polarity
- Like dissolves like
 Polar – all materials that dissolves in water
 Non-Polar – all materials that do not dissolve
on water
4.
- The smaller the size, the faster the solubility ;
the bigger the size, the slower the solubility
5. Rate of Stirring
- The rate ranges in fast and slow
- Stirring – interaction of the solute and solvent
- As the rate of stirring increases, the solubility
also increases ; as the rate of stirring decreases,
the solubility decreases
KINDS OF SOLUTION
 Electrolytes – solutions that easily conduct
electricity
 Non-electrolytes – solutions that do not easily
conduct electricity
 Strong Bases – easily conduct fast ionization
 Weak Bases – conduct ionization but slower than
strong bases
Battery Acid (Sulfuric Acid) – very strong acid used in
batteries of vehicles.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
- Properties which depend on he concentration of the
solution and not on the nature of solute.
- Concerned molarity, molality, and mole fraction
1.Boiling Point Elevation
- Difference between the boiling point of the total
solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent
- as the solvent increases, the elevation increases
- ∆ T b=K b m
2.Freezing Point Depression
- The effect when a solute lowers the freezing point of
the solution
- Solidification – the process wherein the liquid phase
turns to solid phase
3.Osmosis/ Osmotic Pressure
- Osmosis – the net movement of the solvent particles
through a semi-permeable membrane from a pure
solvent or from a dilute solution to a more concentrated
solution
- Osmotic Pressure - the hydrostatic pressure needed
to stop the osmosis from a pure solvent to a solution
- Semi-permeable membrane – materials which allow
small molecules or ions to pass through but block the
passage of larger solute particles
- Ex. Dialysis – treatment used for patients with both
kidneys cannot function wherein the parchment bay
serves as an alternative kidney
- Reverse Osmosis – focuses on the concentration of
the saline solution inside our body
- Red Blood Cells – delivers the oxygen in our body
 - Hemolysis – swelling of the cell
- Crenation – shrinking of the cell
4.Vapor Pressure Lowering
- Vapor Pressure – pressure exerted by the molecules
of gas
- Volatile Liquid – liquids who vaporize easily even in
low or constant temperature. (acetone, methanol)
- Non-Volatile Liquid – substance that do not easily
vaporize
- Raoult’s Law (Francois Marie Raoult) – vapor
pressure of the solvent in a solution of a nonvolatile
solvent is directly proportional to the mole fraction of
the solvent in the solution times the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent.
Thermochemistry – deals with the study of energy and
its transformation
Thermodynamics – deals with the study of energy
changes that accompany chemical transformation
- Power of Heat
- From the Greek words Therme (Heat) and Dynamo
(Power)
Heat Energy – energy that is either absorbed or
released
Sun – the primary source of heat energy
System – any part of the universe which is being studied
Surrounding – everything that affects the system and
everything else outside the system
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THERMODYNAMICS
 Exothermic
- Heat is released to the surrounding from the
system
- Exo means exit
 Endothermic
- Heat is absorbed by the system from the
surrounding
- Endo means enter
Albert Einstein’s Equation (E=mc2)
E- energy released by the system
m- mass of the nucleus
c- speed
Atomic bomb – radioactive element with nucleus to
produce tremendous energy
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. The First Law of Thermodynamics
- also known as The Law of Conservation of
Energy
- States that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed but can simply be converted to other
forms of energy
- Internal Energy – the energy contained within
the system
- Sum of the kinetic and potential energy of all
the components of the system
-
- Unit: Joule (J)
- (+) : system performs work on its surroundings
(exothermic)
- (-) : surrounding perform work on the system
(endothermic)
2. Thermochemical Equation
- Balanced chemical equation that shows the
enthalpy (H) relationship between the products
and the reactants
- Enthalpy – heat content of the reacting
system. It is the total energy of a constant
pressure. Change in enthalpy is because of the
change in temperature.
3.Calorimetry
- Deals with the measurement of heat changes
or heat flows in chemical reaction
- Unit: J
- Heat Capacity (C) – amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 mole of substance by
1°C | Unit: J/°C
- Specific Heat (c) – amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance
by 1°C | Unit: J/°C