SCH 410: Techniques in

Organic Chemistry
LECTURE III, 2023
 USE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) TO MONITOR COURSE OF REACTIONS

➢ Thin layer chromatography (also known as TLC) is the physical separation of a

mixture into its individual components by distributing the components between a
stationary phase (the porous TLC plate) and a mobile phase (the solvent) solution of
pure organic compound or mixture.
➢ Chromatography is a technique used to separate a mixture of substance into its
various compounds based on their structural differences. It consists of a stationary
phase (solid support) and a mobile phase (liquid).
➢ The mobile phase flows through the stationary phase and carries with it the
components of the mixture.
➢ The different components will travel at different rates and to different distances
depending on how they interact with the solid phase.
➢ The plate was eluted using 6:1 hexanes:ethyl acetate and visualized with UV light.
➢ Benzyl alcohol and benzaldehyde have polar
functional groups so thus had lower Rf values than
ethylbenzene, which is completely nonpolar.
➢ Both compounds are able to hydrogen bond to the
polar stationary phase so are more strongly attracted
to the stationary phase than ethylbenzene, which
interacts only through weak London dispersion forces
➢ As the least "polar" of the series, ethylbenzene is also
the best dissolved by the weakly polar eluent.
➢ For these reasons, ethylbenzene spent the least time
in the stationary phase and the most time in the mobile
phase, hence traveled the furthest up the plate giving
the highest Rf of the three compounds.

Visualization: UV, Iodine or 50% H2SO4

 Principle behind using UV, Iodine or 50% H2SO4 for visualization in TLC

➢ The UV-lamp radiates ultraviolet particles which are absorbed by electrons in the
bonds in the molecules. The electrons are excited to higher energy level as they
come down to ground state, they emit radiation. Hence spots are visible as the UV-
radiation is on.

➢ The red/brown crystals of iodine molecules add to double bonds in the compounds
and impart color which can be seen as spots.

➢ After spraying fifty percent sulphuric acid, it is heated on a hot plate. The functional
groups in the compounds are oxidized and charred thus become black or coloured.
The spots are thus visible to the eye.
➢ The oxygen atom in benzophenone is
more crowded by the aromatic rings
than the oxygen atom of
acetophenone, which may impede its
ability to strongly hydrogen bond with
the silica gel. This can lead to a
smaller amount of time adsorbed by
the stationary phase.
➢ The additional nonpolar bulk of
benzophenone makes it dissolve
better in the weakly polar eluent,
causing it to spend more time in the
mobile phase.
➢ The ability of chromatography to separate components in a mixture depends on
equilibration of a compound between the stationary and mobile phases.
➢ When a mobile phase is made more polar than originally, all compounds travel further
and have a higher Rf
➢ The plate B was run using a 6:1 hexane:
ethyl acetate mixture, which means the
solvent was created by using 6 volumes
of hexane for every 1 volume of ethyl
acetate. This mixed solvent is mostly
nonpolar due to the high percentage of
hexane, but is more polar than straight
hexane, due to the presence of some
ethyl acetate (which has polar bonds.
➢ The second plate was run using a 3:2
hexane:ethyl acetate mixture, which is
more polar than the 6:1 mixture because
there is a higher percentage of ethyl
acetate present.
➢ All spots maintained their relative order but traveled to a greater height on the plate
and increased their Rf values in the more polar eluent.
➢ An increase in solvent polarity increases Rf values for as moderately polar compounds
have a greater attraction to the mobile phase.
➢ When equilibrating between a polar stationary phase and nonpolar eluent, a polar
compound tends to favor the polar stationary phase and have a low Rf .
➢ If the eluent is made to be moderately polar, polar compounds are then more attracted
to the mobile phase, causing the equilibrium to change such that the compound
spends more time in the mobile phase, resulting in a higher Rf.
➢ The polar solvent may occupy binding sites on the silica or alumina surface, such that
they displace the sample from the stationary phase.
➢ If a polar solvent is able to hydrogen bond and therefore strongly associated with the
stationary phase, it may "lock up" binding sites, and force less polar compounds to
spend more time in the mobile phase. The result is an increase in Rf.
➢ Order of polarity: benzoic acid> cyclohexanol> benzaldehyde>nonane
➢ Order of Rf value: Benzoic acid< cyclohexanol< benzaldehyde, <nonane. The more
polar a substance is the lower the Rf value since it tends to be attracted more to the
SP.
➢ Normal phase and reverse phase chromatography can be used.
➢ In the normal phase, the surface of the silica gel has OH groups attached to the Si
atoms. Polar compounds therefore bind to the -OH of silica gel, making them move a
shorter distance than non-polar solvents.
➢ In reverse phase, alkyl groups are introduced to the surface of silica gel, making it
less polar. Non-polar compounds will therefore be bound to the silica gel, making them
move a shorter distance than polar compounds.
➢ A typical analgesic tablet contains both aspirin and paracetamol. Thin layer
chromatographic technique can be used to separate the two constituents as outlined
below:
• The tablet is ground by a mortar and pestle and then dissolved in acetone.
• The solution is filtered and the filtrate is then spotted by a capillary tube on a silica gel
plate.
• A standard solution of aspirin and paracetamol are individually treated similarly.
• The plate is placed into a tank containing 10 % hexane in ethyl acetate (or any other
solvent system).
• The plate is removed from the tank when the solvent front is 1 cm from the top of the
plate.
• The solvent front is marked and the plate is placed in an iodine tank for visualization
(any methods).
• The spots are marked and by comparison the identity of the compounds is done.
• The reference factor is calculated by dividing distance travelled by the compound and
that travelled by the solvent.
➢ After calculating the Rf values, it was noted that the Rf value of aspirin is lower than
that of paracetamol

Based on their structures, aspirin has more polar functional

groups than paracetamol and is able to more strongly
interact with the polar stationary phase (-Si-OH groups) than
paracetamol hence lower value.
 O
Single step synthesis e.g. aspirin, O

OH O O
OH O
+ +
OH H3C O CH3
O HO CH3
Salicylic acid Acetic anhydride
Acetic acid
C
O CH3
Acetylsalicylic acid

➢ The reaction mixture is withdrawn and spotted on a silica gel and using 5% acetic acid
in chloroform as eluent.
➢ On another plate, solutions of salicylic acid, acetic anhydride, acetyl salicylic
acid/aspirin and acetic acid are spotted and spots developed to be used as reference.
➢ At intervals run TLC.
➢ New spots corresponding to products acetylsalicylic acid and acetic acid will appear.
➢ As the reaction nears the end, the pots corresponding to products; acetylsalicylic acid
and acetic acid will darken, while those for reactants; salicylic acid and acetic
anhydride will start to fade indicating that they are almost being used up.
➢ At the end of the reaction, only two spots corresponding to products, acetylsalicylic
acid and acetic acid will be visible indicating that the reaction is complete.
➢ If spots for salicylic acid and acetic anhydride appear, the reaction is incomplete.

▪ Problem: Given that 2.43g of salicylic acid was reacted with acetic anhydride to
produce 1.95g of aspirin. Determine percent yield of aspirin.
▪ Solution:
O
Equation O

OH O O
OH O
+ +
OH H3C O CH3
O HO CH3
Salicylic acid Acetic anhydride
Acetic acid
C
O CH3
Acetylsalicylic acid

▪ Mole ratio of salicylic acid : aspirin.

1:1
▪ Theoretical yield: If 138g of salicylic acid gives 180g of aspirin
2.43g of salicylic acid will yield; (2.43g x 180/138) = 3.1696g of aspirin
Percent yield = Actual/ Theoretical yield x 100
=1.95/3.1696 x 100 = 61.522 %.
➢ Problem: Suppose the same amount, 2.43g of 4-aminophenol was used to synthesize
paracetamol and 1.95g of the drug was formed. Determine percent yield of
paracetamol .
 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Principle of HPLC
➢ The technique is based on the principle of differential adsorption where different
molecules in a mixture have a varying degree of interactions with the adsorbent
present on the stationary phase.
➢ The molecules having higher affinity remain adsorbed for a longer time decreasing
their speed of movement through the column. However, the molecules with lower
affinity have faster movement, thus allowing the molecules to be separated in
different fractions.
➢ This process is slightly different from TLC as in this case; the solvent is forced under
high pressures of up to 400 atmospheres instead of allowing it to drip down under
gravity.
➢ The stationary phase is nonpolar (hydrophobic) in nature, while the mobile phase is a
polar liquid, such as mixtures of water and methanol or acetonitrile.
➢ In HPLC mobile phase is a liquid (solvent) forced through under high
pressures of up to 400 atmospheres hence faster than TLC (gravity).
➢ Stationary phase can either be solid (e.g. silica) or liquid.
➢Normal Phase HPLC: uses polar stationary phase and non-polar mobile phase.
Therefore, the stationary phase is usually silica and typical mobile phases are
hexane, methylene chloride, chloroform, diethyl ether, and mixtures of these.
Polar samples are thus retained on the polar surface of the column longer than
less polar materials leading to longer retention time.
➢Reverse Phase HPLC: The stationary phase is nonpolar (hydrophobic) in nature,
while the mobile phase is a polar liquid, such as mixtures of water and methanol
or acetonitrile. It works on the principle of hydrophobic interactions hence the
more nonpolar the material is, the longer it will be retained.
➢ The choice of both the stationary phase and mobile phase is based on the nature of
the sample to be separated.
➢ Example: The ingredients in Action Tablet are caffeine, aspirin and paracetamol. The
separation cab carried out as outlined below:
➢ Action tablet are ground to fine powder.
➢ Powder extracted by chloroform and filtered.
➢ The filtrate is evaporated in vacuum, dissolved in 10% water in acetonitrile and
injected into a reverse phase column.
➢ The column is eluted at 1.5 ml/minute and fractions are collected and the accumulated
same fractions individually evaporated to obtain the ingredients (caffeine, aspirin and
paracetamol).
➢ Standard caffeine, aspirin and paracetamol should be injected into HPLC and their
retention time noted.
 An example of HPLC chromatogram

Reverse Phase (C18) Separation of Amino Acids.

➢ DDT, an organophosphorus insecticide, is widely used in mosquito -prone areas.
➢ People are most likely to be exposed to DDT from foods, including meat, fish, and
dairy products. DDT can be absorbed by eating, breathing, or touching products
contaminated with DDT.
➢ In the body, DDT is converted into several breakdown products called metabolites,
including the metabolite dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (DDE). DDT and DDE are
stored in the body’s fatty tissues. In pregnant women, DDT and DDE can be passed to
the fetus.
➢ Both chemicals are found in breast milk, resulting in exposure to nursing infants.
➢ Following exposure to high doses, human symptoms can include vomiting, tremors or
shakiness, and seizures. Laboratory animal studies showed effects on the liver and
reproduction. DDT is considered a possible human carcinogen.
Levels of DDT above 80 ppm in water are a threat to human health. A group of students
analyzed DDT in a water sample obtained from a river as described below. 1L of water
was collected from a river for analysis. 10 ml of the water sample was transferred into a
100 ml volumetric flask and then it was topped up to the mark. 20 µl of this sample was
then analyzed by HPLC. Peak areas for different concentrations of DDT; 10, 20, 30 and
40 ppm were recorded as; 50, 170, 325 and 460 cm2 respectively. The river water
sample peak area was 200 cm2.
Use the information provided to answer the following questions:
1. Draw the calibration curve for DDT.
2. Determine the concentration of DDT in the 1L water sample.
3. (a) Is the water safe for animals?
(b) Give reasons for your answer in (a).