Technical Manual Version 5

Version 5
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412
INTRODUCTION: TECHNICAL MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
The 2012 LABC Warranty Technical Manual has CHAPTER 1: TOLERANCES CHAPTER 13: SUSTAINABILITY
been produced to assist Developers in building This Chapter has been produced to give The main aim of this Chapter is to give clear
dwellings to meet the technical requirements. more definitive guidance on the standards guidance to Self-Builders and small Developers in
LABC Warranty has always prided itself on offering of workmanship required to meet warranty relation to The Code for Sustainable Homes and
flexible solutions to meeting warranty requirements standards. renewable energy solutions which has no bias
and although there is substantial guidance within towards any particular product and solution.
the manual, flexibility can still be maintained. CHAPTER 5: SECTION 5.2: FOUNDATIONS
NEAR TREES External contribution
How the Manual structure works This Section has been produced in conjunction It should be recognised that a high proportion of
The Technical Manual is divided into 13 Chapters with an online foundation depth calculator. the updated Technical Manual has been written
and each Chapter has sections. Each Section Foundation depths can be easily determined by external consultants. The main reason for this
has a Functional Requirement which must be met by using the exact plasticity of the clay or by is to ensure that the standards are buildable and
to achieve warranty standards. Each Functional selecting a low, medium or high plasticity. reasonable whilst having an acceptable level
Requirement is supported by guidance which of detail. LABC Warranty would like to thank the
gives a suggested method to meeting the CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.3: EXTERNAL TIMBER FRAME consultants who have contributed towards the
requirement. Please note that if an alternative Produced by industry specialists giving the production of this Manual.
solution is available, it can be incorporated most up to date methods of timber frame
providing that the alternative method of meeting construction. Illustrations are provided in colour Moving forward
the requirement can be proven. to give full clarity. The Technical Manual will be updated regularly
to fall in line with changes to the construction
New Chapters within the Manual CHAPTER 7: SECTIONS 7.9 AND 7.10: industry and to meet legislation requirements.
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-11a-5.00-010412
Each Chapter of the Technical Manual has been ROOF COVERINGS – TRADITIONAL SLATE AND TILE; If you would like to recommend that we consider
completely re-written and a number of additional ROOF COVERINGS – CONTINUOUS MEMBRANE the inclusion of additional guidance, please
Chapters have been incorporated. ROOFING email technical.manual@labcwarranty.co.uk
Both Sections have been produced by external with your suggestions.
Key Chapters are as follows: consultants and provide full standards and details
of the correct method of covering both pitched Please note that the LABC Warranty Technical
and flat roofs. Manual is protected under copyright and all text
and images are deemed to be correct at the
time of printing.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION: CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY CHAPTER 7: SUPERSTRUCTURE

AND CONTAMINATION 7.1 EXTERNAL MASONRY WALLS
CONTENTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES 7.2 STEEL FRAME
4.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 7.3 TIMBER FRAME
CHAPTER 1: TOLERANCES 4.3 FLOW CHART OF SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESS 7.4 WINDOWS AND DOORS
1.1 MASONRY 4.4 PHASE 1 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 7.5 CHIMNEYS
1.2 INTERNAL WALLS AND CEILINGS (DESK STUDY) 7.6 BALCONIES
1.3 JUNCTIONS 4.5 PHASE 2 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 7.7 CLADDING
1.4 FLOORS (GROUND INVESTIGATION) 7.8 ROOF STRUCTURE
1.5 DOORS AND WINDOWS 4.6 MAIN REFERENCES 7.9 ROOF COVERING – TRADITIONAL SLATE
1.6 SKIRTINGS AND TILES
1.7 FINISHES AND FITTED FURNITURE APPENDIX A CHECKLIST FOR GEOENVIRONMENTAL 7.10 ROOF COVERING – CONTINUOUS
1.8 EXTERNAL WORKS ASSESSMENT (PHASE 1 AND 2) MEMBRANE ROOFING
APPENDIX B SOIL AND ROCK CLASSIFICATION 7.11 ROOF COVERING – GREEN ROOFING
CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS APPENDIX C LABORATORY TESTING 7.12 ROOF COVERING – METAL DECK ROOFING
2.1 TIMBER
2.2 CONCRETE CHAPTER 5: FOUNDATIONS CHAPTER 8: SUPERSTRUCTURE (INTERNAL)
2.3 OTHER COMPONENTS 5.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT 8.1 INTERNAL WALLS
5.2 FOUNDATIONS NEAR TREES 8.2 UPPER FLOORS
CHAPTER 3: MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 5.3 STRIP AND MASS FILLED FOUNDATIONS 8.3 STAIRS
(MMC) 5.4 PILED FOUNDATIONS
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION 5.5 RAFT FOUNDATIONS CHAPTER 9: BUILDING SERVICES

3.1.2 SUITABILITY OF SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS 9.1 DRAINAGE (BELOW GROUND)
3.1.3 TYPES OF MODERN METHODS OF CHAPTER 6: SUBSTRUCTURE 9.2 DRAINAGE (ABOVE GROUND)
CONSTRUCTION (MMC) 6.1 BASEMENTS 9.3 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
3.1.4 SUITABILITY OF SYSTEMS TO MEET WARRANTY 6.2 WALLS BELOW GROUND 9.4 HEATING AND MECHANICAL SERVICES
REQUIREMENTS 6.3 DAMP PROOFING
6.4 GROUND FLOORS
INTRODUCTION: CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 10: FINISHES

10.1 PLASTERWORK
10.2 2ND AND 3RD FIX FINISHES
CHAPTER 11: EXTERNAL WORKS

11.1 PAVING AND DRIVEWAYS
11.2 SITES SUSCEPTIBLE TO FLOODING
11.3 OUTBUILDINGS
CHAPTER 12: CONVERSION AND REFURBISHMENT

12.1 EXISTING ELEMENTS
12.2 NEW ELEMENTS CONNECTING TO
EXISTING STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 13: SUSTAINABILITY

13.1 THE CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES
13.2 LOW CARBON/LOW ENERGY HOMES
13.3 AIR TIGHTNESS AND ROBUSTNESS
13.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

CHAPTER 1: TOLERANCES
CONTENTS
1.1 MASONRY
1.2 INTERNAL WALLS AND CEILINGS
1.3 JUNCTIONS
1.4 FLOORS
1.5 DOORS AND WINDOWS
1.6 SKIRTINGS
1.7 FINISHES AND FITTED FURNITURE
1.8 EXTERNAL WORKS
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
This chapter provides guidance on the required standard of finishes

in new homes. It is important that all workmanship carried out during
construction is completed in accordance with the relevant tolerances
so that the required finishes are achieved.
1.1 MASONRY 1.1.2 Level of bed joints 1.1.5 Plumb of wall – overall height
A 10mm deviation is suggested for walls 5m long (a There should be a maximum deviation of 20mm in
1.1.1 Suitability of systems and components pro rata tolerance is applicable for walls less than overall height of wall.
There should be a 10mm maximum deviation in 5m long); 15mm maximum deviation for walls over
any length of wall up to 5m. 5m long. There should be no recurrent variations in
the level of the bed joint line.
Figure 2 – Level of bed joints
1.1.3 Thickness of bed joint

The thickness of an individual bed joint should not
vary from the average of any eight successive
joints by more than 5mm.
1.1.4 Perpendicular alignment

Vertical alignments of perpend joints should not
deviate drastically from the perpendicular. As a Figure 3 – Overall height
result of the manufacturing process, not all bricks are
uniform in length. Therefore, not all perpend joints
Figure 1 – Brickwork, straightness on plan
will align. However, there should not be a collective
displacement of the perpend joints in a wall.
1.1.6 Plumb of wall – storey height 1.1.7 Straightness in section 1.1.8 Rendered walls (plain)
The maximum deviation is 10mm in a storey height The maximum deviation is 10mm in any 2.5m height Unless otherwise specified, apply the render coats
of approximately 2.5m. Using a 50mm wide spacing of wall. Using 25mm wide spacing blocks, the to produce as flat a surface as possible and where
block, the plumb bob should be between 40mm masonry line should be anywhere between 15mm appropriate, check the surface by measuring
and 60mm away from the wall. and 35mm from the reference line. between the face and any point along a 1.8m
straight edge placed against it. The flatness of the
rendered finish will depend upon the accuracy
to which the background has been constructed,
the thickness of the render specified and whether
grounds and linings are provided and fixed to a
true plane. For render less than 13mm thick, a no
tolerance limit is realistic. Significant cracks in the
render or other damage such as chips and marks
greater than 15mm in diameter are considered as
not acceptable.
1.1.9 Fair-faced brickwork and blockwork

Fair-faced masonry should be completed
to a reasonable level ensuring texture, finish
and appearance is consistent. A reasonable
appearance for single leaf 102.5mm brick walls
should be to have one finished side only. A neat

and tidy finish should be provided to the other side.
Figure 4 – Plumb of wall (storey height)
Shrinkage due to drying out could lead to fracturing
of unplastered blockwork walls, although cracks
of up to 3mm are in general normal due to thermal
Figure 5 – Straightness in section movement and drying shrinkage.
1.1.10 Tile hanging

The uniform appearance is to be kept for panels of
tile hanging especially at abutments.
1.2 INTERNAL WALLS AND CEILINGS 1.3 JUNCTIONS
1.2.1 Walls and ceilings (plastered and dry lined) Small cracks up to 3mm wide could be visible in the
There should be no sharp differences of more surface at wall, floor and ceiling junctions if there
than 4mm in any 300mm flatness of wall, are changes in the construction materials used as
maximum deviation +/- 5mm from 2m straight a result of shrinkage and the differential movement
edge with equal offsets, horizontally and of materials.
vertically with regards to all wall and ceiling
surfaces. 1.4 FLOORS
The level of floors can be a maximum of 4mm out

of level per metre up to 6m across, and maximum
25mm across for larger spans. The effects of normal
drying shrinkage on screeded floors could cause
some fracturing. Shrinkage of timber floors and
staircases is a natural occurrence when drying out;
this could result in squeaking of materials as they
move against each other. This is, again, a natural
occurrence and cannot be totally eliminated.
Figure 7 – Level of floor
Figure 6 – Maximum deviation in walls and ceilings

1.5 DOORS AND WINDOWS
1.5.1 Doors and windows

Reference of +/- 3mm maximum deviation in 1m
head and sill.
The maximum out of level tolerance is 5mm for

openings up to 1.5m wide and 8mm for openings
more than 1.5m wide, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 – Gaps and distortion in doors

Where it is intended for the reveals to be square,

the following reveals are applicable; Maximum
+/- 8mm deviation off square into reveal up to
200mm deep.
Figure 9 – Distortion in windows/reveals

1.5.2 Glazing 1.6 SKIRTINGS 1.8 EXTERNAL WORKS

When viewed in daylight from within the room and
at least 2m from the panes (3m for toughened, It is possible that there will be joints in skirtings in 1.8.1 Drives and paths – standing water
laminated or coated glass) and looking at right long walls. When viewed from a distance of 2m Surface variation should not exceed a difference
angles through the glass, the details below are in daylight, joints will need to show a continuous of +/- 10mm from a 2m straight edge with equal
acceptable if they are neither obtrusive nor appearance. It is anticipated that there will offsets. Differences in the surface should not
bunched: be some initial shrinkage of the skirting after exceed +/- 10mm from a 2m straight edge with
occupation of the building. equal offsets. Some fracturing or weathering may
• Bubbles or blisters; also appear if the material is natural stone due
• Hairlines or blobs; 1.7 FINISHES AND FITTED FURNITURE to the make-up of the material. This tolerance
• Fine scratches not more than 25mm long; applies to principle pathways and driveways to the
• Minute particles. Fitted furniture with doors and drawers should dwelling which are required to meet the standards
be aligned vertically, horizontally and in plan. of Part M - Access to Dwellings.
The above does not apply within 6mm of the edge They should function as designed to by the
of the pane, where minor scratching is acceptable. manufacturer. Adjacent doors and/or drawers with 1.8.2 Covers to the drainage system
any gaps between them should be consistent. Drainage system covers in hard standing areas
1.5.3 Scratches on doors, windows and frames At the intersection of adjacent worktops there should line up neatly with the adjacent ground.
Factory finished door and window components should not be a visible change in level.
should not have conspicuous abrasions or
scratches when viewed from a distance of 2m. 1.7.1 Painted and varnished surfaces
All surfaces should be smooth, nail holes, cracks
• Surface abrasions caused during the building-in and splits should not be seen. Colour, texture and
process should be removed in accordance finish should be consistent and any joints are to be
with manufacturer’s instructions which may filled where necessary.
include polishing out, re-spraying or painting;
• In rooms where there is no daylight, scratches 1.7.2 Knots in timber
should be viewed in artificial light, fixed wall or Some seeping of resin from knots is a natural
ceiling outlets and not from portable equipment. occurrence and may cause paintwork discolouration
both internally and externally. The standard will be
met providing the Developer finishes the timber in
accordance with Functional Requirements.
CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS
CONTENTS
2.1 TIMBER
2.2 CONCRETE
2.3 OTHER COMPONENTS
2.1 TIMBER
Workmanship Design
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as defined i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication of the
in Chapter 1 of this Manual; design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level of performance;
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
in a workmanlike manner. A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
provided by a suitably qualified expert;
Materials iii. The materials used for construction must meet the relevant Building
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which will Regulations and other statutory requirements;
not cause damage or deterioration of the product;
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be appropriate 1. The Building Regulations 2010;
and suitable for their intended purpose; 2. British Standards and Euro-Codes (see Appendix 2a for a
iii. External timber should be adequately treated or finished to resist list of standards referred to);
insect attack. Timber treatment should be in accordance with
relevant British Standards and Codes of Practice; iv. Specialist works must be provided and supported by structural
iv. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with the calculations completed by a suitably qualified Engineer
warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years. Individual where necessary;
components and assemblies, not integral to the structure, may v. Any off-site manufactured engineered beams/posts must
have a lesser durability but not in any circumstances less than 15 years; have structural calculations which have been endorsed by
v. Timber used in dwelling to provide support to the structure must the manufacturer.
be appropriately seasoned to prevent excessive shrinkage
and movement.
GUIDANCE 2.1.2 Timber durability

Timber should be appropriately treated to resist
2.1.1 Storage insect attack. Some timber species have a natural
Timber should be stored correctly to ensure that ability to resist attack. Table 1 identifies various
it does not deteriorate. Timber should be kept dry species of timber and whether treatment is required.
and covered in cold conditions to prevent surface
freezing. It should be kept off the ground and 2.1.3 Timber grading
spaced to allow air to move around freely. Timber Timber should be of the appropriate strength
should be kept flat to prevent warping or twisting. classification in order to meet its design intention.
For timber that is to be used for structural purposes,
e.g. floor joists, rafters and ceiling joists, the
strength classification should be assumed to be
C16 unless it is appropriately stamped with its
specific strength classification.
Figure 1 – Storage of timber on-site

Durability Timber Species Variety Typical strength Durability Timber Species Variety Typical strength
class type grade* class type grade*
Very Softwood None Slightly Softwood Fir Noble C16-C24
durable Hardwood Opepe D50 durable Silver C16-C24
Padauk-Andaman N/A Balsam C16-C24
Afromosia N/A Grand C16-C24
Greenheart D70 Pine Canadian Red C16
Guarea N/A Corsican C16
Iroko D40 Jack C16
Jarrah D40 Parana C16
Okan N/A Ponderosa C16
Pyinkado N/A Radiata C16
Teak Malaysian D40 Scots C16-C24
Kapur Sabah D60 Southern C16-C30
Burma D60 Western White C16
Padauk White N/A Yellow N/A
Peroba N/A Lodgepole N/A
Durable Softwood Cedar Western Red (non UK) C18 Redwood European C16-C24
Hardwood Besralocus N/A Hem-fir USA & Canada C16-C24
Ekki D70 Spruce Eastern Canadian C16
Chestnut Sweet N/A Engelmann C16
Karri Kampas D50 European (whitewood) C16
Louro Red N/A Sitka C16
Oak American White D50 Spruce-pine-fir Western White C16
European D30 Canada C16-C24
Mahogany American N/A Hardwood Elm Dutch N/A
Moderately Softwood Pine Caribbean Pitch C24 English N/A
durable American Pitch N/A White N/A
Cedar Western Red (UK) C18 Rock N/A
Fir Douglas (North America) C16-C24 Wych N/A

Douglas (UK) C18 Oak American Red D40
Dunkeld (UK) N/A Beech Silver D35-D40
European C16-C30 Not Softwood None
Larch Hybrid C16-C30 durable
Japanese C16-C30 Hardwood Alder N/A
Tamarack C16-C30 Beech European D35-D40
Western C16-C30 Birch Silver N/A
Maritime C16-C30 European N/A
Hardwood Keruing Sabah D50 Paper N/A
Malaysian D50 Yellow N/A
Oak Tasmanian N/A Chestnut European Horse N/A
Turkey N/A Lime N/A
Mahogany African N/A Sycamore N/A
Table 1 – Characteristics of timber species *Denotes typical strength grade and is for guidance purpose only
2.1.4 Timber treatment 2.1.5 Metal fixings

Timber should ideally be preserved in a factory Metal components should be galvanised
environment; it is accepted, however, that this is where they are to be fixed or used adjacent to
not always possible. Timber treatments should be treated timber.
approved to the relevant Code of Practice, British
Standard or have third party accreditation. Careful 2.1.6 Standards referred to:
consideration should be given to health and safety
when applying timber treatment products. It is • BS EN 1912 2004+A4:2010 Structural Timber-
important that any pre-treated timber should be re- Strength classes-assignment of visual grade
treated if it is cut and exposes un-treated end grain. and species;
The treatment should be coloured so that it can be • BS EN 1995 1 1 2004 & 2008 Euro-Code Design
proven that the end grain has been treated. of Timber Structures;
• BS EN 5999-Part 1 Durability of wood and wood
based products.
Figure 2 – Pre-treated timber exposing un-treated end grain

2.2 CONCRETE
Workmanship Design
in a workmanlike manner; A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
iii. Concreting shall not take place during cold weather periods provided by a suitably qualified expert;
or where ground conditions are frozen. iii. The materials used for construction must meet the relevant Building
Regulations and other statutory requirements;
Materials
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which 1. The Building Regulations 2010;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; 2. British Standards and Euro-Codes (see Appendix 2a for a list
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be of standards referred to);
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose;
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with iv. Reinforced concrete elements must be supported by structural
the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years. calculations and details produced by a suitably qualified
Individual components and assemblies, not integral to Structural Engineer;
the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in any v. Precast structural elements must have structural calculations
circumstances less than 15 years. which prove their adequacy that have been endorsed by
the manufacturer.
GUIDANCE 2.2.2 Ready mixed concrete

It is a requirement of BS 5328 that ready mixed
2.2.1 Cold weather working concrete should not be delivered if the outside
To meet the Functional Requirements of this temperature is below 5°C.
section, minimum working temperatures should
not fall below 2°C. It is important that during cold 2.2.3 Site mixed concrete
weather periods, regular temperature readings Site mixing is acceptable at low temperatures
should be taken. subject to:
Thermometers should be placed away from • The minimum temperature to be no less than 2°C;
direct sunlight, preferably in a shaded area. When • An appropriate level of protection of the
assessing the temperature, it is also important to concrete during curing time;
consider wind chill and weather exposure and • Ground conditions are not frozen. Figure 4 – Concrete pouring on cold weather conditions
make the necessary allowances for sites that have
a higher level of exposure. 2.2.4 Concreting of foundations and oversite
Concrete should not be poured if the ground is During cold weather, it may be appropriate to cover
frozen; frozen ground can change in stability and the ground to prevent freezing and in some extreme
volume during thawing and therefore may cause cases, heating of the ground may be required.
damage to the recently poured concrete.
Other concreting: Concrete reinforcing and
formwork should not be frozen and be free from
snow and ice.
Figure 3 – Cold weather working

2.2.5 Curing of concrete Application Ready Site Consistence 2.2.7 Concrete mixes
Concrete may take longer to cure during cold mixed mixed class
concrete concrete
conditions. An additional six days may be required Substructure GEN1 N/A S3 Ready mixed concrete
in extreme cases. Concrete may be covered with Blinding Concrete must be mixed using the correct
a rigid insulation to prevent freezing during curing (unreinforced) proportions of cement, sand, aggregate and
Backfilling
periods. This is particularly useful for oversized slabs. water. Ready mixed concrete should be delivered
Substructure GEN1 N/A S3/S4
(unreinforced) as close as possible to the site works and should
Structural blinding be poured immediately to prevent settlement
Strip, trench or separation of the mix. Ideally, ready mixed
and mass filled
foundations
concrete should be poured within two hours of the
Concreting of initial mixing at the concrete plant.
cavity walls to
ground level
Floor (dwellings
Ready mixed concrete should only be sourced
unreinforced and from a supplier who has a quality control system in
unsuspended)
place to ensure the correct standard of concrete
With screed added GEN1 N/A S2
Figure 5 – Concrete curing in cold weather conditions or other floor finish is delivered. The quality control scheme should
Floor slab as finish GEN2 N/A S2 be either QSRMC (Quality Scheme for Ready
(e.g. power float) Mixed Concrete) or a relevant British Standard
Garage floors GEN3 N/A S2
2.2.6 Concrete suitability (unreinforced and
Kitemark scheme.
Concrete of the appropriate durability and unsuspended)
strength should be used in all circumstances. Reinforced slabs RC35 N/A S2 It is important that all design specifications of the
(dwellings and
Table 2 gives details of the correct concrete for garages concrete are passed to the ready mixed supplier
varying applications. suspended or to ensure that the delivered concrete meets the
unsuspended)
Superstructure As N/A As design intention.
specified specified
by a by a
Structural Structural Delivery notes should be kept and made available
Engineer Engineer for inspection if required.
External works
Pathways PAV1 ST5 S2
Additional water should not be added to the
Bedding for GEN1 ST1 S1
paving slabs concrete on-site; nor should the ready mixed
Table 2 – Concrete suitability
concrete be poured into water filled trenches
unless the concrete has been specifically designed Concrete reinforcing Reinforcing bars should be correctly positioned
for this purpose. Reinforcing bars and mesh should be clean and ensuring that there is appropriate concrete cover
free from loose rust and any other contaminants and reinforcing mesh is placed in the right direction
which may cause deterioration of the reinforcing (main bars parallel with span).
material or the durability of the concrete.
Reinforcing bars and mesh should be placed in

accordance with structural drawings; bars that are
to be bent should be done so using the correct
tools for the job.
Figure 6 – Ready mixed concrete
Site mixed concrete

Site mixed concrete should generally be avoided
unless it is for non-structural applications,
e.g. backfilling or bedding of paving slabs etc.
Figure 8 – Position of bars on reinforced concrete slab

There may be exceptional circumstances where Figure 7 – Reinforced bars in concrete beam
site mixing is unavoidable. Where this is the case,
extra caution must be taken to ensure that the
correct mix proportion is used; delivery notes should
be provided if necessary and provision for testing
may be required.
Reinforcing cover 2.2.8 Admixtures Admixtures in cold weather

An appropriate level of concrete cover should be Admixtures should only be used if stipulated as part Admixtures may be used in cold weather but usually
provided to the reinforcing; the cover thickness will of the original design specification. If an admixture will not assist in preventing concrete from freezing and
depend on the exposure of the concrete and its is to be proposed where it was not intended to therefore should not be relied upon to compensate
application. Concrete cover should be specified be as part of the design, confirmation by a for freezing conditions. The guidance for cold weather
by a qualified Structural Engineer or alternatively Structural Engineer that the admixture is working should be followed in these circumstances.
using Table 3. appropriate is required.
Admixtures and reinforcing
Application (concrete position) Minimum It is important that the appropriate amount of Admixtures containing chloride will cause corrosion
cover (mm)
admixture is applied to any mix. Any overdosing may to occur and should not be used in concrete
Concrete in direct contact with the ground 75
All external applications e.g. shuttered walling 50 cause concrete deterioration or poor workability. containing reinforcing.
Floor slabs and other applications where 40
concrete is cast onto a membrane
Common admixtures: 2.2.9 Expansion/movement joints
Concrete over blinding concrete 40
Internal conditions 25 Joints in concrete should be provided to prevent
Table 3 – Minimum concrete reinforcing cover • Plasticisers – improves the workability of cracking caused by shrinkage; shrinkage will be
concrete especially when pumped; they less significant if the concrete is reinforced.
Reinforcing should be supported off proprietary can also improve concrete adhesion which is Table 3 gives details of maximum areas of
chairs or spacers and can be made of concrete, enhanced particularly when concrete is concrete permissible without expansion joints.
plastic or steel. The thickness and depth of a reinforced;
concrete spacer should not exceed 50mm x 50mm. • Air entraining agents – increase the air void An increased amount of expansion joints should
Spacers should be placed at maximum 1m centres volume of concrete which in turn produces be provided to concrete where weak spots may
and when supporting mesh should be staggered. a surface more resilient to cold weather, and occur. This may include a narrowing width of floor
is therefore ideally suited to outdoor conditions slab for example.
where cold weather exposure is high, such as
pathways or roads; 2.2.10 Vibration and compaction of concrete
• Accelerators – to provide an improved curing Reinforced concrete should be compacted using
time. Caution should be taken to allow for a vibrating poker; care must be taken to ensure
reasonable time to “finish” the concrete. that the concrete is not over compacted and the
concrete mix separated. Tamping of floors by hand
is acceptable for floor slabs that do not exceed
Figure 9 – Position of spacers 150mm in thickness.
2.2.11 Curing of concrete

Concrete should be adequately cured before
loads are applied. It is acceptable that masonry to
Damp Proof Course (DPC) is built onto a foundation
that is not fully cured; however, care must be taken
to prevent any damage to the foundation. The
concrete should be at least durable enough to
carry the masonry.
The speed at which concrete mixes cure depend

on the mix ratio and whether there are any
additives within the concrete. Where curing time
is critical such as cast in-situ upper floors, curing
times should be indicated as part of the design and
formwork struck as advised by a Structural Engineer.
To prevent concrete cutting too rapidly then after

initial drying, exposed concrete should be covered
with hessian, polythene or sand. This prevents the
surface drying too quickly and protects the concrete
surface. This level of protection is particularly critical
in hot or adverse weather conditions.
Standards referred to:
• BS 8110 Structural Use of Concrete;

• BS EN 12620 Aggregates for Concrete;
• BS EN 197 Cement. Conformity Evaluation.
2.3 OTHER COMPONENTS
Workmanship Design
Materials iii. The materials used for construction must meet the relevant Building
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which will Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
not cause damage or deterioration of the product; and Euro-Codes.
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with
the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years.
Individual components and assemblies, not integral to the
structure, may have a lesser durability but not in any
circumstances less than 15 years.
GUIDANCE Finishes including rendering, plastering and screeds

Rendering should only be completed if the outside
2.3.1 Cold weather working temperature is at least 2°C; there should be no
To meet the Functional Requirements of this frost within the construction that is to be rendered
chapter, minimum working temperatures should and, where possible, rendering should not take
not fall below 2°C when working with masonry. It is place where freezing weather conditions prior to
important that during cold weather periods, regular adequately curing is anticipated.
temperature readings should be taken.
No plastering or screeding should take place unless
Thermometers should be placed away from the building is free from frost. It is acceptable to use
direct sunlight, preferably in a shaded area. When heating internally to warm the building effectively;
assessing the temperature, it is also important to Figure 10 – Protection of blockwork however, it is important to ensure that heaters
consider wind chill and weather exposure and do not emit excessive vapour into the dwelling.
make necessary allowances for sites that have a 2.3.2 Protection of masonry Adequate ventilation should be provided to
higher level of exposure. Any new walls or other masonry construction will allow moist air to escape. The dwelling should be
require protection against frost where temperatures appropriately pre-heated before plastering and
Protection of materials are expected to drop below 2°C. Ideally, all continue to be heated whilst the plaster dries.
Covers should be provided to protect materials masonry should be protected with polythene or
from frost, snow and ice; in particular bricks, blocks, hessian. If temperatures are expected to fall to 2.3.3 Masonry
sand and cement. Frozen materials should never an extremely low level, insulation boards may be
be used under any circumstances. required or even heating may be considered. Bricks
Bricks should be of an appropriate durability to

meet the design intention. The type of brick to be
used will affect the specification of the mortar.
Bricks with higher durability should be used where
there is a higher potential of saturation or severe
exposure to wind driven rain.
Figure 11 – Protection of masonry walls

Use Brick type Notes on mortar

Durability Frost resistance Soluble salts content
Clay Calcium Concrete
silicate
FL Frost resistant durable Limits of soluble salts
FN in all uses are defined by tests Foundation to DPC FL, FN, ML, MN Class 3 Strength > 20N/mm2
Foundation to DPC, FL, FN, ML, MN Class 3 Strength > 20N/mm2, all Where sulphates are Class 3
Low (L) (sulphates in soils) Class 1 sulphates and in or higher use sulphate
ML Moderately frost
MN resistant, durable some Class 2, consult resisting Portland cement
Normal (N) manufacturer. Engineering
except when
saturated and subject quality concrete bricks up
to repeated freezing to Class 3 sulphates
and thawing Un-rendered external FL, FN, ML, MN Class 3 Strength > 7 N/mm2
walls (protected from
saturation)
OL Not frost resistant.
ON Bricks liable to Un-rendered external FL, FN Class 3 Strength > 15 N/mm2 Use sulphate resisting cement
be damaged by walls (not protected in mortar with type N clay
repeating freezing from saturation) bricks
and thawing. For Rendered external FL, FN, ML, MN Class 3 Strength > 7 N/mm2 Use sulphate resisting cement
internal use only walls in mortar and base coat of
render with type N bricks
Note: Copings, cappings FL, FN Class 4 Strength > 30 N/mm2
Calcium silicate and concrete bricks contain no and sills
soluble salts.
Internal FL, FN, ML, MN, OL, ON Class 3 All
Table 4 – Durability of brickwork Table 5 – Suitability of brickwork in masonry
Standards referred to:

Use Designation Proportion by volume Minimum
compressive
strength • BS 6399 Loadings for Buildings;
(N/mm2)a
• BS 8103 Structural Design of Low Rise Buildings;
Masonry
• BS 187: 1978 Specification for calcium silicate
Portland cement: Air-entrained Portland
lime: sand cement: sand cement: sand (sandlime and flintlime) bricks;
• BS 5628 parts 1, 2 and 3 Code of Practice for use
Mortar for internal and iii. 1:1:5-6 1:5-6 1:4-5 2.5
of masonry;
external use above DPC
• BS EN 998 Specification for mortar for masonry.
General purpose to BRE Air-entrained with plasticiser Portland cement: lime: sand 1:1:5.5 2.5
Digest 362 by volume
High durability mortar for ii. (b.) 1:0.5:4-4.5(c.) 1:3-4 (c.) 1:2.5-3.5 (c.) 5.0N/mm2
A. Use below or near

external ground level
B. in parapets and
chimneys
C. External walls with high

risk of saturation due to
severe weather exposure
If type N clay bricks are to be used, or for all chimneys use sulphate resisting cement
Low permeability jointing i. (d.) 1:0.25:3 Use a Type S N/A N/A 10.0
mortar including copings, sand to BS 1200
cappings and sills
Load bearing masonry Air entrained with plasticiser, Portland cement: lime: sand 1:1:5.5 As specified
designed to BS 5628:1 by volume
Notes:
a. Minimum compressive strength 1 of site mixed mortars at 28 days (N/mm2);
b. For concrete or calcium silicate brick use a designation (iii.) mortar;
c. Where soil or ground water sulphate levels are appreciable (Class 3 or higher) use sulphate resisting Portland cement;
d. For concrete or calcium silicate bricks use designation (ii.) mortar
Table 6 – Suitability of mortar

CHAPTER 3: MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION (MMC)
CONTENTS
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.2 SUITABILITY OF SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS
3.1.3 TYPES OF MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION (MMC)
3.1.4 SUITABILITY OF SYSTEMS TO MEET WARRANTY REQUIREMENTS
3.1 MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
Workmanship Design
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication of the
defined in Chapter 1 of this Manual; design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level of performance;
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document A
person in a workmanlike manner; (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by an provided by a suitably qualified expert;
approved installer. iii. The construction must meet the relevant Building Regulations and
other statutory requirements, British Standards and Euro-Codes;
Materials iv. All MMC systems must be assessed and approved by a recognised
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which third party assessment body.
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product;
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60
years. Individual components and assemblies, not integral
to the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in

any circumstances less than 15 years.
3.1.1 Introduction requirements. Additional testing may be • Bearing a CE marking in accordance with the
Modern methods of construction (MMC) are being necessary to ensure standards for durability Construction Products Directive. This shall be
used in the construction industry, particularly for and weather tightness can be achieved, e.g. supported by evidence of testing carried out
housing as they potentially represent savings in time incorporating flat roof drainage outlets through on the product.
and materials as well as higher standards of quality closed panel parapet extensions.
over more conventional methods of construction. Construction methods which cannot meet the
3.1.2 Suitability of systems and components requirements of this Technical Manual must
Key points to note are: It is important to ensure that modern methods of be approved in advance by LABC Warranty
construction, products or systems: at the early design stage and well before
• Off-site assembly means quick erection times commencement on-site.
on-site and a quick weather tight construction • Meet the requirements of British Standards
achieved; or Codes of Practice or equivalent European Modern methods of construction, products or
• Accurate setting out of foundations etc. needs Standards current at the time of application; systems that have third party approval will still
to be managed; • Are materials/products or systems covered by a need to be structurally approved on a site by site
• MMC, particularly modular systems and large current approval from an independent third basis depending on the layout and loading of the
panel systems will require advanced planning party technical approval body which is component. Thermal properties and measures
of the site for both access, off loading, accepted by LABC Warranty. This would be to prevent condensation will also require specific
installation and possibly storage of systems; either a UKAS accredited or a European assessment depending on exposure, orientation, etc.
• The construction, design and layout of a typical equivalent accredited organisation such as
system is planned in advance, so last minute ILAC (International Laboratory Accreditation 3.1.3 Types of modern methods of construction
changes have to be avoided by good project Co-operation). Details of the testing body (MMC)
management and what is known as a ‘Design accreditation will need to be supplied as well MMC (this applies to systems and components)
Freeze’ imposed in advance of production as the certification document; usually fall into the following categories:
commencing in the factory; • Carry independent third party testing that must
• The quality of the final product will rely on recognise UK Building Regulation requirements • Volumetric or modular construction;
accurate assembly on-site by factory trained or and additional warranty standards. Details • Panelised;
authorised specialist contractors; of the performance and the limitations of use • Hybrid (semi-volumetric);
• Modern methods of construction take of the material/product or system tested must • Site-based systems.
advantage of offering standardised be provided;
construction and may not be adaptable Most MMC components are usually site based,
for complex architectural or planning design e.g. Insulated Concrete Formwork Systems.
Volumetric Closed panels Note:

Volumetric construction (also known as modular They involve the factory installation of lining materials Bespoke timber frame open panel systems which
construction) involves the ‘off-site’ production of and insulation. They may be constructed of timber, do not have such QA procedures will need either
three-dimensional units. Quality controlled systems steel frame or concrete panels. Panels can often third party accreditation or independent Structural
of production in the factory should be in place include services, windows, doors and finishes. Engineer supervision to be provided to monitor the
and expected as part of any third party approval. installation, erection and completion (sign off) of
Modules may be brought to site in a variety of Open panel systems the system.
different forms, ranging from a basic structural shell Open panel systems do not include insulation,
to one where all the internal and external finishes lining boards, vapour control layers etc. These Structurally Insulated Panels (SIPs) are a form
and services are already installed. are applied to the frame system on-site together of composite panel. Only systems which have
with the external cladding and internal finishing. independent third party approval will meet the
Volumetric construction can consist of timber Therefore, careful control of on-site finishing will requirements of the Technical Manual.
frame, light gauge steel as well as concrete or be required as well as ensuring the panels are
composite constructions. External cladding may protected against the elements until weather tight. Curtain walling is also a form of panelised
form part of the prefabricated system with only construction. It is normally non-load bearing, acting
localised on-site specialist sealing required. ‘Conventional’ timber frame panels are typically purely as a rain screen. Curtain walling is covered
classed as ‘open panel systems’ and would elsewhere in this Manual, but the system should
Alternatively, traditional masonry cladding may normally arrive on-site with the sheathing board have current independent third party certification.
need to be constructed; in which case specific fixed but without insulation or internal boards. For Systems certified and tested to meet the CWCT
detailing for support of claddings, cavity barriers warranty purposes, these types of open panel standard for walls with ventilated rain screens will
and damp proof courses must be pre-agreed and systems can normally be classified as established or also be acceptable to LABC Warranty.
checked by Site Managers. traditional construction, providing that such open

panel systems have quality assured systems in Hybrid
Panelised place and are either registered with the Timber Again, off-site manufactured, this combines both
The panel units are produced ‘off-site’ in a factory Frame Association or TRADA BM. (See Chapter 2 panelised and volumetric approaches. Typically,
under a quality controlled process and assembled within this Technical Manual for general guidance volumetric units, e.g. student accommodation
on-site to produce a three-dimensional structure. of conventional timber frame construction). pods or hotels.
The panels may consist of wall, floor or roof units,
sometimes referred to as cassettes.
Sub-assemblies and components Details of the performance and the limitations of Where the independent certification does not
This category covers factory built sub-assemblies use of the material/product or system tested must recognise our warranty requirements, additional
or components in an otherwise traditionally built be provided to determine if the requirements of this checks may be required to confirm the system is
structural form. Typically, schemes incorporating Manual are met. acceptable, e.g. the need to provide a drained
the use of floor or roof cassettes, precast concrete cavity behind some insulated cladding systems
foundation assemblies, preformed service The Independent Assessment, e.g. A European to timber and steel framed systems. Supporting
installations, cladding systems, etc. Technical Assessment, must provide details of evidence of testing undertaken to prove the
performance and testing carried out in the system may be asked for.
Site-based systems following areas to demonstrate acceptability to
These are structural systems that fall outside the warranty provider: Durability and weather tightness are key aspects of
the ‘Off-Site Manufactured’ categories such as the Technical Manual requirements and the track
Insulated Concrete Formwork (ICF). Only systems • Structural integrity; record of the MMC will need to be established.
which have independent third party approval will • Performance in fire situations; Evidence of experience gained elsewhere where
meet the requirements of the Technical Manual. • Resistance to water penetration (consider environmental conditions may be significantly
The acceptability of these systems relies heavily on exposure rating of location), vapour different will need to be assessed, in comparison
the quality procedures in place for the installation permeability and dangerous substances; with conditions here in the UK.
of the system on-site – in accordance with third • Safety in use;
party approval. • Acoustic characteristics; Treatment of timber components will need to
• Thermal and movement characteristics; be assessed with regard to the species of the
3.1.4 Suitability of systems to meet warranty • Compatibility of materials (interaction between timber used. The natural durability and the need
requirements components, structural or otherwise); for preservative treatment is dependent on the
Please also refer to the requirements in Chapter 2 • Durability and longevity of materials (60 year life component’s location in the construction and in
of this Manual. span in accordance with CML requirements); the warranty requirement for durability. Treatment
• Maintenance issues. for insect attack in certain parts of the country will
An independent third party assessment of the also be required.
system/product must recognise UK Building Structural performance must be identified against
Regulation requirements and our additional appropriate BS EN standards. The Developer must Detailing is critical in providing integrity to the
warranty standards. provide actual structural calculations for each building, e.g. connections between a wall panel
project on a case by case basis and the design and a window unit. Supporting documentation
shall allow for robustness to disproportionate must show the make-up of the tested system. When
collapse. assessing projects, a particular design detail may
not have been covered by the MMC certification,

e.g. a balcony junction. This information needs to
be made known at an early stage.
Certain components of a building have their

particular functions and may not be replaced by
components that look similar but might structurally
behave in a different manner. Similarly, a product
that has a third party assessment for a particular
use may not be acceptable in a different form of
construction.
The continuation of Quality Management Systems

from manufacture to erection on-site need to
be demonstrated. The level of supervision of the
systems on-site is critical in order to meet the
requirements of this Technical Manual.
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY

AND CONTAMINATION
CONTENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
4.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
4.3 FLOW CHART OF SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESS
4.4 PHASE 1 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (DESK STUDY)
4.5 PHASE 2 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (GROUND INVESTIGATION)
4.6 MAIN REFERENCES
APPENDIX A CHECKLIST FOR GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (PHASE 1 AND 2)

APPENDIX B SOIL AND ROCK CLASSIFICATION

APPENDIX C LABORATORY TESTING
4.0 SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY AND CONTAMINATION
Workmanship Introduction
i. All work to be carried out by a qualified and technically This chapter provides guidance on the appropriate steps to ensure that
competent person in a workmanlike manner. the correct level of site investigation is conducted in relation to the risk
posed by ground conditions and potential contaminants.
Materials
i. All samples to be stored and kept in such a way that Functional Requirement 4 (Site Investigation) applies to the following
will not cause inaccuracy when soils are tested. sections of this chapter:
Design 4.1 Introduction and objectives;

i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication 4.2 Roles and responsibilities;
of the design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory 4.3 Flow chart of site investigation process;
level of performance; 4.4 Phase 1 Geoenvironmental assessment (desk study);
ii. The site investigation should be completed at an 4.5 Phase 2 Geoenvironmental assessment (ground investigation).
appropriate level for the risk in accordance with the
relevant British Standard;
iii. Site investigation and remedial measures must meet
the relevant Building Regulations and other statutory

requirements;
1. The Building Regulations 2010;

2. British Standards and Euro-Codes (see Appendix
2a for a list of standards referred to).
4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
4.1.1 Introduction
This chapter sets out the requirements for an
acceptable site investigation. It is intended to
be flexible and user-friendly and includes simple
checklists aimed at ensuring compliance. The aim is
to raise standards both in the interests of the warranty
provider and also of the Builder or Developer. This
will lead to a safe and economic design which will
minimise the risk to all those involved in the project.
The majority of construction projects run over time

and over budget as a direct result of problems
within the ground. It is therefore vitally important
to reduce the risk of unforeseen conditions which
can directly affect the overall cost of the project.
It is believed that Builders and Developers will view
this work as an important safeguard, rather than
unnecessary expenditure.
To ensure a consistently high standard, all stages

of the work should be carried out by a Chartered Figure 1 – The geological environment, cross section of a river valley
Engineer or Chartered Geologist with at least five
years’ experience of this type of work. Specifying
properly qualified personnel will considerably
increase the overall industry standard.
4.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 4.2.4 Health and Safety Executive

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is responsible
The roles and responsibilities of those parties for Health and Safety at work including the
involved in the development are the Owner, CDM Regulations.
Developer, Builder and Self-Builder. Desk Study
See text for

4.2.1 Owner / Developer / Builder / Self-Builder sources of
Site Description information
The provision of clear development proposals for
Site history
the site and the implementation of a competent Geology and mining
Any Geoenvironmental / Hydrogeology and flooring
site investigation, using appropriately qualified Geotechnical hazards known Environmental setting
or suspected Radon
personnel is now a priority for regulators.
Geoenvironmental risk assessment
Geotechnical assessment
These demonstrate that any geotechnical and

Yes No No further action
contaminated land risks can be safely dealt None - No significant
geotechnical or
with. Specific Health and Safety responsibilities, plausible pollution
in particular the CDM Regulations, also require Phase 2 Geoenvironmental Commence construction
Assessment (intrusive Ground
compliance. Investigation)
or remediation
Refine brief and objectives
No further action
4.2.2 Environmental Health/Contaminated although an intrusive
investigation would Unforeseen hazards
Land Officer always be advisable to
minimise later costs
The provision of advice to the Local Planning The investigation - scope
and methodology
Department on technical matters and Strata profile - soil descriptions Consider the need for
planning conditions requires a competent and In situ and laboratory testing additional investigation or
Detailed quantitative risk assessment Consider the need for remediation on all or only
comprehensive site investigation and associated (revise in light of investigation additional investigation part of the site
recommendations) or remediation
risk assessment.
4.2.3 Local Authority Building Control Phase 3 Geoenvironmental

Complete build
Have the geotechnical
Building Control is responsible for enforcing Assessment
Yes and geoenvironmental risks Yes
(note that Phase 2 can be
the Building Regulations, which also requires been adequately defined
preliminary investigation)
competent and comprehensive site investigation.
No
4.3 FLOW CHART OF SITE INVESTIGATION of vegetation can indicate soil and ground water 4.4.3 Site history
PROCEDURES conditions, and note should be made of any The history of the site and the surrounding areas is
invasive plants such as Japanese Knotweed and extremely important when assessing the likelihood of
4.4 PHASE 1 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Giant Hogweed. Adjacent features and land use contamination or Geotechnical hazards. Historical
(DESK STUDY) should be reported if there is likely to be an impact Ordnance Survey maps date back to the mid-19th
on the development. It is not uncommon for century and often specify the actual industrial use
4.4.1 Introduction and objectives features such as tanks to be known about, but of particular sites or buildings. They may show areas
The aim of the Phase 1 Geoenvironmental be unrecorded. of quarrying or infilling as well as indicating where
Assessment is to identify and assess the buried obstructions such as underground tanks or
potential Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental The walkover should note any potential sources old foundations can be expected.
(contamination) hazards on the site. Since all sites of contamination and Geotechnical hazards
are different, it is important to identify the scope such as slopes, excavations, land slipping, The influence or impact of off-site past industrial
and purpose of the desk study. This will include ground subsidence, soft ground or desiccated/ use will depend upon the type of industry, the
who commissioned the work, the development shrinkable soils. underlying geology and the topography. However,
proposals, the relevant procedures followed and consideration should normally be given to any such
the objectives. Any issues specifically excluded All structures on the site should be inspected features within a 250m radius of the site (or further
should also be noted if these might normally be both internally and externally for any evidence where appropriate), which have the potential to
expected as part of the desk study. of structural damage such as tilting, cracking or affect it.
chemical attack. Any evidence of underground
4.4.2 Site description features should be noted. Where practical, the Historical maps are available from libraries and
The site description should define the exact extent local residents can often give valuable information, also commercial providers such as GroundSure or
of the site. It should include a site address, grid although caution should be used in respect of their Envirocheck. The latter provide a cost effective
reference and elevation. The boundaries and recollection. Local place names can give useful method of obtaining maps and include the ability to
topography of the site should be defined. indications of former uses, e.g. Gas Works Lane, superimpose current site boundaries on older maps.
A site inspection should always be carried out, not Water Lane, Tannery Road etc. Aerial photographs Issues regarding possible breaches of copyright are
only of the site itself but the immediate surrounding and their interpretation can also prove helpful. also avoided by using licensed products.
area. This should include any information not
apparent from the maps and describe what A photographic record of the site and any specific It should be remembered that historical maps only
currently occupies the site, such as buildings, hard features of the site should be included with the report. provide a snapshot in time and care must be taken
standing, watercourses, vegetation, trees and when interpreting what may have occurred in
any particular features. The type and distribution the intervening years. For example, a quarry may
be shown on one map and infilled on the next. with reference to any other mapped geological Any ground water or surface water abstraction
However, in the intervening period it could have features, particularly if there are likely to be any points ‘downstream’ of the site, in particular any
expanded prior to infilling, similarly industrial uses natural cavities or solution features. potable (drinking water) abstraction points should
may not always be recorded and many military or be recorded as this may have liability implications
sensitive uses may have been omitted. 4.4.5 Mining areas should the development cause any pollution.
In former coalfields or other areas of mineral
Other sources of information may include the extraction the maps may not always record the 4.4.7 Environmental setting
ubiquitous internet search and historical aerial presence of old or active workings. The likelihood The question as to whether a site poses an actual
photographs. It may be necessary to additionally of shallow coal workings affecting surface stability or potential environmental risk, or is at some
search the libraries of Local Authorities and Local should be established in conjunction with a Coal external risk from pollution will be determined by its
History departments. Authority report. Such reports also record areas that environmental setting. This will in turn depend upon
have been affected by the extraction of brine, the site’s topography, geology, hydrogeology
4.4.4 Geology and mining which is particularly prevalent in the Cheshire area. and hydrology amongst other site specific
The geology of the site should be recorded by Other forms of mineral extraction will require site considerations.
reference to published geological maps. These specific research.
maps most commonly exist at 1:50,000 (1 inch to 1 It is necessary to consider other potential sources
mile) and 1:10,000 (or 6 inches to 1 mile). The British 4.4.6 Hydrogeology and flooding of contamination such as pollution control licenses,
Geological Survey Geo-Index also provides existing The assessment should include flood risk and the discharge consents, hazardous sites (COMAH,
ground investigation records including logs and hydrogeology of the site, in particular whether NIHHIS), pollution incidents, landfills, waste
reports. It should be noted that these records can the site lies on a Principle Aquifer and/or Source treatment sites, and past and current industrial sites.
relate, not only to the surrounding areas but may Protection Zone, which are both susceptible to
also include previous investigation of the site itself. pollution of ground water. The presence of surface Current industrial operations rarely provide a risk of
The information on the geological maps can also water features and drainage should be described pollution to a site. Pollution is most likely to have
be supplemented with British Geological Survey and the overall risks of flooding to the site should been caused by historical activities and processes
technical reports, flood risk appraisals and memoirs. be determined, primarily with reference to the which were often deemed normal practice in the
Environment Agency flood map data and Local past, but which are considered unacceptable
The bedrock geology, any overlying superficial Authority commissioned Strategic Flood Risk today. In this regard, the past history is invariably
deposits and the effects of weathering should all Assessments. Flood risk data is continually being highly significant in respect of possible ground
be described, together with any geological faults updated by the Environment Agency and pollution.
that may affect the site. An explanation of the Local Authority.
likely ground conditions should be given together
The site should be considered in relation to any 4.4.8 Radon

designated environmentally sensitive sites such as The need to incorporate Radon Protection
Special Areas of Conservation, Special Protection Measures should be determined by reference
Areas, Nature Reserves and Sites of Special to risk maps produced by the Health Protection
Scientific Interest. It could be questioned whether Agency. Such information is also usually included
contamination on the site could be affecting such within commercially available datasets.
sensitive areas whether these are on or adjacent to
the study site. 4.4.9 Geoenvironmental risk assessment and
conceptual site model
Data relating to current industrial licensing, A quantitative health and environmental risk
consents and the like, together with information assessment should be carried out as part of the
relating to environmentally sensitive sites, is typically process. Details of this process are set out in Part
available through commercial data suppliers. IIA of the Environment Protection Act 1990 and
As with the historical maps, this is usually a cost amended in subsequent legislation.
effective method of obtaining this data.
This Act introduces the concept of a pollution
For both the historical maps and datasets, there is linkage, the linkage consists of a pollution
usually little or no interpretation of the information (contaminative) source or hazard and a receptor,
and it is essential that this interpretation is carried together with an established pathway between
out by an experienced and qualified individual. the two. For land to be contaminated, a pollution
Automated risk assessments do not include appraisal linkage (hazard-pathway-receptor) must exist, this
by qualified staff. They should therefore be viewed forms a so-called ‘conceptual model’ of the site.
with caution and are not usually acceptable to
regulators. An example of this was a contaminated SOURCE PATHWAY RECEPTOR
former petrol filling station site recorded as having
no past industrial use. The historical maps never
recorded the site as a filling station, nor did the
environmental data. However, the walkover quickly
identified former bases for pumps and filling points
for underground storage tanks (USTs).
Examples of pathways and the effects of land 4.4.9.1 Human health (pathways 1-5, receptors A-C)
contamination (after PPS 23) are shown on The uptake of contaminants by food plants
Figure 2 – Pathways of potential contaminants. grown in contaminated soil will depend on their
concentration in the soil, their chemical form, soil
pH, plant species and prominence in diet.
Ingestion and inhalation

Substances may be ingested directly by young
children playing on contaminated soil, by eating
plants which have absorbed metals or are
contaminated with soil or dust. Ingestion may
also occur via contaminated water supplies.
Metals, some organic materials and radioactive
substances may be inhaled from dusts and soils.
Skin contact
Soil containing tars, oils and corrosive substances
may cause irritation to the skin through direct
contact. Some substances, e.g. phenols, may be
absorbed into the body through the skin or through
cuts and abrasions.
Irradiation
As well as being inhaled and absorbed through the
skin, radioactive materials emitting gamma rays
can cause a radiation response.
Fire and explosion

Materials such as coal, coke particles, oil, tar,
Figure 2 – Pathways and potential contaminants pitch, rubber, plastic and domestic waste are
all combustible. Both underground fires and
biodegradation of organic materials may produce 4.4.9.3 Natural environment (pathway 6, receptors D-E) The following tables may be used to explain the
toxic or flammable gases. Methane and other decision making process.
gases may explode if allowed to accumulate in Phytotoxicity (prevention/inhibition of plant growth)
Severe Damage to human health.
confined spaces. Some metals essential for plant growth at low levels Substantial pollution of controlled waters.
are phytotoxic at higher concentrations. Methane Significant change in ecosystem
population.
4.4.9.2 Buildings (pathways 7 and 8) and other gases may give rise to phytotoxic effects. Irreparable damage to property.
Moderate Non-permanent damage to human health.
Fire and explosion Contamination of water resources Minor pollution of controlled waters.
Change in ecosystem.
Underground fires may cause ground subsidence Soil has a limited capacity to absorb, degrade Damage to property.
and cause structural damage. Accumulations of or attenuate the effects of pollutants. If this is Mild Short term health effects.
flammable gases in confined space leads to a risk of exceeded, polluting substances may enter into Slight pollution of controlled waters.
Slight effect on ecosystem.
explosion. Underground fires may damage services. surface and ground waters. Minor repairable damage to property.
Near zero No noticeable effect on human health.
Chemical attack on building materials and services Ecotoxological effects - Contaminants in soil may No significant pollution to controlled waters.
No measurable effect on ecosystem
Sulphates may attack concrete structures. Acids, affect microbial, animal and plant populations. densities.
oils and tarry substances may accelerate corrosion Ecosystems or individual species on the site, in Non-structural cosmetic damage
to property.
of metals or attack plastics, rubber and other surface waters or areas affected by migration from
polymeric materials used in pipework and service the site may be affected. Table 1 – Consequences of pollution linkage
conduits or as jointing seals and protective Probability Consequences of a pollution linkage

coatings to concrete and metals. For any contaminant source identified, judgement of a (hazard-pathway-target)
hazard
is required to assess the probability of a pollution
and an Severe Moderate Mild Near zero

Physical linkage occurring and the potential consequences associated
Blast-furnace and steel-making slag (and some of that linkage. Based on the probability and likely linkage
High Very High Medium Low /
natural materials) may expand. Degradation of fills consequences, the overall risk (significance) can
High / Low Negligible
may cause settlement and voids in buried tanks be established. The definitions that are used for this
Medium High Medium Low Low /
and drums may collapse as corrosion occurs or purpose should be clearly stated. The probability Negligible
under loading. of a hazard, combined with its consequences, can Low High / Medium / Low Negligible
Medium Low
be used to assess risk and this forms the so-called
Unlikely High / Medium / Low Negligible
conceptual site model. This is in accordance with
Medium Low
the Statutory Guidance for Contaminated Land / Low
(Defra 2006). Table 2 – Decision making
Final overall risk is based on an assessment of 4.4.10 Geotechnical assessment

probability of a hazard and its consequences. Although no intrusive investigation may have been
Risk categories are shown shaded in Table 2 and carried out on the site at the desk study stage, it
defined in Table 3. should be possible to give preliminary indications in
respect of the geotechnical matters set out below.
Overall Risk
Foundations Are normal to deep strip footings likely
to be suitable or may piling or ground
Risk Description of risk levels improvement be necessary? Will made
High Site probably or certainly unsuitable for ground, old foundations, cellars or
present use or environmental setting. services be encountered?
Contamination probably or certainly Mining and Will the possibility of shallow mine
present and likely to have an quarrying workings or quarrying on the site
unacceptable impact on key targets. need to be addressed?
Urgent action needed.
Soakaways Are soakaways likely to be suitable based
Medium / Site may not be suitable for present use on the mapped geology? (Actual on-site
Moderate or environmental setting. Contamination permeability tests would need to be
may be present, and likely to have carried out to determine suitability or not).
unacceptable impact on key targets.
Action may be needed in the Roads What is the sub-grade strength (CBR)
medium term. likely to be? (The actual design will be
dependent on the CBR measured on site).
Low Site considered suitable for present
use and environmental setting. Excavations Will soft ground plant be suitable or
Contamination may be present but will rock breakers be needed for
unlikely to have unacceptable impact on deeper excavation?
key targets. Action unlikely to be needed Ground water Is shallow ground water expected?
in present use.
Earthworks Are any significant earthworks

Negligible Site considered suitable for present anticipated?
use and environmental setting. Gas Will gas protection measures be
Contamination may be present but protection required or would they be prudent in
unlikely to have unacceptable impact on accordance with good practice?
key targets. No action needed while site
remains in present use. Table 4 – Geotechnical assessment – preliminary indicators
Table 3 – Overall risk

The above can only be given on the basis of limited
site data and it is recommended that the scope
of any intrusive ground investigation is set out
here if the desk study is to be presented as a
standalone document.
4.5 PHASE 2 GEOENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT • BS EN 1997-1: 2004 “Euro-Code 7 - Geotechnical tube is withdrawn. The next tube is then inserted
(GROUND INVESTIGATION) Design - Part 1: General Rules”; and the process repeated to provide a continuous
• BS EN 1997-2: 2007 “Euro-Code 7 - Geotechnical profile of the ground. On each run the tube
4.5.1 Pre ground investigation Design - Part 2: Ground Investigation and Testing”; diameter is reduced in order to assist in its recovery.
The initial investigation should comprise a desk • BS 5930: 1999 and BS 10175: 2001; When complete the borehole is normally backfilled
study as described in Chapter 4.3 of this Manual. with arisings. It is also possible to carry out Standard
and under the full-time supervision of a Chartered Penetration Tests (SPT) using the window sampling
4.5.2 The investigation Geologist or Chartered Engineer. equipment.
After the desk study has been carried out the
objective of the intrusive investigation is to provide Dates of the investigation and the methods 4.5.2.3 Shell and auger boring
detailed information for the safe and economic used should be stated with the exploratory hole This technique uses a tripod winch and a
development of the site at minimum cost. Clearly positions being shown on a drawing. An intrusive percussive effect with a variety of boring tools,
no guarantee can be given that all relevant investigation may comprise the following; where disturbed and undisturbed samples can
conditions will necessarily be identified, but the be taken. This is the most suitable method for soft
work carried out should be aimed at reducing risk 4.5.2.1 Trial pitting ground investigation, enabling the maximum
to acceptable levels. Normally these should be at least three times the amount of information to be obtained. However,
foundation depth where possible or sufficient minor changes in lithology may be overlooked
Increasing expenditure on site investigation will to prove competent bedrock. They should be unless continuous undisturbed sampling is used.
reduce the risk of unforeseen conditions but excavated outside proposed foundation positions
professional judgement and experience is also where possible. On completion, the excavations Disturbed samples of soils can be taken for
required. Not all forms of investigation will be are normally backfilled with the arisings. This identification and classification purposes. In
needed and that which is necessary in the best method enables soil conditions to be closely cohesive soils, ‘undisturbed’ samples 100mm in
interests of the client should be carefully assessed examined at any specific point and samples to be diameter can be taken by an open drive sampler
for each individual project. taken. It also gives useful information on the stability for laboratory testing of strength, permeability and
of excavations and water ingress. In-situ gas, consolidation characteristics.
The investigation must be designed to provide the strength and CBR tests can also be carried out.
appropriate level of information on ground and SPTs are used in granular and cohesive materials
ground water conditions on the site, together with 4.5.2.2 Window sampling and in soft or weathered rocks. The resulting
identifying potential areas of contamination. The Window sampling consists of driving a series of ‘N’ value can be compared to empirical data
investigation should be undertaken in accordance 1m and 2m long tubes into the ground using a on strength and relative density. Difficulties in
with the principles of: dropping weight. On completion of each run, the obtaining true ‘N’ values mean they should only be
used as a guide and not as an absolute value in The results from geophysics can be variable, and 4.5.5 In-situ and laboratory testing
foundation design. combined with the relative high cost, should be
used advisedly. 4.5.5.1 In-situ gas monitoring
4.5.2.4 Rotary drilling Methane is the dominant constituent of landfill
Two main types of rotary drilling can be carried 4.5.3 Strata profile gas, and can form an explosive mixture in air at
out in rock. Rock coring using diamond or tungsten Full strata descriptions should be given based on concentrations of between 5% and 15%. Thus 5%
carbide tipped core bits provides samples and visual identification and in accordance with the methane in air is known as the Lower Explosive
information on rock types, fissuring and weathering. requirements of: Limit (LEL). Concentrations less than this do not
Open-hole drilling only produces small particles normally ignite. Carbon dioxide can also be a
for identification purposes and the information • BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002 “Geotechnical potential problem, especially where it occurs in
gained is therefore limited. The latter is, however, Investigation and Testing - Identification and concentrations greater than 1.5%.
useful as a quick method for detecting major strata Classification of Soil - Part 1”;
changes and for the location of coal seams and • BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004 “Geotechnical In-situ gas tests should be carried out in the
old workings. Water, air, foam or drilling muds may Investigation and Testing - Identification and boreholes on completion and in probe holes made
be used as the flushing medium in either case. Classification of Soil - Part 2”; in the sides of the trial pits. Testing is with a portable
• BS EN ISO 14689-1:2003 “Geotechnical meter which measures the methane content as
Rotary open-hole drilling is carried out to determine Investigation and Testing - Identification and its percentage volume in air. The corresponding
if any voids or broken ground exists which Classification of Rock - Part 1”. oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are
could affect surface stability. Due to the risk of also measured. Care is needed with this since
combustion, the drilling is normally done using a 4.5.4 Soil description rapid mixing and dilution of any gases with the
water flush. On completion, the boreholes are Samples from boreholes or trial pits should be fully atmosphere can occur very quickly.
backfilled with bentonite cement. A Coal Authority described in accordance with the latest guidance
Licence is required in advance of any exploratory from the British Standard and Euro-Codes. They A more accurate method used to monitor over the
work intended to investigate possible coal workings. should include colour, consistency, structure, longer term consists of gas monitoring standpipes
weathering, lithological type, inclusions and origin. installed in boreholes. These typically comprise
4.5.2.5 Geophysics All descriptions should be based on visual and slotted UPVC pipework surrounded by single sized
Geophysics can be used in certain situations and manual identification as per recognised descriptive gravel. The top 0.5m to 1m of pipework is usually
is useful where significant anomalies exist in the methods. The methodology of soil and rock not slotted and is surrounded by bentonite pellets
ground. Ground Penetrating Radar is probably the description is given in more detail in Appendix B. to seal the borehole. Valves are fitted and the
most common for defining near surface features. installations protected by lockable stopcock covers
normally fitted flush with the ground. Monitoring is
again with a portable meter and is usually done on Soakaway testing involves filling the trial pits with those which are most likely to be contaminated
a fortnightly or monthly basis and with at least six water from a bowser or equivalent, and measuring and those which will give the most appropriate
visits being appropriate for most sites. the fall in water over time. Where possible, two tests indication of the spread of any contaminants. The
should be carried out to allow the immediately samples should be stored in either glass or plastic
The risks associated with the gases should be surrounding ground to become saturated. By containers and where necessary kept in cooled
considered in accordance with documents such as: knowing the dimensions of the trial pit, the conditions. Testing should be carried out by a UKAS
permeability and/or rate of dissipation can be accredited laboratory, in accordance with MCERTS
• The British Standard BS 8485:2007 “Code of calculated. performance standards.
Practice for the Characterisation and
Remediation from Ground Gas in Affected Soakaway test results obtained from small hand- The aim of this, is to make a preliminarily assessment
Developments”; dug pits or shallow boreholes should be treated of the level of any contamination on the site in order
• CIRIA report C665, “Assessing Risks Posed by with caution. to determine if there are any significant risks
Hazardous Ground Gases to Buildings”; associated with contaminants in respect of both
• NHBC Report No. 4 “Guidance on Evaluation of 4.5.5.4 Geotechnical laboratory testing human health and the environment, including
Development Proposals on sites where Soil testing should be carried out to BS 1377:1990 controlled waters. In addition to the soil, ground
Methane and Carbon Dioxide are present”. Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering water samples should be tested where appropriate.
Purposes and the laboratory used should be
4.5.5.2 In-situ strength testing recorded and conducted by an approved UKAS 4.5.6 Geoenvironmental risk assessment
Hand vane and MEXE Cone Penetrometer tests laboratory. Normally, the results are summarised (conceptual site model)
can be carried out in trial pits in order to assess the and the full results appended, a summary of the The qualitative Health and Environmental Risk
strengths and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values main types of test are presented in Appendix C. Assessment carried out as part of the desk study
of made ground, soils, and heavily weathered should be revised based on the findings of the
bedrock materials. 4.5.5.5 Contamination laboratory testing ground investigation, and the results of the
As with the investigation, the sampling should be contamination testing, to produce a Detailed
4.5.5.3 Soakaway testing under the full time direction of either a Chartered Quantitative Risk Assessment (DQRA).
If sustainable drainage is being considered, Engineer or Chartered Geologist. All the recovered
soakaway testing should be carried out. This soil samples should be screened on-site for any The DQRA is again based on the conceptual
is preferably done in trial pits with the aim of visual or olfactory evidence of contamination site model and might look similar to the following
intersecting permeable soils or naturally occurring including the presence of Volatile Organic example summary of hazards, pathways and
fissures within bedrock. Compounds (VOCs). Samples should be selected receptors. On sites with known contamination,
from the trial pits and boreholes on the basis of further investigation and testing may be necessary
together with recommendations for remediation will be no interpretation of the data and no
and its validation. recommendations).
Source Potential Pathways Receptor Risk The interpretative report should make
pollutant
recommendations in respect of the main points or
Potentially Oils, fuels, 1-5 A. Present occupants Site unoccupied.
contaminated grease, issues related to design and construction:
B. Groundworkers Low Risk involved with excavation work, providing
made ground hydraulic personnel adopt suitable precautions, together
fluid, metals, with washing facilities.
Possible past asbestos • Normal strip or deep trench footings;
minor spillages C. Future residents / Low Risk for residential use, providing made ground • Piling;
and metals occupants is capped by clean sub soil and topsoil.
• Vibro-replacement;
6 D. Controlled waters Low to Moderate Risk at present. Provided on-site
monitoring undertaken throughout the piling and • Raft foundation;
ground work phases of development shows no • Building near trees;
adverse effects, the risk will be low.
• Landfill and radon gas;
E. Ecosystems. Low Risk as leaching is not a problem
• Existing drains and services;
7 F. Building materials Low to Moderate. Install pipes in clean bedding
and services materials. Adequate precautions to be taken in • Road construction;
respect of buried concrete. • Sustainable surface water drainage
Organic Landfill gases, 8 A-F Low to Moderate. Low values of ground gases (Soakaways);
material Radon, VOCs, present during the investigation, although basic gas
SVOCs protection measures are recommended. • Excavations and ground water;
Waste Fly-tipping All waste materials to be removed from site. • Re-use of materials;
materials • Contamination;
Table 5 – Example detailed Quantitative Risk Assessment • Capping mine shafts;
• Site soil re-use;

4.5.7 Construction 4.5.8 Recommendations • Slope stability and retaining walls;
During construction, if unforeseen conditions are The report must include a site location plan • Further geotechnical considerations;
encountered, then the builder/developer should and a plan showing any special features plus • Change of use.
seek additional advice from the consultant as borehole and trial pit locations. (Factual reports
to whether the new conditions will affect the will only describe the work carried out and will Advice in respect of specific recommendations is
continued development of the site, and whether include borehole/trial pit logs and the results given in Appendix A.
any additional investigation or testing is necessary. of all in-situ and laboratory testing, but there
British BS 1377: Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes 1990 DEFRA Contaminated Land Report CLR 11, 2002 (7-10 withdrawn)
Standards (Parts 1 to 8) R & D Publications TOX 1 – 12, 14, 16 – 25
Institution BS 3882: British Standard Specification for Topsoil R & D Publications SGV 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 and 16 (withdrawn)
BS 5930: British Standard Code of Practice for Site Investigations, 1999 Improvements to Contaminated Land Guidance – “Outcome of
BS 8485: British Standard Code of Practice for the characterization the “Way Forward”, 2008
and remediation from ground gas in affected developments, 2007 Exercise on Soil Guideline Values. July 2008
BS 10175: British Standard Code of Practice for the Investigation of Guidance on the Legal Definition of Contaminated Land. July 2008
Potentially Contaminated Sites, 2001
BS EN 1997-1: 2004 “Euro-Code 7 – Geotechnical Design – Part 1: DETR Circular 02/2000. Contaminated Land, 2000
General Rules” Guidelines for Environmental Risk Assessment and Management, 2000
BS EN 1997-2: 2007 “Euro-Code 7 – Geotechnical Design – Part 2:
Ground Investigation and Testing” Environment Guidance for the Safe Development of Housing on Land Affected
BS ISO 14688-1: 2002 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – Agency by Contamination, 2000
Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 1” Guidance for waste destined for disposal in landfills, Version 2,
BS ISO 14688-2: 2004 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing – June 2006
Identification and Classification of Soil – Part 2” Protective measures for housing on gas-contaminated land
BS ISO 14689-1: 2003 “Geotechnical Investigation and Testing Remediation Position Statements, May 2006
– Identification and Classification of Rock – Part 1” Guidance and monitoring of landfill leachate, ground water and
surface water
BRE Radon: Guidance on protective measures for new dwellings, BR 211 Human health toxicological assessment of contaminants in soil
Protective measures for housing on gas-contaminated land, (Science Report SC050021/SR2) 2008
BR 414, 2001 Updated technical background in the CLEA model
Cover systems for land regeneration, 2004 (Science Report SC0520021/SR3)
Concrete in aggressive ground. Special Digest SD1, 3rd Edition, 2005 Using Soil Guideline Values, 2009
HMSO Environmental Protection Act 1990

CIEH The LQM/CIEH Generic Assessment Criteria for Human Health Risk
Assessment (2nd Edition) Environment Act 1995
UK Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000
CIRIA Assessing risks posed by hazardous ground gases to buildings, CIRIA The Water Act 2003
C665
Institution of Contaminated Land: Investigation, Assessment and Remediation,
Civil Engineers 2nd Edition
DoE CLR reports 1-4
Waste Management Paper No. 26A “Landfill completion: Joyce M D Site Investigation Practice, 1982
A technical memorandum…”
Waste Management Paper No. 27 “Landfill Gas: A technical OPDM Planning Policy Statement 23: Planning and Pollution Control Annex
memorandum…” 2: Development on Land Affected by Contamination
APPENDIX A Mining Archival research

• Past, present and future mining; • Past O.S. mapping and previous on-site
Checklist for Phase 1 Geoenvironmental • Reference to geological sources; and off-site usage;
Assessment (Desk Studies) • Coal Authority Mining report; • Possible contaminants associated with
• Register of abandoned mine plans and former use(s);
Site description (and surrounding area of relevance) opencasts; • Town plans;
• Location, O.S. grid reference and plans; • Shaft register; • Local history records, books and photographs
• Topography levels; • Other mining e.g. sand, sandstone, limestone, (where relevant and practicable);
• Site layout and main features; brine, etc. • Aerial photographs (where relevant);
• Site infrastructure; • Archaeological register (where relevant).
• Site description and topography; Geology
• Made ground, erosion, cuttings or quarries; • Geological maps (1:50,000 and 1:10,000 scale); Contamination
• Slope stability; • Memoirs; • Likely contaminants based on past history;
• Evidence of faulting or mining; • Technical reports; • Hazard - Pathway - Receptor Scenario;
• Watercourses, seepages or sinks; • Engineering geological maps; • Preliminary conceptual site model.
• Marshy or waterlogged ground; • Existing trial pit or borehole logs and reports;
• Type and health of vegetation; • Subsidence features. Environmental database
• Existing structures and condition; • Operational and former landfill sites, scrapyards
• Existing on-site processes; Hydrogeology and hydrology and waste processing sites;
• Demolished structures/old foundations; • Ground water vulnerability; • Radon protection measures.
• Visual evidence of contamination; • Aquifer status;
• Existing site operations; • Abstraction licences (within 1km);

• Underground and overhead services; • Flood risk, drainage and watercourses (within 1km).
• Trees.
Local Authority consultation
• Building Control, Planning and Environmental
Health/Contaminated Land Officer;
• Petroleum Officer.
Checklist for Phase 2 Geoenvironmental Recommendations for reports Drainage and excavations
Assessment Ground Investigations • Ground water regime including dewatering;
Foundations and retaining walls • Use of soakaways;
Trial pits • Foundation type, depth, bearing capacity • Support and ease of excavation;
• Strata profile and description; and settlement; • Rock levels;
• In-situ gas testing for methane, carbon dioxide • Ease of excavation; • Use of sheet piling, diaphragm, bored piles and
and oxygen; • Sulphate/acidity/concrete class; ground anchors.
• Landfill gas, marsh gas and mine gas; • Shrinkage/heave;
• In-situ shear strength testing; • Effect of vegetation including building near trees; Earthworks
• In-situ MEXE Cone Penetrometer for California • Buoyancy or flotation effects; • Compaction characteristics;
Bearing Ratio/In-Situ Shear Strength; • Ground improvement options e.g. piling, vibro, • Surcharging and self-settlement;
• Full description of ground and ground water compaction etc. • CBR at formation level;
conditions; • Slope stability and slope stabilisation;
• Soakaway testing; Mining • Suitability of excavated material for re-use.
• Geotechnical contamination laboratory testing. • Precautions for foundations in respect of past
or future mining; Contamination
Boreholes • Treatment of shallow mineworkings; • Full assessment of contamination testing;
• Cable percussive, window sampling, dynamic • Capping of shafts and adits. • Hazard – Pathway – Target scenarios/
probing or rotary drilling to BS 5930; conceptual model;
• Use of British Drilling Association accredited drillers; Landfill/mine gas/Radon • Risk assessment and liability;
• Full description of ground and ground water • Requirements for long term monitoring; • Precautions or remediation of contamination.
to BS 5930; • Protection measures for structure;

• Installations for long term gas and water • Venting measures. Further investigation
monitoring (if required); • Is further investigation needed?;
• Geotechnical laboratory testing (BS 1377) and Road construction • Nature of further investigation.
contamination testing if suspected by • CBR of subgrade and its preparation;
accredited laboratories. • Sub-base type and thickness;
• Excavation of unsuitable material;
Other methods of investigation • Soil stabilisation;
• Geophysics; • Frost susceptibility.
• Cone Penetrometer.
APPENDIX B The following terms may be used in accordance iii. Matrix;

with the results of laboratory and field tests: iv. Weathering;
Soil and rock descriptions
Sensitivity Ratio Term Description
Fine soils (Cohesive Soils) Low 8 Fresh No visible sign of weathering/alteration

of the rock material.
The following field terms are used: Medium 8 - 30
Discoloured The colour of the original fresh rock
High > 30
material is changed and is evidence of
Soil Type Description Quick > 50 weathering/alteration. The degree of
change from the original colour should
Very soft Exudes between fingers.
be indicated. If the colour change
Soft Moulded by light finger pressure. Granular soils (Non-Cohesive) is confined to particular mineral
Firm Cannot be moulded by the fingers but constituents, this should be mentioned.
The following descriptions are used for granular soils:
can be rolled in hand to 3mm threads. Disintegrated The rock material is broken up by
Stiff Crumbles and breaks when rolled to 3mm physical weathering, so that bonding
threads but can be remoulded to a lump. Description Normalised blow count (N1) 60 between grains is lost and the rock
is weathered/altered towards the
Very stiff No longer moulded but crumbles under Very Loose 0-3
condition of a soil in which the original
pressure. Can be indented with thumbs. Loose 4-8 material fabric is still intact. The rock
Medium 9 - 25 material is friable but the grains are not
decomposed.
The following terms may be used in accordance Dense 26 - 42
Decomposed The rock material is weathered by the
Very Dense 43 - 58 chemical alteration of the mineral grains
with the results of laboratory and field tests:
to the condition of a soil in which the
original material fabric is still intact; some
Description Undrained shear strength Cu (kPa) Rock description or all of the grains are decomposed.
Extremely Low < 10 This is based on:
Very Low 10 - 20
v. Carbonate content;
Low 20 - 40
i. Colour (minor then principal colour); vi. Stability of rock material;
Medium 40 - 75
ii. Grain size; Stable indicates no changes when sample left
High 75 - 150
in water for 24 hours. Fairly stable indicates
Very High 150 - 300 Description Predominant grain size
(mm) fissuring and crumbling of surfaces. Unstable
Extremely High > 300
Very Coarse - grained > 63 indicates complete disintegration of the
Coarse - grained 63 - 2 sample;
Medium - grained 2 - 0.063 vii. Unconfined compressive strength;
Fine - grained 0.063 - 0.002
Very Fine - grained < 0.002
Term Field identification Unconfined viii. Structure; In addition to the description of the soils and rocks
compressive and their associated depth, ground water should
strength Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous
(MPa) be noted both in terms of where it was struck and
Bedded Cleaved Massive
Extremely Indented by thumbnail. Less than 1 changes over time. Any unusual colouration or
Interbedded Foliated Flowbanded
Weak* odours to any of the soils encountered during the
Laminated Schistose Folded
Very Crumbles under firm blows 2 to 5 investigation should be recorded.
Weak with point of geological Folded Banded Lineated
hammer, can be peeled by Massive Lineated
a pocket knife. It should be noted that lateral and vertical
Graded Gneissose
Weak Can be peeled by a 6 to 25 changes can occur between exploratory points
Folded
pocket knife with difficulty,
shallow indentations made and care is needed when extrapolation is used.
by firm blow with point of ix. Discontinuities; This is particularly true of the made ground which,
geological hammer.
x. Discontinuity spacing, persistence and by its nature, can be variable in its physical and
Medium Cannot be scraped or 26 to 50
Strong peeled with a pocket knife, roughness, infilling and seepage; chemical composition.
specimen can be fractured xi. Weathering of the rock mass;
with single firm blow of
geological hammer.
Strong Specimen requires more 51 to 100 Term Description Grades
than one blow of geological Fresh No visible sign of rock material weathering; perhaps slight discolouration on major 0
hammer to fracture it. discontinuity surfaces.
Very Specimen requires many 101 to 250 Slightly weathered Discolouration indicates weathering of rock material and discontinuity surfaces. 1
Strong blows of geological hammer
to fracture it. Moderately weathered Less than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or 2
discoloured rock is present either as a continuous framework or as core stones.
Extremely Specimen can only be Greater than
Strong chipped with geological 250 Highly weathered More than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or 3
hammer. discoloured rock is present either as a continuous framework or as core stones.
*Some extremely weak rocks will behave as soils and Completely weathered All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. The original mass 4
should be described as soils. structure is still largely intact.
Residual soil All rock material is converted to soil. The mass structure and material fabric are 5
destroyed. There is a large change in volume, but the soils have not been
significantly transported.
xii. Rock mass permeability.

APPENDIX C content of the soil at this point is known as the Bulk density
‘plastic limit’ of the soil. The bulk density of a material is the weight of that
Laboratory testing material per unit volume and includes the effects
The range of water content over which a cohesive of voids whether filled with air or water. The ‘dry
Natural or in-situ moisture content soil behaves plastically, i.e. the range lying density’ of a soil is defined as the weight of solids
The natural or in-situ moisture content of a soil is between the liquid and plastic limits, is defined as contained in a unit volume of the soil.
defined as the weight of water contained in the the plasticity index.
pore space, expressed as a percentage of the Permeability
dry weight of solid matter present in the soil. Soil A cohesive soil with natural water content towards The permeability of a material is defined as the rate
properties are greatly affected by the moisture its liquid limit will, in general, be an extremely soft at which water flows through it per unit area of soil
content and the test can help to give an indication material, whereas a cohesive soil with natural water under unit hydraulic gradient.
of likely engineering behaviour. content below its plastic limit will tend to be a firm
or stiff material. Consolidation characteristics
Liquid and plastic limits When subjected to pressure, a soil tends to
Two simple classification tests are known as the liquid Particle size distribution consolidate as the air or water in the pore space
and plastic limits. If a cohesive soil is remoulded with Knowledge of particle-size distribution is used to is forced out and the grains assume a denser
increasing amounts of water, a point will be reached classify soils and to indicate likely engineering state of packing. The decrease in volume per
at which it ceases to behave as a plastic material behaviour. unit of pressure is defined as the ‘compressibility’
and becomes essentially a viscous fluid. The moisture of the soil, and a measure of the rate at
content corresponding to this change is arbitrarily British Standards define soils in relation to their which consolidation proceeds is given by the
determined by the liquid limit test. ‘Fat’ clays, which particle-size as shown below: ‘coefficient of consolidation’ of the soil. These
have high contents of colloidal particles, have high Boulders >200mm Coarse Sand two characteristics Mv and Cv are determined in
liquid limits; ‘lean’ clays, having low colloidal particle 2.0 to 0.63mm the consolidation test and the results are used to
contents have correspondingly low liquid limits. An Cobbles 200 to 63mm Medium Sand calculate settlement of structures or earthworks by
0.63 to 0.2mm
increase in the organic content of clay is reflected a qualified person.
Fine Sand
by an increase in the liquid and plastic limits. 0.2 to 0.063mm
Coarse Gravel Coarse Silt
63 to 20mm 0.063 to 0.02mm
If a cohesive soil is allowed to dry progressively, Medium Gravel Medium Silt
a point is reached at which it ceases to behave 20 to 6.3mm 0.02 to 0.0063mm
as a plastic material, which can be moulded in Fine Gravel Fine Silt
6.3 to 2mm 0.0063 to 0.002mm
the fingers, and it becomes friable. The moisture Clay <0.002mm
Strength characteristics The undrained triaxial test gives the apparent California bearing ratio test
The strength of geological materials is generally (cohesion) Cu and the angle of shearing (resistance) In flexible pavement design, knowledge of the
expressed as the maximum resistance that they Øu. In dry sands, Cu = 0 and Øu is equal to the bearing capacity of the subgrade is necessary
offer to deformation or fracture by applied shear angle of internal friction whereas with saturated to enable the thickness of pavement for any
or compressive stress. The strength characteristics non-fissured clays Øu tends to 0 and the apparent particular combination of traffic and site conditions
of geological materials depend to an important cohesion Cu is equal to one-half the unconfined to be determined. The quality of the subgrade can
degree on their previous history and on the compression strength qu. On site the vane test be assessed by means of the California Bearing
conditions under which they will be stressed in gives an approximate measure of shear strength. Ratio Test or approximately by the MEXE cone
practice. Consequently, it is necessary to simulate penetrometer.
in the laboratory tests the conditions under which For some stability problems, use is made of a
the material will be stressed in the field. variant of the undrained triaxial test in which the Chemical tests
specimen is allowed to consolidate fully under the Knowledge of total soluble sulphate content
In general, the only test carried out on hard rocks hydrostatic pressure, and is then tested to failure and pH of soils and ground water is important in
is the determination of their compressive strength under conditions of no moisture content change. determining the protection required for concrete
but consideration must also be given to fissuring, This is known as the consolidated undrained triaxial or steel in contact with the ground. Other specialist
jointing and bedding planes. test. Pore water pressures may be measured during tests may be carried out on sites suspected of
this test or a fully drained test may be carried being contaminated by toxic materials (see
The tests at present in use for soils and soft rocks fall out. In either case, the effective shear strength standard Appendix B).
into two main categories. Firstly, those in which the parameters C’ and Ø’ can be obtained which can
material is stressed under conditions of no moisture be used to calculate shear strength at any given
content change, and secondly, those in which pore water pressure.
full opportunity is permitted for moisture content

changes under the applied stresses. Compaction
The density at which any soil can be placed in an
Tests in the first category are known as undrained earth dam, embankment or road depends on its
(immediate or quick) tests, while those in the second moisture content and on the amount of work
category are known as drained (slow or equilibrium) which is used in compaction. The influence of
tests. The tests are normally carried out in the triaxial these two factors can be studied in compaction
compression apparatus but granular materials may tests, which can determine the maximum dry
be tested in the shear box apparatus. density (MDD) achievable at a certain optimum
moisture content (OMC).
CHAPTER 5: FOUNDATIONS
CONTENTS
5.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
5.2 FOUNDATIONS NEAR TREES
5.3 STRIP AND MASS FILLED FOUNDATIONS
5.4 PILED FOUNDATIONS
5.5 RAFT FOUNDATIONS
5.1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Site investigation by an appropriately qualified person should be
in a workmanlike manner; provided and provide the following information. The investigation
iii. Ground improvement schemes should be appropriately tested must be endorsed by the specialist foundations contractor;
to confirm that the completed works meet design specifications.
The testing regime must be agreed with the Site Audit Surveyor 1. Depth of original soil types below the structure;
prior to commencement of work; 2. Details of any filled ground and its suitability to accept ground
iv. The Developer shall ensure that adequate quality control improvements techniques;
procedures are in place. The quality control must identify that site 3. Gas generation or spontaneous combustion from ground
work meets the design intention. All procedures should be conditions;
auditable and available for inspection.
iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
Materials A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which provided by a suitably qualified expert;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; iv. The ground improvement works must meet the relevant Building
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; and Euro-Codes.
GUIDANCE 5.1.3 Vibratory ground improvement penetrates using its mass, air flush and vibration,
but at design depth the stone is introduced
5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.3.1 Introduction via a hopper into a pipe fixed to the side of the
Ground improvement enables sites with poor Vibro displacement using vibro stone columns vibroflot. The stone, usually of 40mm size, exits the
load bearing capacity to be strengthened so is a method of enhancing ground bearing pipe at the tip of the vibroflot and into the
that the loadings of the proposed building can capacity and limiting settlement. Typical bottom of the borehole. The stone is then
adequately be supported off suitable foundations. applications include support of foundations, slabs, compacted into the surrounding soil by repeated
The guidance detailed will be accepted as a hardstandings, pavements, tanks or embankments. withdrawal and insertion of the vibroflot.
satisfactory method of meeting the Functional Soft soils can be reinforced to achieve improved
Requirements. specification requirement whilst slopes can be
treated to prevent slip failure. Both natural soils and
5.1.2 Limitations of guidance made ground can be improved.
The following situations are beyond the scope of
the guidance in this section: 5.1.3.2 Vibratory techniques
The vibratory process is applied to weak natural
• Where the original ground or sub-strata is soils and filled ground with a view to improve the
unstable or will continue to settle; load bearing capacity and provide an adequate
• Sites with soft clays with a low bearing capacity bearing stratum for the building’s foundations.
(30kN/m2 undrained); Figure 1 – Vibratory techniques - dry bottom feed method
• Filled ground where high levels of voids are There are two vibratory techniques commonly
anticipated; used in the UK. These are known as the ‘dry bottom Dry top feed method
• Clay fill where the water will influence the feed’ and ‘dry top feed’ methods and a third
foundation or where collapse may occur. technique less frequently used in the UK is known as • In the dry top feed method the vibroflot
the ‘wet bottom feed’ method. penetrates the weak soil or fill again using its
Each development site has its own specific mass, air flush and vibration to form a borehole.
characteristics and where conditions do not clearly Dry bottom feed method Once refusal or design depth is reached,
fall within the guidance given, clarification should the vibroflot is removed and stone fill is
be sought from the Site Audit Surveyor or a suitably • The dry bottom feed method is used in weaker introduced into the bore, the ‘charge’ is
qualified and experienced expert. soil conditions or where there is a high water typically 500mm-800mm deep. The vibroflot is
table and the borehole is liable to collapse re-inserted and ‘packs’ the stone into the
between vibroflot insertions. The vibroflot surrounding strata. Successive charges of stone
are added and compacted bringing the proposed sustainable drainage system (SuDS) may
column up to working level. Typically the stone have on the ground conditions should be identified.
grading is 40 - 75mm.
The Engineer should supervise the site investigation,
taking an account of the findings of the desk
study and firstly establish whether there are any
contaminated substances or gases present.
Data should be gathered by a suitable method
for comparison with the site post treatment.
Investigations should be made into the presence,
level and nature of any ground water, and if it is likely
Figure 3 – Vibratory techniques - wet bottom feed method to rise and cause heave or collapse by saturation.
Figure 2 – Vibratory techniques - dry top feed method 5.1.3.3 Suitability of ground conditions The extent of any areas of made up ground on the
Through the process of a site investigation it should site should be established, including:
Wet bottom feed method firstly be established by the appointed Engineer
or suitably qualified specialist that the ground is • The proportions, compaction and distribution of
• Where the ground contains fines and silts, water capable of being improved by a vibratory ground constituent materials throughout its depth;
jetting from the tip of the vibroflot is used to improvement technique. The site investigation • The grading and particle size distribution of fill
remove loose materials and form a cavity for should determine the depths and properties of materials;
charges of stone to be added to replace and the natural materials under the site, including the • The potential for gas generation from fill materials
densify the soft ground. The carbon footprint of presence of cavities, mines, rocks or soils which and the risk of combustion of natural deposits.
this activity is generally less than with may dissolve or erode when water passes over
comparable piling solutions. them. It should also be established at an early The appointed Specialist Contractor should be
stage whether the site has previously contained satisfied that the site investigation report provides
any buildings or structures, and whether they have adequate and representative information in order
been completely removed including basement to design the ground improvement. The results of the
walls, floor slabs etc. The presence and extent investigation should be presented to the Site Audit
of any existing or redundant services and drains Surveyor prior to the commencement of the work.
should be investigated and the associated backfill
to the excavations. Also, the effect that any
The Developer shall obtain written confirmation from 5.1.4 Engineered Fill In designing and specifying a fill which is to form
the Engineer and Specialist Contractor that the site a foundation for buildings, the following technical
is suitable for the proposed ground improvement 5.1.4.1 Design of engineered fill requirements should be established:
system and that all detrimental factors associated Careful selection of the material and controlled
with the site and the proposed development placement should ensure that the engineered • A well constructed excavation, safely
have been taken account of. This is to be made fill forms an adequate foundation material, executed, with all soft and hard spots removed,
available to the Site Audit Surveyor prior to the however, in some circumstances, significant ground and made reasonably dry and well drained;
commencement of any work on the site. movements can occur. Engineered fills which are • Sound fill without undesirable material and
used to produce suitably shaped landforms for capable of compaction as specified, provided
Site workmanship structures should be constructed to high standards with starter and capping layers as necessary;
The Specialist Contractor should appoint an to minimize the risk of ground movements causing • Placement and compaction to ensure that the
Engineer to supervise the vibratory foundation damage to property built on shallow foundations. performance of the fill will meet required criteria
works at all times and ensure that: as a foundation fill;
• Appropriate monitoring. The Designer must ensure
• The required depth and bearing capacity of that all work can be carried out safely as required
stone columns are achieved; by the Health and Safety Executive Construction
• The stone columns are correctly located Design and Management Regulations.
beneath the proposed foundation and in
accordance with design drawings.
Figure 4 – The intersection of adjacent reinforced concrete strips
Figure 5 – Typical engineered fill construction

5.1.4.2 Fill selection walls. Where possible though, granular soils should If the fill is too wet, there could be excessive
Fill should be clearly categorised into material which be used as general fill since these materials drain consolidation settlement and if the fill were too dry,
may and may not be used: unsuitable fill, general readily and consolidate quickly. The smaller the it might be vulnerable to collapse compression.
fill, restricted fill and special fill. Fill materials must not predominant particle size, the longer may be the
present an environmental or health hazard. time required for consolidation under the self- 5.1.4.4 Placing engineered fill
weight of the fill. A successful engineered fill requires not only an
Unsuitable fill should not be used at any location appropriate specification but also adequate control
on the site. 5.1.4.3 End product criteria during placement. All the work must be carried
The greatest threats to successful in-service out with due regard to safety as required by the
General fill is all material except that which is performance are: Construction Design and Management Regulations.
unsuitable, restricted or special and is normally the
majority of the material used. It may include natural • Collapse settlement due to inundation of dry or 5.1.4.5 Site preparation and disposition of fill
soils as well as some waste products. inadequately compacted fills; The site should be cleared of all topsoil and other
• Excessive consolidation settlement of wet unsuitable material.
Restricted fill is material that would be general fill compressible fill;
except that it contains minerals hostile to the built • Heave or settlement of clayfills due to climatic Soft spots and hard spots, such as derelict
environment. It can include natural materials such changes or vegetation. foundations, should be removed; also ponds and
as pyritic shales, sulfate-bearing clays and waste surface water from depressions. Removing water
materials such as burnt colliery discard and steel These ground movements depend on moisture by pumping may be necessary when filling some
slag. Its use is precluded where ground water could movement, so by reducing the voids in a fill, the excavations below the groundwater level.
rise to the underside of the deepest foundation opportunities for excessive in-service movements
or where it is rejected for pollution reasons. For should be restricted. A maximum allowable air- When a variety of material types are used as fill
some developments such as housing with gardens, voids content of 5% is a suitable criterion for most they should be deposited in horizontal layers across
restricted fills would include fills which are harmful clayfills. However, specifying a 5% air-voids content the site. If there is only a limited amount of good
to people. is insufficient as this value may easily be achieved granular material, it will be best to use it in layers
by adding water to the fill without increasing interspersed between layers of poorer cohesive fill.
Special fill is high quality material such as well compactive effort. A suitable alternative control
graded natural sands and gravels, crushed rock method is to specify a minimum acceptable The fill thicknesses should be reasonably constant
or clean demolition rubble. Its use will often have density as a proportion of the maximum dry density beneath a structure to minimise differential
to be reserved for specifically defined purposes measured in a standard laboratory compaction settlement.
such as a capping layer or backfill to retaining test. Limits on moisture content are required also.
Feather-edges resulting in foundations set partly on There should be a transition zone around the load moisture content is low. In the same way that the
fill and partly on natural ground should be avoided bearing area as shown in Figure 1. addition of too much water can detract from the
and the site worked in such a way that structures performance of engineered fill, soil can be over-
are located either directly on natural ground or 5.1.4.6 Fill placement compacted. Granular soils and cohesive soils drier
directly over fill of a consistent thickness. Fill should be placed in horizontal layers with each than optimum, when rolled excessively, become
layer being separately compacted. For a given over-stressed and what should have been a firm
If fill is to be placed over sloping natural ground, item of plant, compaction performance will be compacted surface, becomes a loose tilth. This
some stepping of the ground may be necessary. determined by fill layer thickness, fill moisture content should be avoided whenever possible. Where a
Construction over the face of a quarry or an and the number of passes of the compaction fill containing a large proportion of fine grained
opencast mining high wall should be avoided. equipment. There are though, other factors cohesive material (for example, clay) is used, filling
such as the need to avoid excessive handling. during wet weather should be avoided.
Special measures may have to be taken by Whenever possible, site trials should be undertaken
providing flexible connections for services at to determine the correct criteria. Some general 5.1.4.7 Quality control
the location of high walls and by thickening information about placing fills is given in BS 6031. Quality control procedures should be implemented
construction for service and estate roads. to ensure compliance with the specification. The
Each layer should be of a thickness that allows nature of the control procedure will depend on the
If the natural ground on which the fill rests is soft the compactive energy to spread throughout type of specification adopted. The end product
and compressible (for example, layers of peat the layer, producing the specified fill density specification requires an appropriate type and
or soft clay), the surface of the fill may settle and low air-voids content. Loose layers having a quantity of testing of the fill during placement
appreciably and unevenly as a result of the weight thickness greater than 250mm are unlikely to be to ensure that the desired end product is being
of the fill consolidating the soft layers below. This satisfactory for earthfills compacted to support achieved. Depending upon the type of contract,
settlement will, of course, be additional to that low-rise structures. It may be necessary to use quality control may be the responsibility of the
resulting from the compression of the fill itself. layers of 200mm or less. Moisture content at the Engineer or of the Contractor working under the
Sensitive structures may warrant a surface (or time of placing a fill is fundamental to subsequent supervision of the Engineer. Control parameters
capping) layer formed from special fill compacted performance, particularly where the fill contains should be the same as those determined during
to more onerous standards than the underlying a large proportion of fine grained cohesive the site investigation stage. Both design and control
fill. This should help to ensure that differential material. If the fill is too dry there is the possibility parameters must be reproducible, a term which
settlement suffered by the structure is minimised. of heave or collapse settlement. If it is too wet denotes the range within which measurements
Where landscaped or other non-load bearing there is the possibility of insufficient strength and made on the same fill by different operators using
areas form part of a development, they need high compressibility. It will be difficult to achieve different equipment should agree. The following
less compaction than the load bearing areas. an air-voids content of 5% or smaller when the are the most significant control parameters:
• Moisture content in respect of an optimum Small sites are generally more difficult to work than Modern compaction control requires laboratory
moisture content established at the site large sites, as finished work may be damaged more and field testing during the site investigation, and
investigation stage; easily in confined working areas and deficiencies during, and possibly following, the earthworks.
• Dry density in respect of the already established in site preparation usually reflect more readily The results of this work must be recorded,
maximum dry density; in poorer quality compaction than on larger collated and presented so that the quality of the
• Air-voids content, which depends on moisture sites. Consequently, it is necessary to test more operation can be demonstrated. The required
content and dry density; frequently on a small site than on a large one. documentation includes:
• Undrained shear strength, which is an
alternative to monitoring moisture content and A suggested minimum test frequency is presented • Summary of the specification requirements
dry density for clayfills. in Figure 6. However, each site should be judged on and the end product in terms of the selected
its own merits with careful note being taken of any geotechnical parameters for the various fills
The laboratory compaction tests and the problems revealed during site investigation. In very (based on site investigation information);
associated field control tests are suitable for a wide variable or difficult conditions more frequent testing • List of the required suitability tests, one form
range of fill types, and form the most generally may be required. Tests in visually doubtful areas to be completed for each borrow pit under
applicable method of approach. For cohesive and re-tests of failed areas should be carried out investigation;
soils, undrained shear strength forms an alternative additionally to those recommended in Figure 6. • Suitability test results for each borrow pit;
basis for specification and control testing. • List of the required control tests;
However, different methods of measuring the • Results of the control tests on each fill type or
undrained shear strength, such as the unconfined layer or area, as appropriate;
compression test and the vane test, can give • A list of post-compaction monitoring
significantly different values. The measured value requirements;
of cohesion can be sensitive to a detailed test • The results of post-compaction monitoring. All
procedure, such as the rate of shearing. completed forms should be signed and dated
by the person responsible and a list prepared of
It is important that the method of testing should any required action or remedial work to be
be closely specified. Where a cohesive fill contains carried out.
gravel, it may not be possible to obtain sufficiently
undisturbed samples for strength tests. On larger 5.1.4.8 Monitoring of fill performance
sites, the possibility of employing in-situ methods Monitoring provides a check on performance
such as the cone penetrometer (BS 1377: Part 9) of the fill after compaction and is particularly
could be considered. Figure 6 – Number of tests
important where vulnerable structures are to be
built or foundation loading is unusually large. It is also be of advantage if there is reason to suspect that should be continued for sufficient time to establish
required where the fill is relatively deep or substantial ground water will rise into the fill at any time in the the presence of creep behaviour.
ground water rise within the fill is expected. future with consequent settlement.
5.1.5.3 Zone tests
Monitoring techniques include: 5.1.5 Testing An isolated pad or strip footing is used and up to
Testing is carried out to confirm that the ground eight stone columns and the intervening ground
• Surface levelling stations to measure the improvement works meet the design criteria. The can be tested. Loadings, which should simulate
settlement of the fill surface; tests are usually completed to determine the the dwelling loads are held for 24 hours at pre-
• Magnet extensometers to measure the ground bearing capacity. determined stages to examine creep behaviour.
settlement of incremental depths of fill;
• Standpipe piezometers to measure the rise in The Engineer shall require the Specialist Contractor 5.1.5.4 In-situ tests
the ground water table in the fill after to verify that the ground treatment has been Where vibration will improve the ground itself e.g.
placement; completed to a satisfactory standard. granular materials, then in-situ testing is appropriate.
• Load tests for direct estimation of settlement of The improvement can be assessed when the test
surface layers produced by loadings. This will usually include carrying out suitable testing results are compared with the in-situ test results
to establish the degree of ground improvement, recorded during the pre-treatment investigation.
Surface levelling stations are easy to install and its load bearing characteristics and settlement
very effective. By optical levelling of the stations, potential. These tests may include; 5.1.5.5 Trial pits
measurement can be made of the total vertical Trial pits can be excavated around trial stone
movement of the fill upon which they rest together 5.1.5.1 Plate tests columns to prove that they are fully formed and
with any movement of the underlying natural This test will not determine the design but will allow to the required depth and diameter. This is a
ground, although this is unlikely to be large if all soft for an assessment to be made of the workmanship destructive test and allowance should be made
material has been removed prior to compaction. on the stone columns. Plate tests should be carried accordingly.
Levelling stations should be sufficiently robust to out on stone columns or treated ground at a
resist damage due to construction traffic. frequency of at least one test per day per rig. On completion of the treatment the Engineer should
A round headed bolt cast into a 1m concrete satisfy himself that the treated ground has achieved
cube set 300mm into the fill has been found to 5.1.5.2 Mini zone tests the anticipated condition assumed in his design
be effective. A mini zone test can be used as a limited substitute and confirm this in writing to the Site Audit Surveyor.
for zone tests. The test should be applied to at least
Magnet extensometers are unlikely to be necessary two stone columns and the area of foundation
in shallow-depth fill. Standpipes or piezometers will which they support. To be useful, mini zone tests
5.1.6 Fill materials 5.1.8 Suitable foundations for sites with

The following materials require testing to ensure their improved ground
suitability for use as fill to support structural foundations Foundations on sites with improved ground should
and slabs or as backfill to associated trenches: be either of a reinforced strip or raft type. Both
foundations will require full design by a Structural
• Acid wastes; Engineer. Functional Requirement 5.2 must be met
• Reactive materials; where foundations bearing on cohesive soils or
• Materials that include sulphates (e.g. Gypsum); cohesive fill material if trees are nearby.
• Organic materials;
• Toxic materials; 5.1.9 Relevant British Standards and guidance
• Materials that cause noxious fumes, rot, undue documents
settlement or damage to surrounding materials. Relevant British Standards Codes of Practice and
authoritative documents include:
The samples tested should be carried out by a
suitably qualified person and it may be necessary • BS 10175 Investigation of potentially
to take a number of samples to exactly identify the contaminated sites - Code of Practice;
material characteristics of the fill. • BS EN 1991 Actions on structures;
• BS EN 14731 Execution of special geotechnical
5.1.7 Sources of fill material works. Ground treatment by deep vibration;
Where the material is of a stable and uniform • BS EN 1997-1 General rules;
type from one source the testing regime may be • BS EN 1997-2 Ground investigation and testing;
reduced, however if material is variable, or from • BS EN ISO 14688 Geotechnical investigation and
a number of sources regular inspections and/or testing – Identification and classification of soil;
testing may be required. • BS EN ISO 14689 Geotechnical investigation and
testing – Identification and classification of rock;
Recycled aggregate or other building materials • BS EN ISO 22476 Geotechnical investigation and
such as crushed brick should only be used following testing - Field testing;
an inspection by the Site Audit Surveyor. Colliery • BR 391 Specifying vibro stone columns;
shale and any other residue from mineral extraction • ICE Specification for ground treatment.
or industrial process bi-products should only be
used with specialist approval.
5.2 FOUNDATIONS NEAR TREES
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Foundation type and depth must be suitable to resist movement
in a workmanlike manner; from the influence of nearby trees;
iii. Strip foundations should be of a suitable depth in order to iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
achieve a satisfactory level of performance. A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
Materials iv. The design and construction of the foundations must meet the
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which will relevant Building Regulations and other statutory requirements,
not cause damage or deterioration of the product; British Standards and Euro-Codes.
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be appropriate
and suitable for their intended purpose;

5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.3 The nature of the problem The extent of risk depends on:
This chapter gives guidance on foundation design The roots of all vegetation take water from the soil
when building near trees. The details described to make good the water lost from the leaves. If the • The soil;
in Chapter 5 will be accepted as a satisfactory soil contains clay it will shrink as it is dried, or swell if • The potential for the tree species to cause
method of meeting the Functional Requirements. it is allowed to rehydrate. If the shrinking or swelling soil drying;
extends below the foundations, the foundations will • The size of the tree;
5.2.2 Limitations of guidance subside or heave respectively. If the movements • The proximity of the tree to the foundations;
The following situations are beyond the scope of are in excess of those that can be tolerated by the • The likely climatic conditions in the locality.
the guidance in this section and will require a site building, damage is likely to occur.
specific assessment by a suitably qualified and These factors are considered in greater detail in the
experienced expert: Although all vegetation can cause soil drying, the following sections.
roots of trees extend deeper and further and are
• Foundations with depths greater than 2.5m thus particularly prone to cause damage. Large 5.2.4 The soil
within the influence of trees; shrubs can also root to considerable depths but Soils may be broadly classified into two types:
• Ground with a slope of greater than 1 in 7; their influence is more localised. Herbaceous plants
• Manmade slopes such as embankments and grass can also cause soil drying down to 1.5m • Cohesive soils comprised mainly of clay or fine
and cuttings; and require some precautions. silt particles. When moist they are plastic and
• Underpinning; can be moulded, and will remain intact if
• Engineered foundation designs. Damage is best avoided by increasing foundation placed into water. As they become drier they
depth to below the level were significant changes will become stiffer, and will eventually crumble
Each development site has its own specific in moisture content are likely to occur. This section if dried beyond a certain point. It is these soils
characteristics and where conditions do not clearly defines the depths that are required, and the most that can potentially cause problems;
fall within the guidance given, clarification should suitable types of foundations. The extent of soil • Non cohesive soils, comprised mainly of sand or
be sought from the Site Audit Surveyor or a suitably drying can be variable and unpredictable. If all risk with only a proportion of clay or silt, cannot
qualified expert. of damage is to be avoided the required depths be moulded and will break up if placed in
would be punitive; instead the guidance seeks to water. They are not subject to significant
minimise the risk by striking a balance between swelling or shrinkage.
the extent of risk and the costs of increasing
foundation depth. The clay component of cohesive soils can vary
widely; very few soils are pure clay, but they
contain varying quantities of sand or silt. Clay soils
are defined by their particle size (less than two commonly referred to as their ‘water demand’. Although some trees are managed as pollards or
microns), and it is only these clay particles that Species such as Oak, Poplar and Eucalyptus subject to periodic reduction to control their size,
will shrink or swell. The particles are made up of a are deemed as high water demand as they are unless such treatment can be assured in the future,
complex molecular lattice structure that is capable particularly efficient at exploiting clay soils, rooting to mature height should be used.
of absorbing water into the lattice. As they absorb considerable depth. A few species only rarely cause
water the particles will swell, and vice versa. There damage and are deemed of low water demand, 5.2.7 Proximity
are many different types of clay with different whilst the majority fall into the moderate category. The closer the tree, the deeper the potential
molecular structures, all of which have different influence. The guidance indicates the required
swelling characteristics. The extent of swelling and Hardwood species tend to have a broad- foundation depth at any distance. The parts of the
shrinkage that can occur will therefore depend spreading root system, extending considerable foundations closest to the tree require the greatest
on the type of clay particles and the proportion of distances laterally as well as to depth. By contrast, depth, but if preferred can be stepped down for
clay, as opposed to silt or sand, within the soil. the influence of most conifers is more localised but more distant parts.
just as deep. A few species (of both hardwoods
The potential of the soil to swell or shrink can be and conifers) have intermediate characteristics. 5.2.8 Likely climatic conditions
determined by simple tests to determine their The guidance takes account of the different Weather conditions play a major role in
plastic limit (the moisture content below which it patterns of rooting, but it must be emphasised that determining the extent of soil drying. Hot sunny
changes from being plastic and mouldable, and the distribution of roots can be variable and so weather will increase the rate of water uptake
starts to crumble), and the liquid limit (the moisture the guidance should not be taken as indicating a by the roots, whereas rainfall during the summer
content above which it changes from being ‘zone of influence’ of a tree. can restore the water that has been taken. As the
plastic, and starts to flow like a liquid). The plastic hottest and driest conditions tend to be in South
and liquid limits can be determined by simple 5.2.6 Size of tree East England, it has the greatest risk. For other parts
laboratory tests in accordance with BS 1377. The The amount of water taken by the roots relates of the country the guidance allows for reducing
difference between the plastic and liquid limits is to the leaf area and the vigour of the tree. With the required foundation depth where the risk is less.
the plasticity index, the higher the plasticity index, open grown trees, height is usually considered to
the greater the potential volume change. be the best indicator of leaf area. The greatest
water uptake occurs as the tree reaches maturity,
5.2.5 Potential of the tree species to cause and so ‘mature height’ is the determining factor.
soil drying Individual trees within a group or row will have a
Tree species differ in the ability of their roots to smaller leaf area, but as they compete with each
grow and exploit the available water in a cohesive other the mature height of the individual trees
soil, particularly if it has high clay content. This is remains the relevant factor.
5.2.9 Information required for determining the The highest value of plasticity index should be used 5.2.9.3 Size of tree
foundation depth for determining foundation depth. The mature height of commoner tree species is
obtained from Table 4 in Appendix A.
5.2.9.1 Establishing ground conditions 5.2.9.2 Identification of trees
The British Geological Survey website Many Local Authorities will require a Tree Survey Mature height should be used unless:
(http://www.bgs.ac.uk) can indicate the likely soil and Arboricultural Method Statement as part of
conditions in any locality. Enter the postcode to the planning application. This will usually serve to • An arboricultural report is obtained, indicating
locate the site. A left click on the location brings identify all relevant trees both on and off-site. that a lesser height is appropriate for the
up a box that shows the bedrock geology and the conditions of the site;
superficial deposits (if present). The name of the If a tree survey is not available, assistance on tree • Assurance can be provided that the tree will
bedrock or superficial deposits is often sufficient identification of all of the more common trees can be maintained at a lesser height at all times
to indicate probable soil conditions (e.g. London be obtained from various websites: in future.
Clay, or Plateau Gravel), but if not clicking on the
name will bring up further details. Natural History Museum 5.2.9.4 Proximity of tree
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/british- Measurement should be taken from the centre of
Unless there is clear evidence that a cohesive soil natural-history/urban-tree-survey/identify-trees/ the trunk to the nearest part of the foundations.
is not present, site investigations will be required tree-key/index.html If preferred, foundations depths can be stepped
to determine the soil type to at least the depth of down at greater distances, in accordance with
potential influence of adjacent trees. Usually trial Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Chapter 5.5.4, by measurement to other locations
holes are an acceptable method to determining http://apps.kew.org/trees/?page_id=17 around the building.
the soil strata, but specialist site investigation reports
are preferred if available. Science and Plants for School (particularly useful for 5.2.9.5 Climatic conditions
winter identification, using twig characteristics) Determine from the map in Figure 7 whether the
Soil samples should be taken from at least two http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/trees/index.htm depth of foundations can be reduced for the
depths at 1.5m and 2.5m (or the base of the trial relevant site location.
hole, whichever is the shallower) and sent to a soil If a tree cannot be identified, it must be assumed
laboratory for determination of plastic and liquid to have high water demand (deep rooting).
limit (and thus plasticity index). In addition, moisture
content of the samples is usually determined.
5.2.10 Determining foundation depth If the building design or location is such that no tree
planting is likely at any time in the future, minimum
5.2.10.1 Foundation depth calculator foundation depths as shown in column 3 of Table 1
Foundation depth can be determined using the should be used.
foundation depth calculator which can be found at
www.labcwarranty.co.uk/foundationcalculator Plasticity Depth to allow for Minimum depth if
index reasonable future tree/ no future tree/shrub
The depth of foundation is determined by inputting: shrub planting (m) planting likely (m)
> 40 1.5 1.0
• Plasticity index of soil (see Chapter 5.2.1); 20 - 40 1.25 0.9
• Water demand of the tree (see Table 4);
• Mature height of the tree (see Table 4), or 10 - 20 1.0 0.75
alternative values being used (see Chapter 5.2.3); Table 1 – Minimum foundation depths
• Distance of relevant tree to nearest part of
foundations, and distances elsewhere if
stepping foundations (see Chapter 5.2.4); 5.2.11 Woodlands, groups or rows with mixed
• Allowance for climatic conditions (see Chapter species of trees
5.2.5). Foundation depth should be determined on
the basis of the individual tree that requires the
5.2.10.2 Foundation depths to allow for future greatest depth.
tree planting
Where there is a landscape plan specifying 5.2.12 Foundation design
future tree planting, foundation depths should be

calculated on the basis of the proposed species 5.2.12.1 Depths in excess of 2.5m
of tree and its proximity. If no species has been Where the required foundation depths, as
specified, they should be assumed to be moderate determined in Chapter 5.3, are in excess of 2.5m,
water demand. foundations must be designed by a suitable
expert, i.e. a Chartered Structural Engineer, taking
Even if no tree planting has been specified, it is account of the likely movement of the soil on the
Figure 7 – Allowable reductions for geographical location
advisable to allow for reasonable future tree or foundations and substructure. Short bored piles with
shrub planting or for the growth of self-seeded trees ground beams are recommended and may well
or shrubs, as shown in column 2 of Table 1. prove to be the most economical form of
construction. Short bored piles are an essential If foundation depth is greater than 1.5m, a Plasticity Required Thickness Thickness
requirement for depths in excess of 3m. proprietary compressible material must be index of foundation of lateral of void on
soil depth (m) compressible underside of
placed on all inside surfaces of the peripheral material (mm) edge beam
5.2.12.2 Foundation depths less than 2.5m foundations to allow for lateral soil swelling, as and floor slabs
(mm)
Conventional strip foundations may be constructed shown in Figures 8-10. Material is not required on
> 40 > 2.5 Engineer design
practically and economically to a maximum depth internal foundations (as swelling pressures are likely
of 2.5m. to be similar on both sides). The material must be 2.0 – 2.5m 35mm 100mm
capable of compressing to allow for lateral swelling 1.5 – 2.0m 25mm 75mm
Trench fill foundations are likely to be most in accordance with column 3 of Table 2. 20 – 40 > 2.5 Engineer design
economic at depths below 1.5m but can be 2.0 – 2.5m 25mm 75mm
economic to depths up to 2.5m. Ground bearing slabs should not be used if the 1.5 – 2.0m - 50mm
foundation depth is greater than 1m. Under these < 20 2.0 – 2.5m - 50mm
For foundation depths in excess of 2m, short bored circumstances a suspended floor slab should be < 2.0m No special precautions
piles with ground beams are recommended. All used, incorporating either a void or a proprietary Table 2 – Minimum thickness of compressible material
pile designs should be undertaken by a suitable compressible material on the underside. The
expert, i.e. a Chartered Structural Engineer. thickness of the void should be in accordance
with Table 2, or if a compressible material is used
Structural raft foundations are generally not it should be capable of compressing to provide a
accepted as a suitable foundation on sites with a void of this thickness.
high risk of shrinkage/heave due to adjacent trees.
5.2.12.3 Heave precautions

Allowance must be made for the probability that
any existing tree is likely to die sometime during
the life of the building. If the tree has dried the soil
prior to the foundations being laid, when it dies (or
becomes over mature) the soil will rehydrate and
swell, causing upward or lateral heave movement
of the foundations. Severing roots within the
footprint of a building foundation will also allow the
soil to rehydrate.
Typical foundation designs to allow for heave are 5.2.13 Special situations
shown in Figures 8-10.
5.2.13.1 Trees removed prior to construction
If trees have been removed prior to construction,
precautions must be taken against potential
rehydration and swelling of the soil. If they have
been removed within 12 months of the foundations
being laid, design should be in accordance with
Chapter 5.4 as if the tree was still present. If the
height of the former trees is known, the depth
should be determined using actual height. If the
identity is not known, it should be assumed to be of
high water demand, and if height is not known, it
should be assumed 20m.
Figure 9 – Plan of heave protection to a mass filled foundation

If trees have been removed more than one year
prior to construction, precautions should be in
accordance with Table 3.
Plasticity Time since Thickness Thickness of

index tree felled of lateral void below
(years) compressible slab (mm)
Figure 8 – Heave protection - section through a material (mm)

typical mass filled foundation
>40 2-3 35 100
4-5 25 75
20 - 40 2-3 25 75
Table 3 – Minimum thickness of compressible material where trees

have been removed
Figure 10 – Heave protection section - pile and beam foundation

5.2.13.2 Sloping sites If ground levels are altered in proximity to trees that is high clay content within the made up ground,
If the slope is greater than 1:7, foundations should are to be removed, foundation depth should be specialist foundations may require additional
be engineer designed (see Chapter 5.1.2). determined on the basis of the existing height of heave protection. It is also important to establish
the tree and original ground level. the depth of the made up ground because if it is a
For slopes less than 1:7, distance should be relatively shallow depth, the original soil below may
measured down the angle of the slope. If there is 5.2.13.4 Varying foundation depths be cohesive and be within the zone of influence of
a retaining wall, include the height of the retaining As foundation depth depends on the proximity the tree.
wall in the distance. of the tree, the depth can be reduced in steps
with increasing distance. Steps should be in 5.2.15 Strip or trench fill foundations in non-
accordance with Chapter 5.3 of this Manual. shrinkable soils overlying shrinkable soils
If non-shrinkable soils such as sand and gravels
5.2.13.5 Protection for drains overlie shrinkable clays, increased foundation
In addition to the requirements of Chapter 9 of this depths are not required if the depth of the non-
Manual, drainage near trees should incorporate shrinkable soil is greater than 0.8 of the depth which
additional provisions. Where there is a volume change would be required for the underlying shrinkable soil.
potential within the ground, the provisions include: See Figures 12 and 13 for further clarification.
• Increased falls to cater for any ground movement;

• Deeper and wider backfill of granular material;
Figure 11 – Measuring foundation distance on sloping sites • A drainage system that is capable of movement
should heave and shrinkage occur. Drainage
5.2.13.3 Changes in level pipes should not be encased in concrete;

Changes in ground level (either raising or lowering • Additional clearance is required where drains
soil levels) beneath the branch spread of the pass through the structure of a building to allow
tree can damage the tree and should be avoided for additional movement.
if possible.
5.2.14 Made up ground
If ground levels are altered in proximity to existing Land or ground created by filling in a low area
trees that are to remain, foundation depth should with non-original soils or other fills material. Often, Figures 12 and 13 – Foundation depth required to be taken down
using foundation calculator and plasticity index of underlying clay
be determined on the basis of the mature height of such created land is not suitable for building
the tree and original ground level. without the use of specialist foundations. If there
APPENDIX A Moderate water demand H H

Acacia, False Robinia 16 Dawn redwood Metasequoia 16
pseudoacacia glyptostroboides
Mature height of trees Apple Malus spp. 10 Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii 18
Broad leafed tree H Conifer H Ash Fraxinus spp. 24 Fir Abies spp 18
Beech Fagus sylvatica 20 Hemlock Tsuga heterophylla 16
High water demand Cherry, Prunus serrulata 9 Juniper Juniperus communis 6
Elm, English Ulmus procera 24 Cypress, Lawson Chamaecyparis 18 Japanese
lawsoniana Cherry, Fruit Prunus cerasus 12 Larch Larix spp. 16
Elm, Wych Ulmus glabra 18 Cypress, Leyland X Cupressocyparis 20 Cherry plum Prunus cerasifera 10 Maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba 16
leylandii Cherry, Wild Prunus avium 16 Monkey puzzle Auracaria auracana 14
Chestnut, Horse Aesculus 20 Pine Pinus spp 16
Gum tree Eucalyptus 24 Cypress, Cupressus 20
hippocastanum
Spp. Monterey macrocarpa
Chestnut, sweet Castanea sativa 18 Spruce Picea spp 16
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna 10 Cypress, smooth Cupressus glabra 15
Maple, Japanese Acer palmatum 8 Yew Taxus baccata 12
Oak, English Quercus robur 24 Maple, Norway Acer platanoides 18
Oak, Holm Quercus ilex 16 Mountain ash Sorbus aucuparia 10
Pear Pyrus spp. 12
Oak, Red Quercus rubra 20
Plane Platanus spp. 22
Oak, Turkey Quercus cerris 24
Plum Prunus domestica 12
Poplar, Hybrid Populus x 28
black euramericana Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus 20
Poplar, Grey Populus canescens 18 Low water demand H H
Birch Betula spp. 14
Willow, crack Salix fragilis 24
Elder Sambucus nigra 10
Willow, white Salix alba 24 Fig Ficus carica 8
Willow, Weeping Salix alba ‘Tristis’ 16 Hazel Corylus avellana 8
Holly Ilex aquifolium 12
Whitebeam Sorbus aria 14

Honey locust Gledistsia 14
Intermediate water demand H H triacanathos
Elm, Wheatley Ulmus carpinifolia Cedar Cedrus spp. 20 Hornbeam Carpinus betulus 16
‘Sarniensis’ Indian bean Catalpa 16
Lime Tilia spp. Cypress, Cupressus 12 tree bignonioides
Italian sempervirens Laburnum Laburnum spp. 12
Magnolia Magnolia spp 10
Oak, Fastigiate Quercus robur Wellingtonia Sequoiadendron 24
‘Fastigiata’ giganteum Mulberry Morus spp. 12
Sweet gum Liquidambar 14
Poplar, Populus nigra Western red Thuja plicata 18 styraciflua
Lombardy ‘Italica’ cedar
Tree of Heaven Ailanthus altissima 20
Poplar, aspen Populus tremula Tulip tree Liriodendron tulipifera 18
Walnut Juglans regia 16
Table 4 – Water demand (rooting depth) and mature heights (M) of common trees
5.3 STRIP AND MASS FILL FOUNDATIONS
Workmanship Design
iii. Strip foundations should be of a suitable depth in order to provided by a suitably qualified expert;
achieve a satisfactory level of performance. iii. Strip foundations must meet the relevant Building Regulations and
other statutory requirements, British Standards and Euro-Codes.
Materials
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which

GUIDANCE conditions are appropriately assessed prior to 5.3.5 Foundation depths

the building design. Further guidance for ground The depth of all foundations should be determined
5.3.1 Introduction condition assessment can be found in Chapter 4. by specific site conditions. All foundations must
Strip and mass fill foundations are usually the most bear onto virgin stable sub-soil and, except where
simplistic and cost effective foundation for low 5.3.4 Minimum foundation dimensions strip foundations are founded on rock, the strip
rise buildings on original ground, the guidance in Strip foundations should be 600mm minimum width foundation should have a minimum depth of
this section provides details of how to meet the for external walls. For single leaf internal walls up to 450mm, measured from finished ground level
Functional Requirements. 150mm thick, foundations may be reduced in width to their underside to avoid the action of frost.
to 450mm. Minimum thickness of strip foundations This depth however, will commonly need to be
5.3.2 Limitations of guidance should be 150mm. Foundations should be situated increased in areas subject to long periods of frost
The following situations are beyond the scope of centrally below the wall. or in order that loads are transferred to suitable
the guidance in this section: ground. Where trees are situated close to a
proposed building founded on a clay soil, the
• Traditional strip and mass filled foundations for foundation depth/design will be affected and
buildings other than dwellings; further guidance is available in Chapter 5.2.
• Dwellings greater than three storeys;
• Foundations on filled ground; In clay soils with a plasticity index greater than or
• Strip and mass filled foundations where equal to 10%, strip foundations should be taken to
foundation depths exceed 2.5m. a depth where anticipated ground movement will
not impair the stability of any part of the building
5.3.3 Design taking into account of the influence of vegetation
Strip and mass fill foundations shall be designed to and trees on or adjacent to the site. The depth to
ensure that the building is appropriately supported the underside of foundations on clay soils should
at all times without excessive settlement. This not be less than 750mm measured from finished
foundation type should only bear onto original ground level, depths may need to be increased in
ground unless the foundation has been designed order that loads are transferred to suitable ground.
by a Structural Engineer and appropriately Table 5 gives details of minimum foundation depths.
reinforced. It is therefore important that site
Figure 14 – Typical strip foundation

Modified Volume change Minimum foundation 5.3.6 Setting out foundations Where trench fill foundations are in excess of 2.5m
plasticity potential depth (m) The accuracy of setting out foundations should be depth, they must be designed by a Chartered
index
checked by a set controlled trench measurements, Structural Engineer in accordance with current British
40% and High 1.0
greater including their location relative to site borders and Standards and Codes of Practice. For trench fill, it
> 20% - < 40% Medium 0.9* neighbouring buildings. Levels should be checked is imperative to check that the finished foundation
< 20% Low 0.75* against bench marks, where appropriate. In level is correct and horizontal. It will be difficult to
*If the modified plasticity index is not confirmed minimum particular, for excavations check: adjust for discrepancies in the small number of
foundation depths should be 1m. brick courses between foundation and DPC level.
Table 5 – Minimum foundation depths • Trench widths;
• Trench lengths; Prior to concreting excavations should be
• Length of diagonals between external corners. “bottomed out” to remove any debris which may
have fallen into the trench, the excavations should
Walls should be located centrally upon the be free from water and if it has been left open for
foundation, unless specifically designed otherwise. a long period of time, further excavation may be
Any discrepancy in dimensions should be reported required to a non-weathered strata.
promptly to the Designer. Resulting variations
should be distributed to all concerned with site Note:
works, including the Site Audit Surveyor. It is important that health and safety obligations
are met and that excavations are appropriately
5.3.7 Excavations supported to prevent collapse.
Excavation should be to a depth that gives
sufficient bearing and protection from frost 5.3.8 Reinforcing

damage. To avoid damage caused by frost, the Strip and trench fill foundations should be
depth of the foundation(s) in frost susceptible reinforced where necessary, to suit localised
ground should be at a minimum 450mm below ground conditions. Reinforcement, if needed,
ground level. If the finished ground level will should be clean and free from loose rust and
Figure 15 – Typical mass fill foundation be above the existing ground level then, in should also be placed correctly. Bars, of an
cold conditions when freezing is expected, the appropriate size, should be appropriately
foundation depth should be calculated from the supported to guarantee that they are 75mm
existing, not finished, ground level. above the base of the foundation or as indicated
in the design. They should be secured at laps and
crossings. If in doubt about any soft spots, the 5.3 FIGURE 4: PERMISSIBLE FOUNDATION STEPS
Engineer’s advice should be taken prior to placing
the concrete. 5.3.11 Standards referred to:
Figure 17 Steps in foundations
5.3.9 Foundation Joints
If construction joints are necessary, they should • BS 8004 Code of practice for foundations;
not be positioned within 2m of a corner or junction • BS 59501 Structural use of steelwork in buildings;
in the foundation. All shuttering should be removed • BS 6399 Loadings for Buildings;
before work progresses beyond the construction • BS 8103 Structural Design of low rise buildings;
joint. • BS 8110 Structural Use of Concrete.
Figure 16 – Using reinforcement bars across a joint
5.3.10 Steps in foundations

Steps in foundations must not be of a greater
dimension than the thickness of the foundation
Where foundations are stepped (on elevation) they
should overlap by twice the height of the step,
by the dimension of the foundation, or 300mm –
whichever is the greater, as shown in Figure 17. Figure 17 – Steps in foundations
5.4 PILED FOUNDATIONS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Piled foundation designs must be supported by structural calculations
in a workmanlike manner; provided by a suitably qualified expert. Calculations for full piling
iii. Pile foundations schemes must be tested to confirm that the systems must be provided by or endorsed by the piling manufacturer;
installation meets the design requirements. iii. Piled foundations must meet the relevant Building Regulations and
other statutory requirements, British Standards and Euro-Codes.
Materials

5.4.1 Introduction • Bored and dug, including short bored and • Friction
Piles are used to transfer loads from buildings to secant (replacement piles); Friction piles, on the other hand, develop most
the supporting ground, and are used in a wide • Driven and jacked piles, steel, concrete and of their support from friction between the shaft
range of applications where conventional strip timber (displacement piles). and the soil, usually firm clay.
footings are inappropriate. They are particularly
Bearing piles
used where soft or loose soils overlay strong soils or Displacement 5.4.5 Choosing the right piled solution
(driven, jacked Replacement
rocks at depths that can be reached conveniently The choice of piling system to support the
or screwed) (bored)
by driving or boring. They are often the most structure will depend entirely upon the ground
economic type of foundation when very heavy Preformed Partially Driven Percussion Flush Grab Rotary
conditions and therefore it is important to have
loads must be supported or uplift forces need to preformed in-situ bored bored bored bored the appropriate site investigation works carried
(precast (temporary
be resisted. Large piles are extremely useful for and in-situ steel lining) out to determine depths of filled ground, bearing
concrete)
limiting the settlements of large structures on deep capacity of soils, soil type and any existing workings
Large Small Short
stiff clays; smaller versions can provide appropriate Timber Concrete Steel diameter diameter bored or services that may clash with pile locations.
foundations for houses and other small buildings Analysis of the site investigation report should be
on stiff clays liable to shrinkage and swelling. The Normal Prestressed Cylinder Under-reamed completed by a specialist piling contactor and
technique has been in use for many years. Structural Engineer as they are best placed to
Box Tube “H” Screw design the most economic piling system.
5.4.2 Limitations of guidance (small
displacement)
The following situations are beyond the scope of Piles are particularly appropriate for heave sites
Figure 18 – The range of piling types (BRE publication)
the guidance in this section: (trees removed) for which they are strongly
recommended.
• Innovative foundation systems that do not have 5.4.4 How piling systems work
third party approval or accreditation; There are basically two groupings of piles in the Pile layouts can be readily designed to
• Piling systems where the structural design is not way that they transfer loads to the ground: accommodate an individual plot. A good design
endorsed by the piling specialist contractor. will seek to achieve cost savings in foundation
• End-bearing excavation and materials by the incorporation of
5.4.3 Pile classification End-bearing piles derive the greater part of their large ground beam spans between piles and a
Piles of many different types and methods of support from bearing forces at the base. They small number of piles.
installation have been developed to suit the wide act largely as columns transferring loads through
variety of soils. Piles generally fall into two main types: soft deposits, usually to dense granular soil or rock The piling contractor should take care to ensure
at the foot of the pile; that the piles are inserted vertically and pile tops
are correctly aligned to support the foundation

beams. An acceptable level of tolerance is a pile
to be offset in plan from theoretical position by no
more than 75mm and vertical alignment should be
no worse than 1m in every 75m (1:75).
5.4.6 Ground Beams

Piles should be capped with an appropriate
ground beam system. There should be adequate
connections between the beam and the pile to
ensure that the loads are transmitted effectively
or that the beams are adequately restrained to
the pile to resists uplift on sites that are susceptible
to heave. All external, internal, partition and party
walls can be accommodated using this system.
The ring beam and its connections should be part
of the piled foundation design and should be
supported by structural calculations provided by a
Structural Engineer.
Figure 19 – Pile and beam detail

5.4.7 Pile construction records required on sites with more unstable ground or For integrity testing of Continuous Flight Auger piles,
Pile construction records should be made available where workmanship has been an issue. 100% of the piles should be tested.
for all piles installed. The records should include the
following information: 5.4.9 Test methods 5.4.9.3 Negative skin friction
The Engineer shall require the Specialist Contractor Where piles pass through ground that may
• Pile type (driven tube, Continuous Flight Auger to verify that the piling works have been consolidate or change in volume (e.g. due to a
(CFA), auger bored etc); completed to a satisfactory standard. This will change in water table or loading due to raising of
• Pile dimensions (diameter or width/breadth); usually include carrying out suitable testing to levels) the effects of negative skin friction should
• Pile depth; establish the degree of ground improvement, be taken into account. The capacity of the pile to
• Driving records from driven piles – including its load bearing characteristics and settlement resist the additional compressive and tensile stresses
hammer type, weight, drop height, sets, potential. These tests may include; should be checked at critical cross sections.
hammer efficiency;
• Pile verticality confirmation – this should not be 5.4.9.1 Dynamic tests 5.4.10 Standards referred to
more than 1:75 from vertical; Also known as large strain testing, this technique is
• For CFA and concrete screw piles, we should be most commonly used for assessing the dynamic pile • BS 8004 Code of practice for foundations;
given the computer output for concrete volume capacity of driven piles. For dynamic tests on driven • BS 5950:1 Structural use of steelwork in buildings;
and rig. Performance – view a typical CFA piles to determine the dynamic pile capacity, a • BS 6399 Loadings for buildings;
output for a well constructed pile. minimum number of 1 tests or 1% of the working • BS 8103 Structural design of low rise buildings;
piles should be sought, whichever is the greater. • BS 8110 Structural use of concrete.
5.4.8 Testing Further tests may be required if anomalous results
Piled foundation installation should be appropriately are obtained.
tested to ensure that the installed foundations meet

the design requirement. A testing plan should be 5.4.9.2 Integrity tests
agreed at design stage that is representative of the Also known as low strain testing, there are two
complexity of the piling system. Further guidance types of tests which are used solely for assessing
is available from The Federation of Piling Specialists pile integrity:
who has produced the “Handbook on Pile Load
Testing.” Sample testing of a rate of at least one pile • Cross hole sonic logging;
per hundred is usually deemed as an acceptable • Pulse echo.
level of testing, however additional tests may be
5.5 RAFT FOUNDATIONS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Raft foundation designs must be supported by structural calculations
in a workmanlike manner. provided by a suitably qualified expert;
iii. Raft foundation design and construction must meet the relevant
Materials Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which Standards and Euro-Codes.
GUIDANCE 5.5.4 Ground conditions reinforcing bars from being cut, unless the structural
Raft foundations are usually designed for sites design has catered for this.
5.5.1 Introduction with ground conditions with low ground bearing
A raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete capacity or where there are pockets of filled 5.5.7 Damp proof membranes (DPM), damp
slab, whose thickness and stiffness are designed to ground. It is therefore important to complete a proof courses (DPC) and floor finishes
spread the applied wall and column loads over a suitable site investigation meeting the requirements The raft foundation and the junction with the wall
large area. For domestic applications, rafts are often of Chapter 4 of this Manual to ascertain the should be appropriately constructed to resist ground
built with thickened perimeters to provide protection bearing capacity and suitability of the ground. moisture penetration. A DPM can be placed
against frost heave, in which case they are beneath the raft, wrapped around the external
effectively trench fill foundations with integral ground 5.5.5 Structural design toe and lapped into the internal DPC. This detail
bearing floor slabs. Downstand edge beams also Structural calculations should be provided by a can, however, be difficult to implement on-site and
serve to stiffen the whole of the foundation structure. suitably qualified Structural Engineer, confirming puncturing of the membrane can commonly occur
that the raft design is suitable for bearing onto the when placing reinforcing. The preferred method is
Rafts are used where it is necessary to limit the load ground, and that the ground bearing capacity to place the DPM on top of the raft slab beneath
applied to the underlying soil or to reduce the effects safely supports the structure. The design should the floor insulation or screed as indicated in
of differential foundation movements as a result of provide sufficient information to ensure correct Figure 20.
variable soil conditions or variations in loading. installation of the raft and its reinforcement. The
minimum recommended information is as follows;
5.5.2 Limitations of guidance
The following situations are beyond the scope of • Plans and details of the proposed raft showing
the guidance in this section. reinforcing positions etc;
• Structural calculations confirming that the raft is

Rafts are not considered as an accepted method suitable for the proposed loads applied;
of foundations where the ground conditions are • A bar schedule, to be used by the steel
susceptible to heave or shrinkage e.g. where trees reinforcing supplier and installer.
are present or have been removed.
5.5.6 Ducts and sleeving
5.5.3 Materials Any service penetrations that pass through the
Materials and workmanship should meet the raft should be appropriately sleeved to protect
requirements set out in Chapters 1 and 2 of the service duct. Service duct positions should be
this Manual. planned and indicated on drawings to prevent
Figure 20 – Typical raft foundation design
5.5.8 Standards referred to
• BS 8004 Code of practice for foundations;

• BS 5950:1 Structural use of steelwork in buildings;

• BS 6399 Loadings for buildings;
• BS 8103 Structural design of low rise buildings;
• BS 8110 Structural use of concrete.
CHAPTER 6: SUBSTRUCTURE
CONTENTS
6.1 BASEMENTS
6.2 WALLS BELOW GROUND
6.3 DAMP PROOFING
6.4 GROUND FLOORS
6.1 BASEMENTS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Basements shall be appropriately designed to ensure that they
person in a workmanlike manner; adequately provide a suitable barrier against contaminants,
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by ground gases, and ground water;
an approved installer. iii. The basement design should be completed by a suitably qualified
waterproofing design specialist;
Materials iv. Basement design and construction must be supported by structural
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which calculations provided by a suitably qualified expert;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; v. Design details of the basement waterproofing techniques must
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be be provided prior to commencement on-site;
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; vi. Basements must meet the relevant Building Regulations and
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise other statutory requirements, British Standards and Euro-Codes.
to the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in any

6.1 BASEMENTS provided, advice must be sought from suitably Waterproofing Specialist be included as part of the
experienced parties. Appropriate structural design team from the earliest stages, so that an
6.1.1 Introduction design must be undertaken by a Chartered integrated and practical waterproofing solution
This chapter provides guidance on the Structural Engineer. is created.
requirements associated with the design and
construction of basements and other below 6.1.3 General principle of waterproofing design The need for a dedicated Waterproofing Specialist
ground structures. Principally, this concerns The approach detailed within BS 8102 involves within the design team is intended to reduce the
the process by which the risk of ground water assessment of a given site to determine the incidence of issues where systems are designed
penetration is appraised and addressed, so that characteristics which influence risk. With the benefit without following the advice and considerations
problems associated with penetration do not of knowledge gained through this investigation detailed within BS 8102 and associated design
occur while consideration is also given to and assessment, suitable designs for dealing with guides.
economic construction. ground water, gases and contaminants can then
be devised and constructed. Such scenarios may occur where Project Designers
This process and rationale is primarily detailed take on the role of Waterproofing Designer without
within BS 8102 (2009) Code of Practice for 6.1.4 Design responsibility sufficient reference to the stated guides, commonly
protection of below ground structures against Production of a suitable design is one of the relying on standard design details and without
water from the ground (and other associated most important aspects in achieving a successful considering all appropriate factors. Please refer to
design guides). However, further practical outcome, where the required standard of BS 8102 for a list of requirements that a Designer
guidance on this and compliance with warranty environment is created within the basement space must meet in order to fulfil the Waterproofing
requirements is included herein. and maintained in the long term. A common Specialist role.
assumption in waterproofing is that workmanship
6.1.2 Limitations of guidance is the most ‘critical factor’ and while this is Designers must carry professional indemnity
This document is not intended as a standalone undeniably important, the highest standards of insurance cover appropriate to the project.
design guide and does not include the full detail of workmanship will not make up for inadequate
what must be considered to comply with BS 8102. design, and hence correct design is the first step in It must be noted that where relying on the use of
See ‘references’ for details of other associated achieving the desired outcome. waterproofing product manufacturer ‘standard
design guides. details’, they typically disclaim design responsibility,
To this end, BS 8102 includes a section regarding so it is incumbent on the Waterproofing Design
It must also be noted that structural waterproofing ‘design team’, which states that the advice of a Specialist to ensure that such details are correct
design and geotechnical investigation are Geotechnical Specialist be sought for assessment and appropriate for the site and structure, or offer
specialist fields and while general guidance is of the Geology and Hydrogeology and that a suitable variation.
The early involvement of a Waterproofing Designer Seasonal variations in the water table must be consequences in the event that water penetration
is an important consideration because the accounted for unless long term monitoring is occurs. For example, in properties where the
waterproofing design typically has an influence undertaken. However, even where standing water consequences of penetration would be severe,
on elements of the structural and/or architectural levels are not noted during such pre-start site such as in habitable space, suitably low risk
design. Early involvement allows the waterproofing investigation, the drainage characteristics of the methods must be provided.
to be duly considered in association with these ground must receive particular attention. Soils with
other aspects, and prevents situations where low permeability represent risk of waterlogging, Furthermore, whilst in theory it could be assumed
design fees are increased as a result of necessary or encouraging ‘perched water table’, where that based upon a site investigation, the risk of
redesign, or waterproofing is compromised by water stands temporarily or permanently within water pressure ever occuring is low, BS 8102 advises
working within the constraints of an ill-considered the ground against a structure, and arguably this that consideration is given to the effects of climate
structure relative to achieving the required affects more properties with basements versus the change and burst water mains and sewers, as well
standard of environment. true water table level. as stating that it should be assumed that there is
risk of waterlogging ‘even where site examination
Designers must have on-going involvement during Other factors such as topography and orientation indicated dry conditions’.
the build, maintaining good communication with may have a bearing on the propensity for
site management and providing supervision and pressure to come to bear and should also In summary, the site investigation guides the design
guidance wherever necessary. receive consideration. but it should never be assumed that some degree
of water pressure will not occur.
6.1.5 Site and risk assessment Further guidance on the drainage characteristics
The degree of water present within the ground, associated with different types of ground is Furthermore, and particularly if no site investigation
and the propensity for waterlogging to occur included within the Basement Information Centre has been undertaken or there is reasonable doubt
over the lifetime of a structure is a principal driver publication; Basements: Waterproofing – General as to ground water conditions, pressure to the
in assessing risk and the degree of waterproofing Guidance to BS 8102:2009. full height of the below ground structure must be
required. Simplistically, if a basement is constructed assumed at some point in the life of the structure.
into a permanent high water table, then the Ground gases and contaminants must also be
degree of protection will necessarily be greater considered within the risk assessment. The Site Audit Surveyor may request a copy of the
than a similar structure constructed into a generally Site Investigation Report, Designer’s Risk Assessment
dry site. It must be noted that while the site investigation and associated design rationale.
forms part of what guides the waterproofing
Assessment of a site must be based on the results of design, an equally important consideration
the site investigation and other site specific factors. is the intended use of the space and implicit
6.1.6 Water resisting design 6.1.6.2 Exclusion of surface water The following considerations apply:
The principle of this is to consider and design for Surfaces external of the basement structure
the pressures which the structure/waterproofing at ground level can act to limit or attenuate • Perforated land drains must be surrounded in
must resist based upon the site investigation and penetration into vulnerable positions, i.e. the clean graded stone and wrapped in a suitable
risk assessment detailed above. However, it also more permeable excavated and backfilled geo-textile filter fabric to reduce risk of clogging.
concerns the means by which the degree of water ground directly around the basement structure. This is particularly important in fine granular
in the ground can be influenced by design: The inclusion of surface and cut-off drains which and clay soils where land drains are susceptible
remove standing water away from the vulnerable to clogging;
6.1.6.1 Structural resistance areas also benefit. • Rodding points must be included (ideally at
The ability of the structure to provide resistance to changes in direction) to facilitate maintenance,
the penetration of water has a bearing upon all 6.1.6.3 Sub-surface drainage which will allow the system to function in the
forms of waterproofing. The use of land drainage can act to remove water longterm. This maintenance should be
from around the structure, thus alleviating pressure undertaken at suitable intervals (annually as a
Retaining walls in plain or reinforced masonry and reducing risk accordingly. minimum), with the detail of this being written
provide comparatively little resistance to the into the documentation passed to homeowners;
penetration of water under pressure, because of The use of land drainage is not viable on all sites, • Land drains must link to a reliable point of
the crack pattern associated with the degree of examples being where there is no available discharge. Where sump pump systems
joints (mortar beds) present. location to discharge collected ground water, or are employed, the implications of power cuts
where high water tables and permeable ground should be considered in that land drains may
The degree of water excluded by concrete conditions make it impractical to sufficiently in such scenarios not function as intended. The
elements (walls and slab) is influenced by the remove the quantities of water present. A effectiveness of battery back-up systems, where
nature of the design and construction. While Geotechnical Specialist and/or Waterproofing employed in sumps servicing land drains should
concrete in itself is relatively impermeable, the Specialist can advise further in this respect. be considered in relation to assessment of the
degree to which water is excluded will greatly likely degree of ground water.
be influenced by crack sizes and detailing of Notwithstanding such conditions, the provision of
construction joints and service penetrations. effective land drains is often an economic means It is not unknown for issues of waterproofing
of greatly reducing risk and must be included failure to occur where land drains, (that form
where viable. part of the waterproofing system), are linked into
soakaways. The limitation on soakaways is that
depending on the nature of the ground, they may
become saturated (similar to the ground around
a basement), meaning that no more water can drain down to the level of the land drains without
be accepted, with pressure subsequently coming pressuring on the structure.
to bear upon the structure. In such cases, the
soakaway often also accepts water from rainwater
goods; thus providing a direct path for water from
the roof to the basement. Therefore, land drains
must not be directly linked to soakaways by gravity,
unless it is not possible for water to surcharge, i.e.
where the top of the soakaway is below the level
of the actual land drains.
Land drain positioning is a critical consideration,

specifically in respect of systems where there is no
viable access for repair (or suitable repair strategy).
Further to the advice detailed within the defects
and remedial measures Chapter 6.1.8, it is necessary
in this circumstance to include land drains at a low
enough position to prevent pressure from bearing
upon the structure and waterproofing, so that the
presence of any possible defects are mitigated.
The viability of including land drainage and its

positioning should be considered in association
with all methods of waterproofing as a means to
reduce risk generally at nominal cost implication.
The use of geo-drainage membranes applied to

the external face of a retaining wall can provide
a continuous drainage space external of the
structure which assists in encouraging water to Figure 1 – Suitable position of land drains
Where land drains are included this should be dehumidification must be included to control Designing on the assumption that a system will not
in association with a permeable stone backfill vapour introduced via occupation sufficiently, be totally perfect or free of defects necessitates
compacted in layers, which also encourages thereby preventing problems of condensation. that consideration is given to the feasibility of
water to drain down to the level of the land drains repairing those defects, or ensuring that they
without perching and pressuring upon the structure. Example usage for Grade 2 includes store rooms, are of no consequence, such as where systems
and again water penetration is not acceptable; are not accessible for repair. Different structures,
Furthermore, the use of maintainable land drains however, heating and ventilation is not necessarily waterproofing systems and sites have a bearing
is a necessity where employed in association required, albeit that some degree of ventilation upon this consideration.
with some forms of inaccessible/external tanking s recommended even in basic storage space
systems, i.e. where the structure itself provides which may otherwise suffer condensation Strategies for repair of a given system must be
little resistance. In such cases, if it is not feasible to related dampness. considered as part of the design process. Further
include reliable land drains, alternative methods of commentary is provided within each of the specific
waterproofing must be used. Grade 1 differs in that some degree of liquid water system type sections.
penetration is acceptable, i.e. minimal seepage as
The Site Audit Surveyor is to be supplied with design long as a space remains fit for purpose. Examples The detail of an appropriate repair strategy may be
details where external land drainage is included. of Grade 1 include basic car parking. requested by the Site Audit Surveyor in relation to a
given waterproofing design.
6.1.7 Intended use and required standard Most basements should be constructed to allow
of environment a minimum of Grade 2, with 3 being necessary for 6.1.9 Forms of waterproofing
Usage dictates the required ‘grade’ of occupied space. Grade 1 is suitable for basement BS 8102 defines three forms of waterproofing
environment, or in other words how ‘dry’ a given car parking only (excluding basement store rooms protection; Type A, Barrier Protection (commonly
basement space must be in order to be suitable and access wells) and this should be agreed on a referred to as ‘tanking’), Type B, Structurally Integral
for a given usage. The Designer must therefore per scheme basis. Protection, and Type C, Drained Protection.
consider how this will be achieved in a particular
site and structure. BS 8102 provides three definitions 6.1.8 Defects and remedial measures 6.1.9.1 Type A, Barrier Protection
of environmental grades (Grades 1, 2 and 3). Within BS 8102, Designers are advised to consider This form of waterproofing relies on the inclusion of
the probability that systems may not be installed a physical barrier material applied on or within the
Notably, habitable space is Grade 3, where perfectly and that defects may occur as a result structure; often where the structure itself provides
water penetration is unacceptable. Appropriately of this, or that defects may be present in supplied little resistance to the penetration of water.
designed environmental controls, such as vapour materials.
barriers, insulation, heating, ventilation and
A variety of considerations apply:
• Suitability of the substrate, primarily applicable

where tanking products are applied internally,
in that the bond between the product and the
substrate on which it is applied must be
sufficient to resist hydrostatic ground water
pressure;
• The requirement for preparation of substrates to
accept tanking mediums;
• Movement, which in rigid tanking systems may
encourage cracking through which water may
penetrate, where pressure comes to bear;
• Loading, where hydrostatic pressure is applied
to the structure as a result of exclusion via the
tanking medium, i.e. structures must be
designed to resist loads applied to them;
• Continuity, in that systems must in virtually all
cases be ‘continuous’, in that a gap in a barrier
system represents a point at which water under
pressure can penetrate;
• ‘Buildability’, namely whereby sheet membrane

products are proposed, with the consideration
being the practicality of wrapping a flat sheet
around complex three dimensional shapes
such as external corners and beneath raft slab
thickened toe details.
Figure 2 – Type A, Barrier Protection

With regard to repair strategies, internal systems Risk can be lessened by using a ‘fully bonded’ Type B is formed using reinforced concrete;
have the benefit of greater accessibility, meaning tanking system, where the bond is such that water however this may take several forms.
that repair is more feasible. However, being cannot track along between the structure and
applied to the internal face of the structure, the tanking product, in association with a structure of Where the objective is for the total exclusion of
implications of preparation, strength of substrate lesser permeability which would allow localised water, additional steel reinforcement can be
and bond becomes much more important. repair to be undertaken. included to limit cracking to less than 0.2mm
through which water will not pass. Alternatively,
External systems have greater implication in that 6.1.9.2 Type B, Structurally Integral Protection additives can be included to reduce permeability,
accessibility for repair is typically impractical post Type B also relies on the exclusion of water, but with water being excluded without the addition of
construction, and where combined with relatively employs the structure itself as opposed to barrier steel over and above that which would normally
permeable wall constructions, make it difficult products included on or within it. In the main, be required as part of the structural design.
to confidently determine the point of a defect
externally, because water can track within the wall
construction to show itself internally at a position
not local to the defect externally.
On the basis that BS 8102 advises that ‘repairability’

must be considered, the use of external adhesive
membrane tanking systems on permeable
constructions is precluded, unless employed in
association with longterm strategies for preventing
ground water from pressuring, e.g. serviceable

land drains.
The use of land drains to prevent pressure coming

to bear, addresses the consideration that defects
may occur because if pressure is not allowed to
come to bear, then these defects will not allow
penetration and so are of no consequence.
Figure 3 – Type B, Structurally Integral Protection

Concrete without additives and including more Systems which function by excluding water may Such systems comprise three elements:
typical levels of steel reinforcement (with cracking not be tested until ground water pressure comes to
< 0.3mm), while providing a good resistance to bear. Therefore, it is advantageous where external • A drainage channel detail typically concealed
the penetration of water, will allow seepage, given water pressure comes to bear prior to completion within the floor construction;
hydrostatic pressure and as such is not suitable in that any areas of penetration can be remedied • A means of water discharge which in a
isolation unless forming basic (non-habitable, non- during construction. basement fully below ground requires a sump
storage) standards of environment. pump system or in a sloping site may be
With regard to appraisal of repair, this method has via gravity;
As with any structure which aims to entirely block a benefit in that the point of penetration is typically • Vapour barrier drainage membranes included
out water, this must be free of defects which would the point of the defect or pathway through which above or internal of the drainage system which
otherwise allow water to penetrate. water penetration occurs. Coupled with the isolate the internal environment from the damp
impermeable nature of the structure generally, this substrates behind.
In achieving this, the following must be considered: allows localised repair to be undertaken via resin
injection, grouting and associated repair methods. While fully below ground basement waterproofing
• Structural design and specification of materials The main consideration is locating the point of any drainage could alternatively be linked into deeper
(based in part on-site assessment); penetration and it is therefore beneficial where fixed drains to also drain out via gravity, the
• Water stop detailing at construction joints; reasonable access to the concrete structure risks associated with surcharge of external drains
• Service penetration detailing; remains viable. are high, so that practice is excluded from
• Appropriate specialist site supervision to ensure warranty cover.
high standards of workmanship; 6.1.9.3 Type C, Drained Protection
• Good placement and compaction; This method of waterproofing differs from
• Curing. Type A and B in that as opposed to excluding

water entirely the structure is employed to limit
Particular consideration must be given to the penetration, while an internal drainage system
formation of construction joint details which collects and removes water. This isolates the
form a typical weak point in Type B structures. internal environment from any water contained
Furthermore, specialist supervision is required on-site within the system.
during construction.
Drained protection systems are reliant on their

ability to remove water and so the mechanism
by which water is removed requires careful
consideration. The extent of penetration also
has a bearing on the capacity required, with the
degree of penetration being influenced by the
permeability of the structure and the ground water
conditions externally.
Notwithstanding the above, the capacity of such

systems to remove water must be adequate to
deal with a worst case scenario, and should be
engineered with this in mind to provide a suitably
low risk system.
Sump pump systems must include mechanical

redundancy (dual mains powered pumps) to
protect against pump failure, and also sufficient
battery back-up protection to protect in the event
of a power cut.
Each pump within a given system should have

independent direct spur RCD/power supply, so that
in the event of an issue with a pump, the others will
still have power. Direct spur is advised to prevent
accidental turning off by homeowners.
Drainage systems typically discharge into surface

water gullies at external ground floor level, and
an over-flow detail must be formed at the point of
Figure 4 – Type C, Drained Protection discharge, to allow water to spill out externally in
the event of drains blocking or surcharging. Flood testing of a system should be undertaken Systems must not link directly by gravity to
during construction to check efficacy and that soakaways, where any of the reasons previously
Systems can drain by gravity to low ground water flows freely to the discharge point. Testing stated occur because of the danger of backflow
externally, i.e. where properties are part retaining in this manner to prove that a system functions of water through the pipes or waterlogging of the
and constructed into sloping sites. As with pumped as intended is a key benefit of this method of local ground above slab/damp proof membrane
systems, if connecting to mains drains, an over-flow waterproofing and must be part of the process. level. However, where such conditions are not
detail must be employed to allow water to spill present, sump pump systems may be employed to
externally in the event of issue. Systems creating habitable space require the lift water up to ground level externally, discharging
inclusion of vapour barrier drainage membranes into gullies linked to soakaways. This detail should
Internal drained protection systems must include within the wall and floor construction. be designed by the Waterproofing Specialist.
drainage channels local to the external wall floor
junctions, which facilitates maintenance and Where elements of the drained protection system In consideration of repair of defects, the inclusion
allows systems to function and protect in the are included within cavities, cavities must be kept of drained protection systems internally generally
longterm. Where larger footprints are involved, clear of mortar snots and debris. ensures that systems can be accessed for localised
cross floor channels must be included, ideally local repair, however this may be lessened where
to construction joints where the structure is more Continuity of the structure must be considered systems are sandwiched within the structure, i.e.
vulnerable to ground water penetration. because resistance to water provided by a given within cavities.
structure is reduced by apertures through which
Systems must be maintained annually as a water can freely move. Examples could include Part of the underlying rationale of drained
minimum. The detail of this requirement must be holes present within existing buildings, or in new protection is that water is removed continuously, so
included with the documentation provided to the construction where land drains are linked to sump that it does not collect and removes pressure upon
homeowner. pump systems, with the sumps being installed membrane linings installed over the drainage.
internal of the retaining shell, e.g. in light wells, thus If water does not place pressure upon such
Water moving over and through new concrete providing a pathway for water to enter. membranes, then the incidence of any defects
leaches free lime within the early life of the within them is generally of no consequence, and
structure and suitable treatments should be Temporary 110v pumps should be included during so maintaining the efficacy of the drainage in the
applied to concrete to minimise this. construction to address water penetration as longterm ensures that such defects are negated.
necessary. 240v systems should be installed and
Substrates should be clean and free of loose commissioned as soon as is viable once 240v
or friable materials prior to the application of supplies are installed.
membrane linings.
6.1.10 Combined protection

Combined protection via the installation of two
forms of waterproofing can be employed to
substantially lower the risk and may be necessary
where the consequences of failure are particularly
great and/or where difficult site conditions result
in unacceptably high risk when employing a
single system.
Figure 5 – Combined protection

6.1.11 Ground gases and contaminants

Aggressive ground conditions may require the
inclusion of a suitable ground barrier to protect the
structure appropriately. Specialist advice must be
sought in respect of dealing with ground gases, and
Designers are advised to check current standards at
the time of construction for suitable guidance.
6.1.12 Existing structures

Waterproofing existing structures differs from new
construction in that Designers must work within the
confines of the existing structure. However, many of
the same considerations apply in that the required
standard of environment appropriate to usage
must be created and maintained in the longterm.
6.2 WALLS BELOW GROUND
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
person in a workmanlike manner. A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
Materials iii. The design and construction must meet the relevant Building
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; and Euro-Codes.
GUIDANCE Brick/block type Use/minimum standard of brick or block
Walls up to DPC Walls up to DPC (sulphates in soils)

6.2.1 Bricks and blocks below ground
Clay bricks FL, FN, ML, MN (a.) FL, FN, ML, MN (a.)
Bricks should be selected that are appropriately
durable against saturation in accordance with Calcium silicate bricks Class 3 (b.) Class 3 (b.)
BS 3921; brick and block classifications that are Concrete bricks Min strength 20N/mm2 Min strength 20N/mm2 (c.)
suitable for walls up to damp proof course (DPC) Blockwork Min strength 7N/mm2 and density Min strength 7N/mm2 and density greater than
can be found in Table 1. greater than 1500kg/m3 (d.) 1500kg/m3 (d.)
Notes: a. If the site is wet or saturated at ground level use FL or FN bricks only;
b. Denotes a minimum standard - higher classifications may be used;
If there are sulphates in the ground and/or there
c. For Class 1 and Class 2 sulphates, check with manufacturers to confirm suitability of brick; for Class 3 sulphates,
is ground water present, confirmation by the use engineering quality concrete bricks;
manufacturer that the brick or block is suitable for d. Autoclaved aerated blocks with independent appropriate third party certification are acceptable.
use below ground should be provided. Table 1 – Suitability of bricks and blocks below ground
6.2.2 Mortar mixes

Proportion by volume
Mortars below DPC are exposed to higher
Classification Portland Air-entrained Masonry Cement: Strength
saturation and therefore require a higher durability Cement: lime: Portland Cement: sand
as indicated in Table 2. sand sand
High durability ii. (a.) 1:0.5:4-4.5 (b.) 1:3-4 (b.) 1:2.5-3.5 (b.) 5.0N/mm2
mortar for
a use below or a. For concrete or calcium silicate brick use a designation (iii) mortar;
near external b. Where soil or ground water sulphate levels are appreciable (Class 3 or higher) use sulphate
ground level resisting Portland Cement.
Table 2 – Typical mortar mixes for below ground masonry

6.2.3 Cavities below ground

Cavities below ground should be filled with
concrete ensuring there is a minimum gap as
indicated in Figures 6 and 7 between the DPC and
the top of the concrete. The concrete should be of
a GEN1 grade and a consistence class of S3.
Figure 6 – Concrete cavity fill - traditional ground bearing slab Figure 7 – Concrete cavity fill - beam and block floor
6.3 DAMP PROOFING
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Damp proofing works should prevent any external moisture
person in a workmanlike manner; passing into the internal environment of the dwelling;
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by an iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved
approved installer. Document A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural
calculations provided by a suitably qualified expert;
Materials iv. The design and construction must meet the relevant Building
Individual components and assemblies, not integral to
the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in any

GUIDANCE 6.3.3 Stepped membranes

Damp proof membranes should be continuous
6.3.1 Damp proof courses (DPC) where floors are stepped as illustrated in Figure 8.
Damp proof courses should be of a flexible material
which is suitable for its intended use. The damp
proof course should have appropriate third party
certification. Generally, blue brick or slates will not
be accepted as a damp proof course.
Damp proof courses should be laid on a mortar

bed and correctly lapped at junctions and corners.
The depth of lap should be the same as the width
of the DPC.
Damp proof courses should not bridge any cavities

unless it is acting as a cavity tray
6.3.2 Damp proof membranes (DPM)

Damp proof membranes should be provided
beneath all ground supported slabs or cast in-situ
reinforced slabs. Membranes should be linked to
the damp proof course and should be a minimum

1200g polythene. Membranes should be either laid
onto a concrete slab or onto a minimum 25mm
sand blinding (if laid below a floor slab).
Other damp proof membranes may be

Figure 8 – Stepped damp proof membrane
considered if they have appropriate third party
certification and are installed in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions.
6.4 GROUND FLOORS
Workmanship Design
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; and Euro-Codes;
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be iv. Precast structural elements must have structural calculations
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; which prove their adequacy that have been endorsed by
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with the manufacturer.
GUIDANCE Hard core material should not be saturated and surface of the insulation. It is important that this
caution should be taken to ensure that new walls additional membrane is incorporated, which is
6.4.1 Ground supported concrete floors are not disturbed by compaction of the hard core. shown in Figure 9.
6.4.1.1 Site preparation 6.4.1.2 Damp proof membranes (DPM) 6.4.1.4 Concreting of floors
The site beneath the floor should be stripped of all DPMs can be laid either above or below the Prior to concreting, any water or debris which may
topsoil, organic matter or tree roots prior to filling floor slab depending on the finish of the floor. The have collected on top of the DPM should be
and compaction. membrane should be lapped into the DPC by at removed. Concrete should ideally be ready mixed
least 100mm. and be of at least GEN3. Expansion joints should
Suitable hard core would include inert quarried be provided in accordance with Chapter 2.2 of
material such as limestone or granite. Recycled this Manual.
aggregates may be used which include crushed
concrete or broken brick; however, these must be 6.4.2 Suspended reinforced in-situ slabs
completely free of contaminants and plaster and
should be delivered to site from a supplier that has 6.4.2.1 Structural design
a quality audit process in place. A cast in-situ suspended concrete slab should
be designed by a qualified Structural Engineer.
Materials which are available as a result of any The structural design should include the following
site demolition should not be used as hard core information:
beneath floor slabs unless specifically agreed by
the Site Audit Surveyor and only then if it can be • Adequacy of walls which support the concrete
demonstrated, that the material is completely free Figure 9 – Typical ground bearing floor slab slab (intermediate and perimeter walls);
of contaminants and plaster. • Suitable thickness, correct durability of concrete
6.4.1.3 Insulation and correct provision of reinforcing;
Hard core should be placed and compacted in Insulation that is to be provided to ground floor can • Provision of anti-crack reinforcing to the
150mm nominal layers and be fully consolidated be placed either above or below the concrete perimeter of floors.
using a mechanical compactor. A ground slab. Insulation should be installed in accordance
supported concrete floor will not be acceptable with manufacturer’s instructions and be durable 6.4.2.2 Site preparation
where the depth of hard core required exceeds enough to withstand floor loadings and moisture. The material below the proposed floor slab should
600mm, and an alternative ground floor solution, A number of insulation products require an be compacted sufficiently to support the slab
e.g. beam and block should be considered. additional damp proof membrane to protect the during pouring and curing stages. Any backfill
material should not contain any organic matter, to withstand floor loadings and moisture. A number 6.4.2.6 Reinforcing
contain contaminants which could react with the of insulation products require an additional DPM to
concrete or be susceptible to swelling such as protect the surface of the insulation. 6.4.2.6.1 Reinforcing cover
colliery waste. The main reinforcing bars must have a minimum
6.4.2.5 Concreting floors concrete cover of 40mm. Suitable spacers
6.4.2.3 Damp proof membranes (DPM) The depth of concrete will vary depending upon should be provided to support the reinforcing
DPM can be laid either above or below the floor the load conditions and the span of the floor. The prior to concreting.
slab depending on the finish of the floor. If the overall reinforced concrete slab design should be
membrane is to be placed beneath the concrete, designed by a suitably qualified Structural Engineer.
extra caution should be taken to ensure the
membrane is be lapped into the DPC by at least The reinforced concrete should have a minimum
100mm as shown in Figure 9. strength of RC30 and be ready mixed and
delivered on-site in accordance with the Functional
Requirements of Chapter 2.2. Site mixing is not
considered suitable for concrete suspended floors.
The poured concrete should be lightly vibrated and

well tamped to ensure that no voids are left within
the floor slab.
Figure 11 – Cast in-situ suspended concrete floor-reinforcing cover
The floor slab should be appropriately shuttered and support
around its perimeter to enable a cavity to be

formed between the external wall and floor slab. The reinforcing fabric must be laid so the main bars
The shuttering can be expanded polystyrene, are in the same direction as the span.
Figure 10 – Typical cast in-situ concrete suspended floor (which is removed once the concrete has set) or a
proprietary shuttering system. 6.4.2.6.2 Standard of fabric reinforcing
6.4.2.4 Insulation Reinforcing fabric should be free from loose rust, oil,
Insulation that is to be provided to ground floor grease, mud and any other contaminants which
should be placed above the concrete slab. may affect the durability of the concrete.
Insulation should be installed in accordance with Reinforcing fabric should be of a “B” mesh grade.
manufacturer’s instructions and be durable enough This can be identified by the size of the primary and
secondary bars. Primary bars are spaced at 100mm BS Reference Primary bar Secondary bar
centres and secondary bars are placed at 200mm Size (mm) Spacing of bars (mm) Area mm2/m Size (mm) Spacing of Area
centres as indicated in Table 3. bars (mm) mm2/m
B 1131 12 100 1131 8 200 252
B 785 10 100 785 8 200 252
6.4.2.6.3 Lapping of reinforcing
B 503 8 100 503 8 200 252
It is accepted that reinforcing can consist of a B 385 7 100 385 7 200 193
number of sheets which can be joined together. B 283 6 100 283 7 200 193
The depth of cover will vary on the thickness of B 196 5 100 196 7 200 193
mesh reinforcing and is identified in Table 4. Table 3 – Standard “B” mesh reinforcing details
6.4.3 Suspended timber floors

Minimum laps for main reinforcing bars in fabric mesh (1.)
Fabric type Minimum lap (mm)
6.4.3.1 Durability of suspended timber floors
B1131 500
B785 400 To prevent the decay of timber joists, the
B503 350 suspended timber floor should be constructed in
B385 300 such a way that:
B283 250
B196 200
• All joists and wall plates are above the damp
Table 4 – Minimum laps for reinforcing proof course level;
• A minimum void of 150mm is provided between
1. A minimum lap of 300mm is required for the joists and over-site;
secondary reinforcing bars. • Air bricks are provided to give adequate cross
ventilation to the floor void;
• Joists have adequate bearings and do not
protrude into the cavity.
Figure 12 – Typical reinforcing lap

For sites that are susceptible to gas migrations,

the over-site should incorporate gas protection
measures that have been designed by a
suitable specialist.
6.4.3.4 Sub floor ventilation requirements

To prevent decaying floor joists, sub floor ventilation
must be provided and give a free cross flow of
air. External air bricks should be provided in two
opposing walls which meet the provisions as
detailed in Table 5.
Floor area of building m2 Minimum ventilation

provision (mm2)
Figure 13 – Typical suspended timber floor 40 20,000
60 30,000
80 40,000
6.4.3.2 Floor joists strata, or can be built off a reinforced thickened 100 50,000
All floor joists must be of a suitable durability and slab where designed by a Chartered Structural 120 60,000
strength grade (minimum C16), be of the correct Engineer. 140 70,000
size, stress grade, and laid at the correct specified 160 80,000
centres as indicated on plans and specifications. 6.4.3.3 Concrete over-site Table 5 – Suspended timber floors - minimum cross ventilation provision
The joists should have consistent dimensions and be A suitable over-site should be provided at least
securely nailed to timber wall plates. 150mm below the timber suspended floor.
Joists at the junction with the external and party The over-site should be either:
walls should be supported on suitable joist hangers
and be adequately strutted at mid-span. • 100mm thick concrete over-site (Gen 3) on well
compacted hard core or;
Floor joists can be supported internally by sleeper • 50mm thick concrete over-site on a 1200g
walls. Sleeper walls should be built of an adequate damp proof membrane laid on 25mm sand
foundation or if the ground is of suitable bearing blinding and well compacted hard core.
Air bricks should be evenly spaced along the two Finished board Maximum centres Typical nail Thickness Thickness Maximum Typical nail
opposing walls that meet the ventilation provision. thickness (mm) of joists (mm) fixing (mm) (mm) (mm) span fixing (mm)
15 Max 450 45mm lost (chipboard) (OSB) (mm)
Typical ventilation areas for various types of air
head nail 18 and 19 15 450 60mm annular
bricks care are identified in Table 6. 18 Max 600 60mm lost ring shank
head nail 22 18 and 19 600 65mm annular
Air brick type Dimensions wxh Net area (mm2) ring shank
Table 7 – Softwood floor boarding
(mm)
Table 8 – Particle floor boarding
Clay air brick - 225 x 75 1400
square holes 225 x 150 4300
225 x 225 6400 6.4.3.6 Particle floor boarding 6.4.3.7 Sound insulation and air tightness
Clay air brick - 225 x 150 2000 Acceptable particle boards consist of Oriented Due to the construction methods, it is more likely
louvered Strand Board (OSB) or Chipboard. that suspended timber ground floors will be more
225 x 225 6400
difficult to demonstrate satisfactory levels of air
PCV air brick 225 x 75 4645
Chipboard should be tongue and grooved and tightness and sound insulation. In ensuring that
Table 6 – Typical air brick net ventilation area capacities
(Ventilation rates will vary between different manufacturers)
all joints glued. The boards should be laid so that a reasonable level of air tightness and sound
the shortest length is laid parallel to the span. OSB resistance is achieved, the following provisions
The cross flow of air must not be interrupted by boards should be Type 3 or 4 to BS EN 300. OSB should be incorporated:
internal walls or low hanging insulation. All internal boards should be laid with its major axis at right
walls must have air bricks to allow the free flow of angles to the joists. (The major axis is indicated on • All joists to be supported off proprietary joist
air or be built using a honeycomb technique. the OSB board by a series of arrows). hangers at the junction with party walls and
external perimeter walls;
6.4.3.5 Floor boarding or decking Particle boards should be either screwed or nailed • Floor boarding to be sealed against the wall
Suitable floor boards and decking include tongue to the joists at 250mm centres. Nails should be using a sealant or proprietary tape.
and grooved softwood flooring with a minimum annular ring shank, which are at least three times
moisture content at the time of fixing to be the depth of the board.
between 16-20% and in accordance with BS 1297.
All boards must be double nailed or secret nailed A 10mm expansion gap should be provided around
to each joist using nails that are at least three times the perimeter of the floor against a wall abutment.
the depth of the board. Boards to have a minimum
thickness, as indicated in Table 7.
6.4.4 Precast beam and block floors • The beam and block floor should not be used to 6.4.4.3 Resistance to ground moisture
support load bearing walls; The precast beam and block substructure floor shall
6.4.4.1 Site preparation • All walls should be built off an appropriate be designed to prevent water ingress. There are
All topsoil and organic matter should be removed foundation as indicated in Chapter 5; commonly two methods of achieving this:
from beneath the precast suspended floor. The • A suitable mortar bed is required where block
ground level should be at least the same as the work between the floor beams bear onto load Method 1 - Damp Proof Membrane (DPM)
external ground level unless the ground below the bearing walls, e.g. perimeter walls; A DPM should be provided beneath the screed or
floor is free draining. Alternatively, a DPM linked to • Holes must not be made through the floor insulation; the floor void beneath the beams should
the DPC can be provided. beams and any service penetrations should be appropriately vented and ensuring that a cross
pass through the holes made in the infill blocks. flow of air between two external walls is achieved.
6.4.4.2 Suitability of beam and block floors Any gaps around service penetrations should The minimum area of ventilation should equate to
All beam and block flooring systems must be filled with concrete (ST3) mix before at least 1500mm2 per metre run of external wall.
have appropriate third party certification or screeding. This roughly equates to an air brick every 3m
accreditation, which meet the Functional centres for a typical PVC 225mm x 75mm air brick.
Requirement of this chapter. Where beam and block floors are to be installed The ventilated void must have a minimum depth
to areas with higher potential point loads such as of 150mm from the underside of the floor.
The manufacturer’s details and specification for the garages, additional reinforcing will be required
floor must include: to the screed to distribute loads effectively. This
reinforcing should be of at least an “A” mesh
• Structural calculations for the floor indicating quality and the screed should have enough
depth and centres of the precast floor beams; thickness to give an appropriate depth of cover.
• The suitability and durability of walls supporting

the beam and block floor;
• Recommended blocks for infilling between
the beams including compressive strength and
thickness of the block;
• All beam and block floors shall be installed
ensuring that the following standards are met;
• Floor beams and blocks are grouted together
using a cement/sand slurry with a mix ratio of
1:6 respectively;
Figure 14 – Typical precast beam and block floor with DPM Figure 15 – Typical precast beam and block floor without DPM
Method 2 - No Damp Proof Membrane • The minimum area of ventilation should equate 6.4.4.4 Insulation
Where no DPM is incorporated into the precast to at least 1500mm per metre run of external
2
Insulation that is to be provided to ground floor
beam and block floor, the following provisions wall. This roughly equates to an air brick every should be placed above the beam and block.
will apply: 3m centres for a typical PVC 225mm x 75mm Insulation should be installed in accordance with
air brick; manufacturer’s instructions and be durable enough
• The beam and block floor must be laid above • The ventilated void must have a minimum to withstand floor loadings and moisture. A number
the damp proof course; depth of 150mm from the underside of the floor; of insulation products require an additional DPM to
• The floor void beneath the beams should be • The solum level must be at the same level as the protect the surface of the insulation.
appropriately vented to ensure that a cross flow external ground level.
of air between two external walls is achieved;
CHAPTER 7: SUPERSTRUCTURE
CHAPTER 7: SUPERSTRUCTURE
CONTENTS
7.1 EXTERNAL MASONRY WALLS
7.2 STEEL FRAME
7.3 TIMBER FRAME
7.4 WINDOWS AND DOORS
7.5 CHIMNEYS
7.6 BALCONIES
7.7 CLADDING
7.8 ROOF STRUCTURE
7.9 ROOF COVERING – TRADITIONAL SLATE AND TILES
7.10 ROOF COVERING – CONTINUOUS MEMBRANE ROOFING

7.11 ROOF COVERING – GREEN ROOFING
7.12 ROOF COVERING – METAL DECK ROOFING
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.1: EXTERNAL MASONRY WALLS
7.1 EXTERNAL MASONRY WALLS
Workmanship Design
iii. Cavities should be clear from mortar droppings to prevent provided by a suitably qualified expert;
moisture ingress; iii. The design and construction of masonry walls must meet the relevant
iv. Masonry walls should not be laid in extreme weather Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
conditions. Standards and Euro-Codes.
Materials
iii. Materials should be suitable for the relative exposure of the
building in accordance with the relevant British Standard;

iv. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with the
warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years.
7.1.1 General 7.1.2 Brick and block suitability possibility of standing water within the structure
which could freeze. Bricks with a directional surface
Protection Exposure texture are intended to be laid frog up.
All new masonry work should be protected during Facing bricks must have a suitable level of
construction by covering to ensure that walls are durability and particular attention should be paid Care should be taken with the use of perforated
not allowed to become saturated by rainwater, to the brick’s resistance to frost and moisture. bricks where the exposure rating of the wall is high,
dry out too quickly in hot weather, are protected Further guidance can be found in Chapter 2 of as water retention/collection has been found to
against frost attack and the risk of efflorescence, this Manual. exist in the perforations.
line staining and movement problems are reduced.
Non-rendered block work Efflorescence
Any temporary cover should not disturb the All external block work should be rendered Efflorescence is a white deposit on the face of
new masonry. or otherwise finished with a cladding that masonry brought about by water moving through
is appropriately durable, unless the block the wall, dissolving soluble salts and depositing them
manufacturer can provide third party certification when the water evaporates during drying out.
confirming that the blockwork can be left
unfinished, or finished in an alternative way. Efflorescence is best prevented by:
Colour variation of bricks • Keeping all units dry prior to use;

There is usually a variation in colour of bricks of • Protecting the head of newly constructed work
the same style. To prevent patching of colour, it is with some form of cover to prevent saturation
recommended that at least three packs of bricks (refer to Chapter 2 of this Manual).
are opened at any one time and mixed randomly
Figure 1 – Protection of masonry

to ensure that the wall is of an even colour. 7.1.3 Mortar
Frogs and perforations General

Stability during construction Frogged bricks have a depression in the face of the Mortar type above damp proof course (DPC)
Gable walls should be appropriately propped brick. Normally, they should be laid with the major should be chosen in accordance with guidance
prior to the construction of any roof. When a floor depression, or frog, facing up so that it is fully filled given in Chapter 2 of this Manual, or as
or roof slab of a building is used for the temporary with mortar during laying. This ensures optimum recommended by the brick or block manufacturer.
storage of building materials, the loading should strength and helps to increase the mass of the wall To ensure adequate durability, strength and
not exceed the design loading for the element. (to give good sound insulation) and prevents the workability, lime and/or air entraining plasticizers
may be added to cement in accordance with the mortar specification may need to be changed
manufacturer’s recommendations. Cement and in order to incorporate an admixture to assist with
sand alone should not be used unless a strong mix water retention. On no account should masonry
is specifically required by the design. units or completed work be saturated with water.
Batching Dealing with areas of high exposure to frost and

Keep batching and mixing equipment clean wind driven rain
to avoid contamination with materials used
previously. Mortar should be mixed by machine or Frost attack
use ready mixed retarded mortars. Frost resistant bricks should be used in areas that
are prone to prolonged periods of frost.
Mixing
Mortar should be carefully and consistently If there are any doubts about the suitability of facing
proportioned, then thoroughly mixed using a bricks in areas of severe frost exposure, written
mechanical mixer, except for very small quantities. clarification by the brick manufacturer confirming
the suitability of the brick should be provided.
7.1.4 Adverse weather
Wind driven rain
Working in adverse weather To ascertain the risk relating to wind driven rain, the
Precautions should be taken when necessary to following should be determined:
maintain the temperature of bricks, blocks and
mortar above 3°C. The use of anti-freeze as a frost • The exposure to wind driven rain using Figure 2;
resistant additive in mortar is not permitted; • Ensuring that the correct type of construction
further guidance can be found in Chapter 2 of is used, including the correct application
this Manual. of insulation;
• The correct level of workmanship and design
During prolonged periods of hot weather when detailing particularly around window and
masonry units can become very dry, absorbent door openings.
clay bricks may be wetted to reduce suction. Low
absorption bricks, i.e. engineering bricks, should not
be wetted. For calcium silicate and concrete units,
Minimum insulation thickness (mm)

Exposure Suitable wall construction Built-in Retro-fill (other UF
category insulation than UF foam) foam
Very severe Any wall with impervious cladding 50 50 50
Fair-faced masonry with impervious 100 100 N/A
cladding to all walls above ground storey
Any wall fully rendered (2.) 75 75 N/A
Fair-faced masonry (1.) N/A N/A N/A
Severe Any wall with impervious cladding 50 50 50
or render (2.)
Fair-faced masonry with impervious 50 75 50
cladding or render (2.) to all walls above
ground storey
Fair-faced masonry 75 75 N/A
Moderate Any wall with impervious cladding 50 50 50
or render
cladding or render to all walls above
ground storey
Fair-faced masonry 50 75 75
Sheltered Any wall with impervious cladding 50 50 50
or render
cladding or render to all walls above
ground storey
Fair-faced masonry 50 50 50
Note:
1. In very severe exposure locations, fair-faced masonry with full cavity insulation is not
permitted;
2. Render on an external leaf of clay bricks (F2, S1, or F1,S1 designation bricks BS EN 771)
in severe or very severe exposures is not permitted where the cavity is to be fully filled
with insulation;
3. This table covers walls where the external leaf does not exceed 12m in height;
4. The exposure category of the dwellings is determined by its location on the map
showing categories of exposure to wind driven rain;
5. Fair-faced masonry includes clay, calcium silicate and concrete bricks and blocks
and dressed natural stone laid in an appropriate mortar, preferably with struck,
weathered or bucket handle joints. Cavity walls of random rubble or random natural
stone should not be fully filled;
6. Recessed mortar joints should not be used.
Figure 2 – Map showing exposure to wind driven rain categories Table 1 – Suitable cavity wall construction depending on exposure
7.1.5 Cavities 7.1.7 Restraint of walls

A traditional masonry wall should be constructed Walls should be adequately restrained at floors,
using an inner and outer leaf and a cavity should ceilings and verges in accordance with the
be provided between them which meet the relevant Building Regulations.
following provisions:
Restraint can be provided by:
• The cavity to have a minimum width of 50mm;
• To be kept clear from mortar snots to ensure • Restraint type joist hangers;
that the cavity is not bridged; • Lateral restraint straps;
• The two leaves should be appropriately tied • Other forms of restraint proven by a
in accordance with Chapter 7.1.8;; Chartered Engineer.
• The cavity can be fully insulated or partially
insulated, depending on exposure to wind Restraint type hangers
Figure 3 – Typical restraint type joist hanger
driven rain. For partial fill insulation, a minimum It is necessary to ensure that:
clear cavity of 50mm should always be
provided. Further information can be found • The hanger is bedded directly on the masonry Do not:
in BS 8104. and there is no gap between the hanger back-
plate and the face of the masonry; • Apply load while the mortar is still green and has
7.1.6 Structural design of walls • At least 450mm of masonry should be provided not gained sufficient strength;
A method of meeting the requirements of the above the hanger; • Use brick courses in block walls under joist
warranty is to design and construct walls to the • Hangers are spaced at centres of floor joists hangers – the thermal insulation of the wall
relevant approved document depending on the included in the design; may be reduced unless similar units to the
region; for example, in England and Wales, the • The hanger is suitable for the loadings and blocks are used.
masonry units should be built in accordance with masonry strength.
Approved Document A (Structure). Alternatively,
justification by design by a Chartered Structural
Engineer can be used as an alternative solution.
• Bearing on a timber wall plate;

• Carried by the supported wall by restraint type
joist hangers as described in BS 5268:7.1;
• Concrete floors with minimum 90mm bearing on
supported wall.
Figure 7 – Lateral restraint to gable wall via roof trusses
Figure 4 – Correct use of hangers

7.1.8 Wall ties
Lateral restraint straps Wall ties should meet the following provisions:
Floors including timber, block and beam, and
roofs should provide lateral restraint to all walls • Wall ties should be to BS EN 845-1 or have
running parallel to them, by means of 30mm x 5mm appropriate third party certification;
Figure 5 – Lateral restraint strap to gable wall
galvanized or stainless steel restraint straps at 2m • Ties should be appropriate for the width of
centres (See Figures 5, 6 and 7). Straps need not be cavity and have at least 50mm bearing on
provided to floors at, or about, the same level each leaf;

on each side of a supported wall and at the • To be laid to a slight fall towards the outer leaf
following locations: and have the ability to hold insulation against
an internal leaf for partial fill scenarios.
• Timber floors in two storey dwellings where:
• Joists are at maximum 1.2m centres and have

at least 90mm bearing on supported walls
or 75mm; Figure 6 – Lateral restraint to floors
Suitability and spacing of wall ties
Unfilled or fully filled cavities Spacing of ties (mm)

Width of cavity Recommended tie Horizontal Vertical
50mm to 75mm wide Butterfly 900mm 450mm (increased to 300mm at
Double Triangle reveals and movement joints)
Vertical Twist
Proprietary Ties
75mm to 100mm wide Double Triangle 900mm 450mm (increased to 300mm at
Vertical Twist reveals and movement joints)
100mm to 150mm wide Vertical Twist 750mm 450mm (increased to 300mm at
reveals and movement joints)
Greater than 150mm Wall tie specification and design to be provided by a Chartered Structural Engineer, or
in accordance with appropriate third party certification. Design will be determined by
location and site specific conditions.
Figure 8 – Wall tie provision
Table 2 – Wall tie spacing
Stainless steel wall ties should always be used. Proprietary ties are to have appropriate third party
certification.
It is important to note that only BS EN 845-1 type
wall ties or specifically manufactured (and tested) Wall ties are to have the correct thickness in
party wall ties are permitted in cavity separating accordance with BS 5628-2005.
walls between dwellings to reduce the transfer
of sound. Proprietary insulation retaining clip compatible
with the tie should be used where the cavity is

partially filled.
Figure 9 – Provision of wall ties

7.1.9 Bonding internal walls to external walls 7.1.11 Allowing for movement
Bonded walls in brickwork are comparatively easy Vertical movement joints should be provided to the
to construct but with blockwork this can be more outer leaf of cavity walls as indicated in Table 2.
difficult. Either: The first joint from a return should be no more than
half the dimension indicated in the table.
• Tooth every alternative course (See Figure 10)
or butt and tie (See Figure 11); Where the finished ground level is 600mm or greater
• Where blocks are of a different density, a below the horizontal DPC, the movement joint
butted joint should always be used; on party should be continued within the external leaf of the
walls carry the separating wall through and substructure. The DPC should be lapped a minimum
butt up the inner leaf using a proprietary bed of 100mm to accommodate any movement.
joint, reinforcement or suitable ties at each
Figure 11 – Bonding internal walls to inner leaf using ties
block course. Movement joints below the DPC should also be
7.1.10 Corbelling provided at major changes in foundation levels
The extent of corbelling of masonry should not and at changes in foundation design. Wall ties at
exceed that indicated in Figure 12 unless a maximum of 300mm centres should be provided
supported or reinforced. Reinforced corbels should each side of movement joints. Compressible filler
be designed by a Chartered Structural Engineer. such as polyurethane foam should be used to
form the joint and be sealed to prevent water
penetration.
Fibreboard or cork are not acceptable materials

for forming movement joints in masonry.
Elastic sealants (Type E) are suitable as they

allow for reversible movement. Where a back-up
Figure 10 – Block bonding internal masonry walls to inner leaf
material is used to control the sealant depth, it will
also provide a compressible space into which the
sealant can deform.
Figure 12 – Typical corbelling arrangements

The following must be considered: Timber lintels

The use of timber lintels is not acceptable.
• The material is compatible with the sealant;
• It will not adhere to the sealant preventing
cracking within the sealant;
• Provides sufficient density to allow the sealant to
be applied;
• Allows sufficient flexibility so as to not impede
lateral movement (compressible to about
50% of its original thickness). Fibreboard is Figure 13 – Typical expansion joint detail
not acceptable.
Material Normal spacing Joint 7.1.12 Lintels

thickness
Clay 12m (spacing up to 15m may 15mm Bearing length
brickwork be possible if sufficient restraint
is provided – consult Designer) Use the correct length and width of lintel for the
Figure 14 – Incorrect method of brick bond around lintels
Calcium 7.5m – 9m 10mm opening and cavity width. The bearing length
silicate and should be at least 150mm. Do not let masonry
concrete
brickwork
overhang lintels by more than 25mm. Continuity
Concrete 6m 10mm of masonry bond should be maintained at supports
blockwork to beams and lintels (See Figures 14 and 15).
(used in
outer leaf)
Lintels should be insulated to prevent excessive
Stone 12m 15mm

thermal bridging.
Note: It is not normally necessary to provide movement
joints to the internal leaf of cavity walls but should be Do not:
considered where rooms occur with unbroken lengths
of wall in excess of 6m.
The first joint from a return should be not more than half • Support lintels and beams on short lengths of
the dimension indicated in the table. Movement joints
cut block and make up pieces;
are not acceptable in solid party or separating walls;
however where cavity wall construction is adopted, • Apply load to the lintels or beam before the
offset movement joints with a solid rubber compressible masonry supporting it has hardened.
strip may be acceptable. Figure 15 – Correct method of brick bond around lintels
Table 3 – Spacing of expansion joints

7.1.13 Cavity trays 7.1.14 Weep-holes

Cavity trays, associated weep-holes and stop ends Weep-holes must be installed at no more than 900mm
prevent the build-up of water within a cavity wall centres to drain water from cavity trays and from the
and allow the water to escape through the outer concrete cavity infill at ground level. When the wallis to
leaf. They are used in conjunction with lintels above be cavity filled, it is advisable to reduce this spacing.
openings, to protect the top surface of cavity
insulation at horizontal cavity barriers and where At least two weep-holes must be provided to
the cavity is bridged. drain cavity trays above openings and a means
of restricting the entry of wind driven rain through
Cavity trays are to be provided: weep-holes in walls in exposure zones 3 and 4,
including at ground level.
• At all interruptions which are likely to direct
rainwater across the cavity, such as rectangular Figure 16 – Cavity tray over a flat roof/wall abutment a small pier
7.1.15 Stop-ends
ducts, lintels and recessed meter boxes; Cavity trays should have watertight stop-ends
• Above cavity insulation which is not taken to the to prevent water from running into the adjacent
top of the wall, unless that area of wall is cavity. Stop-ends need to be bonded to the
protected by impervious cladding; cavity tray material or clipped to the lintel, so that
• Above lintels in walls in exposure zones 4 and a stop to the structural cavity of at least 75mm
3 and in zones 2 and 1, where the lintel is not high is provided. Normally the stop-end is located
corrosion-resistant and not intended to function to coincide with the nearest perpend to the end
as its own cavity tray; of the cavity tray. Stop-ends can be formed by
• Continuously above lintels where openings are sufficiently turning up the end of a DPC tray into the
separated by short piers; perpend joint. Surplus mortar should be removed
• Above openings where the lintel supports a from cavities and wall ties cleared of mortar
brick soldier course; droppings and debris as the work proceeds.
• Cavity trays to rise at least 150mm from the
outer to the inner leaf, to be self-supporting Ring beams or floor slabs which partially bridge the
or fully supported, and have joints lapped cavity, e.g. when dimensional accuracy cannot be
and sealed. guaranteed, should be protected by a continuous
Figure 17 – Continuous cavity tray over two openings and a cavity tray, especially when full cavity insulation
small pier
is employed.
7.1.16 Steps and staggers Other perforations of the building envelope

Particular care is needed in adequately preventing Proprietary elements such as ventilators, soil
the ingress of water in a terrace of dwellings with pipes, etc. which perforate the building envelope
steps and staggers. A proprietary cavity tray system should be installed and sealed to prevent ingress
should be used, or alternatively, a suitable tanking of moisture or vermin in accordance with the
system. Stepped cavity trays are required at all manufacturer’s instructions. External meter boxes
pitched (stepped) roof abutments with external should be of a type approved by the service supply
cavity walls, e.g. attached garages or staggered authority and provided with a cavity tray and
terraces. The bottom (last) cavity tray must be a vertical DPC between the back of the box and
supplied with two stop-ends and an associated the wall.
weep-hole, allowing all water to escape over the
lower roofcovering. For brickwork, blockwork and
stonework, lead cover flashings should be linked
Figure 18 – Stop end to cavity tray
into the cavity tray (lapped in below).
Figure 19 – Stop end in relation to cavity tray and lintel
Figure 20 – Stepped cavity at roof/wall abutments

7.1.17 Thermal insulation severe exposure zones, it is recommended that a Wall type Thickness (mm) Parapet height
Thermal insulation to cavity walls should be inserted parapet construction is avoided altogether. to be not more
than (mm)
to a high standard of workmanship to avoid
Cavity wall x+y 600
poor insulation performance and to prevent of equal or less than 200
dampness migrating to the inside of the building.
x+y
greater than 200 860
Insulation should have appropriate third party equal or less than 250
certification and be installed in accordance with Solid wall w = 150 600
w = 190 760
manufacturer’s instructions.
w = 215 860
Note: w should be less than W as shown in Figure 22.

Insulation should not be cut or pierced to
Table 4 – Parapet walls/height ratios
accommodate wall ties, unless increased centres
at reveals or expansion joints are required. The wall
ties should coincide with insulation joints. Partial fill
insulation should be clipped or retained to the
inner leaf using proprietary fixings in conjunction
with wall ties.
For full fill cavities it is recommended that mortar Figure 21 – Parapet wall detail
joints to facing brickwork are not recessed.
7.1.18 Parapets
The minimum thickness and maximum height of
parapet walls should be in accordance with Figures
21 and 22. The materials used in the construction of
parapet details should be suitable for the location
and exposure. Where possible, the use of raking
parapets should be avoided due to the need
for high standards of detailing and workmanship
required to prevent the ingress of moisture. In very
Figure 22 – Maximum height of parapet walls (to be read in conjunction with Table 4)
It is advisable to use a stone that has been quarried

within a reasonable location of the development,
ensuring both weathering qualities and the visual
blending with existing buildings. Natural stone has a
grain or natural bed which is determined during its
formation in the strata of the quarry.
It is important that the stone is laid with the grain

running horizontal to the bed. In the case of jambs
and mullions, the grain should be vertical.
Walls constructed with a cavity are essential where

Figure 23 – Fixing of copings to sloping parapets the location is likely to be of moderate exposure or Figure 24 – Masonry cavity wall with stone outer leaf
worse. A sawn bed of 100mm minimum thickness
is to be used as the outer leaf of a cavity wall,
7.1.19 Natural stone Mortar
although 150mm is recommended. Where dressed
The mortar for use with stone should comply with
stone is used and the bed falls below 90mm due
General the relevant British Standards for sand, lime and
to the irregularities of the stone, the stone should
The following additional guidance for natural cement as set out in BS 5390.
be backed with either a brick or 50mm minimum
stone shall be used in conjunction with any other thickness block wall to maintain the structural
information in this Manual. When selecting stone This can vary in strength from 1:1:6 to 1:3:12
stability. It is not acceptable for the stone to be
for cavity wall house building, it is important to depending on the softness of the stone. It is
packed or wedged to maintain line and level
consider the exposure rating for the area. important to use correct mortar to allow for
without the backing wall being in place.
movement and associated shrinkage. Ensure that
It is not recommended to use a soft, porous type wall ties are stainless steel and are of sufficient
stone in a severe exposure zone. Consideration length to maintain a 50mm embedment. It may
should be given to the compatibility of different be necessary to double up the wall ties where the
stone to prevent staining and premature decay. coursing is out of line due to the varying thickness
Limestones and sandstones should not be of natural stone at the reveals, i.e. every other
mixed together. course, and to ensure that wall ties do not

slope inwards.
Insulation Jambs and mullions

Full fill cavity insulation should only be considered Stone jambs and mullions should be fixed at the top
where the outer leaf is backed by brick/blockwork, and bottom with stainless steel pins. Stainless steel
although this is still dependent on exposure, frame type cramps can also be used to give extra
i.e. either partial fill, leaving a residual cavity of stability at jambs.
50mm, or a clear cavity should always be the
preferred option.
In movement control where sealants are used, it is

important to select a non-oil based sealant to help
prevent any staining to the stone.
Cavity trays
In addition to the previous guidance for cavity
trays, the following shall apply:
• When stone heads are being used, it is

advisable to double up the cavity trays, one
below and one above the stone head, and to
provide stop-ends and weep-holes.
Figure 25 – Stone jamb and mullion, fixing to walls Figure 26 – Joining stone jambs to sills and head
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.2: STEEL FRAME
7.2 STEEL FRAME
Workmanship Design
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which will Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
not cause damage or deterioration of the product; and Euro-Codes.
iii. Steel frames should be appropriately painted to prevent
corrosion;
iv. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with
the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60

circumstances less than 15 years
7.2.1 Steel frame - general • To the structure; Some packing may be needed to achieve the
Galvanised strip steel should be designated either • To adjacent panels; required tolerances:
grade S280GD or 350GD to BS EN 10326. Structural • To the floor and roof.
design should be in accordance with BS 5950-5: • Less than 10mm – pack under each steel with
1998 and the building should be designed to resist The design should ensure that the structure is pre galvanised steel shims;
loadings in accordance with BS 6399 including: adequately protected from the effects of moisture. • 10-20mm – pack under each steel with steel
Exterior claddings should be compatible with the shims and grout over length of sole plate;
• Dead loads; steel frame. Suspended floors should be designed • Over 20mm – refer to Frame Designer.
• Imposed loads; to support and transmit loads safely to the
• Wind loads. supporting structure without undue deflection. 7.2.3 Fixing of frames to substructures
The oversite damp proof member (DPM) should
Steel and fixings should be suitable for the design Services should be adequately protected from be attached to the side of the slab and returned
and adequately protected against corrosion. damage. Walls and floors should resist the spread under the damp proof course (DPC) on which
Load bearing walls should be designed to support of fire. Internal walls and floors should be designed the frame is placed. The DPC/DPM detail requires
and transfer loads to foundations safely and to adequately resist the passage of sound. careful attention to prevent the cavity being
without undue movement. bridged and providing a ledge for mortar droppings.
7.2.2 Site tolerances
Wall panels may provide resistance to racking It is essential that the accuracy of setting out Holding down anchors may be galvanised, or
forces using one or more of the following foundations and ground beams are checked well preferably stainless steel straps which are fixed to
techniques: in advance of materials being delivered to site. the stud wall and attached to masonry supports or
concrete foundation, or holding down bolts fixed
• Internal bracing; For accurate erection of the frame, the following to the concrete slab.
• Cross flat bracing; tolerances are required at the level of the base of
• External sheathing board; the wall frame: 7.2.4 Walls
• Internal sheathing board; If stainless steel straps are used they should be
• Rigid frame action. • Length of wall frame: +/- 10mm in 10m; grade 1.4301 steel to BS EN 10088 and isolated from
• Line of wall frame: +/- 5mm from outer face the studs with neoprene gaskets or similar. Non-
The design should detail how joints between the wall of plate; stainless connections should be isolated from the
panels and other elements are to be securely fixed: • Level of base of wall frame: +/- 5mm over straps with suitable grommets and washers.
complete wall line.
Resin or expanding anchors should be used in an Vertical tolerances are: 7.2.6 Thermal insulation
in-situ concrete raft of a minimum C20/GEN3 grade Rigid thermal insulation material should be fixed
concrete. If required, steel frames can be fixed to • +/- 15mm in overall height of wall three storey or; to the outside face of the steel studs to create a
timber sole plates. • +/- 10mm in overall height of wall two storey or; ‘warm frame’ construction.
• +/- 5mm in storey height (approximately 2.5m).
For guidance on fixing sole plates, refer to the Where the condensation risk has been assessed
timber frame section in this Manual. The metal 1. A lintel should be provided where one or and shown to be negligible, additional insulation
frame should be located entirely above DPC more studs is cut or displaced to form an may be placed between the studs. The additional
level. Where this is not possible, Z460 galvanising or opening. A lintel is not required where an insulation should be placed in contact with the
equivalent, or a suitable bituminous coating should opening falls between studs. Non-load bearing studs to minimise air gaps and to prevent local
be applied to all components below DPC level. It is walls should have adequate strength and condensation.
recommended that the inner leaf DPC is turned up support;
approximately 30mm above the screed to protect 2. Non-load bearing walls should not bridge The following are acceptable:
the bottom of the studs from construction moisture movement joints in the main structure.
and spillage, and that weep-holes are provided at A movement joint should be constructed • Mineral wool to BS EN 13162;
900mm centres to drain cavities at ground level. between the frame and any chimney flue lift • FR (flame retardant) grade expanded
shaft to prevent load transfer; polystyrene to BS EN 13163;
7.2.5 Metal stud framework 3. Cavity barriers and fire stops should be provided • FR (flame retardant) grade extruded
The wall panel usually consists of a head rail, base in accordance with relevant Building Regulations; polystyrene to BS EN 13164;
rail (sole plate) and possibly horizontal noggins at 4. Steel joists should be spaced at centres no • Rigid polyurethane foam and polyisocyanurate
mid-height, together with vertical wall studs. greater than 600mm. to BS EN 13166;
• Cellular glass to BS EN 13167.

• Recommended site connections include self- Cutting holes for services on-site is not
drilling, self-tapping screws or 10 -12mm recommended, but where essential should be 7.2.7 Breather membranes
diameter grade 4.6 bolts. Welding is not carried out with specialist tools. Maximum size of Breather membranes should be capable of
recommended on-site; rectangular holes should not exceed 40% of the allowing water vapour from within the frame to
• Workmanship should comply with BS 8000:5; overall section and length should not exceed 60% pass out into the cavity and protect the sheathing
• Framed walls should be accurately aligned, of the overall section or be the depth of the section and frame from external moisture. These should be:
plumb, level without twist and securely fixed to apart. No holes should be closer than 1.5 x the
adjacent elements. depth of the section to the end of the member.
Notches are not acceptable.
• Vapour resistant to less than 0.6MNs/g when 7.2.10 Masonry cladding Additional studs may be needed to achieve this:
calculated from the results of tests carried out
in accordance with BS 3177 at 25°C, and with • Cavity trays must be provided above all cavity • Ties should be inclined away from the frame;
a relative humidity of 75%; barriers, windows and door openings etc; • Ties should be fixed to the studs, not the
• Capable of resisting water penetration; • Cavity trays should extend 150mm either side of sheathing;
• Self-extinguishing; the door or window openings and have • Ties should accommodate differential
• Durable; stopped ends; movement between the frame and the
• Adequately strong when wet to resist site • A continuous cavity tray should be provided cladding;
damage; where intermediate floors meet the external wall; • Soft joints should be provided to allow for
• Type 1 to BS 4016 in areas of Very Severe. • External skin of brickwork should be attached differential movement. A gap of 1mm per metre
to the metal frame with either epoxy coated of masonry should be provided at openings
If foil faced insulation is not used, then an galvanised ties or austenitic stainless steel ties and soffits;
independent breather membrane should be (to DD140, BS 1243, BS 5268, BS 8200); • All brick support angles should be installed by
provided to the ‘cold side’ of the insulation. • Ties are normally fixed in vertical channels. the Manufacturer or Specialist Contractor.
These channels are then fixed directly to
7.2.8 Vapour control layers sheathing boards or attached through insulation 7.2.11 Claddings
Vapour control layers should resist the passage of boards with stand off screws. (Screws should be More traditional claddings can include amongst
water vapour from within the dwelling and should isolated from the channels with neoprene or others timber boarding, plywood and tile hanging.
be a minimum of 500 gauge polyethylene sheet or similar washers); These types of cladding should be fixed to battens
vapour control plasterboard. • Ties should be spaced at jambs of openings, a and suitably attached at stud positions. For further
maximum of 300mm vertically within 225mm of details, refer to the timber frame section of this
7.2.9 Plasterboard the masonry reveal. Manual and the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Plasterboard should be to BS 1230 and not less than:
Render on metal lath combined with a breather
• 9.5mm for stud spacing up to 450mm or; membrane should also be fixed to battens
• 12.5mm for stud spacing up to 600mm. attached to studs.
To provide fire resistance, fire rated boards should Breather membranes should be provided in areas
be used and installed in accordance with the of severe exposure or worse. Other claddings
manufacturer’s instructions. should only be used if they are provided with an
acceptable third party accreditation certificate.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.3: EXTERNAL TIMBER FRAME
7.3 TIMBER FRAME
Workmanship Design
approved installer. iii. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
Materials Standards and Euro-Codes;
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which iv. Any off-site manufactured engineered beams/posts most
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product. have structural calculations which have been endorsed by
Timber frame elements should be appropriately covered to the manufacturer.
keep components dry;
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years.
7.3.1 Specifications
7.3.1.1 Introduction
For the purpose of this section, timber frame
external walls are generally considered to consist
of load bearing solid timber studs at regular
centres with insulation between them, lined with a
structural sheathing board; breather membrane;
cladding; vapour control; and fire resistant linings.
For guidance on other forms of timber construction,
e.g. SIPs, I section studs, Glulam, etc. please refer to
Chapter 3 of this Manual.
Figure 1 – Typical timber frame external wall

7.3.1.2 General specifications All load bearing solid timber studs, rails, binders and Where treated timber is cut, the exposed end
sole plates should be of a minimum dry graded C16. will not be protected by the original preservative
Structural design treatment. When treated, timbers are cut in the
Wind, roof and floor loads should be considered factory or on-site; the cut ends shall be pre-treated
in the design. All timber frame structures shall with a preservative that is compatible with the
be designed in accordance with Euro-Code 5. original treatment used.
Structures designed in accordance with BS 5268
may still be acceptable, although these standards Sole plates
have now been superceded by Euro-Code 5. Sole plates are the first structural timber component
When published, PD 6693: Complementary installed on-site. Its purpose is to set out the
information for use with Euro-Code 5 (currently in Figure 2 – Typical grading stamp building, transfer loads to the foundations and
draft with BSI) will reference complementary provide a level base for erecting the wall panels.
non-contradictory information found in BS 5268. All structural timber should be located at least
Sizing of structural timber 150mm above finished external ground level,
Quality assurance Timber studs and rails shall be: except for localised ramping (incorporating
All Timber Frame Designers, Manufacturers and satisfactory drainage and ventilation detailing)
Erectors should possess current certification from • A minimum of 37mm in width. around door openings.
at least one of the following quality assurance
schemes: Treatment of structural timber Sole plates should be fixed to the foundations
All load bearing timber components shall either be with shot fired nails. Proprietary sole plate fixings,
• BM TRADA QMark for timber frame; naturally durable or treated in accordance with anchors, brackets or straps may be used, subject to
• ISO 9001; BS 8417: Preservation of wood. Code of Practice. suitable third party certification or as specified by a
• CE Marking. Sole plates and load bearing timber studwork are Structural Engineer.
considered to be in ‘Use Class 2’. Sole plates are
7.3.1.3 Timber specifications normally considered to be included in ‘Service
Factor Code C’, while load bearing timber
Grading of structural timber studwork is included in ‘Service Factor Code B’.
All structural timber, whether machine or visually
graded, shall be graded in accordance with All structural timber should be treated with a
BS EN 14081: Timber structures - Strength graded preservative suitable for the ‘Use Class’ and
structural timber with rectangular cross section. ‘Service Factor’ applicable to its use.
Sheathing boards
Sheathing boards are fixed to the timber frame in
order to provide racking resistance to the structure.
Structural sheathing board materials may be any of
the following:
• Orientated Strand Board (OSB);

• Plywood;
• Impregnated soft board;
• Medium board;
• Tempered hardboard;
• Other board material with suitable third party
certification for primary racking resistance.
All wood-based panel products should comply

with BS EN 13986: Wood-based panels for use
in construction - Characteristics, evaluation of
conformity and marking.
OSB should be grade 3 or 4 in accordance with

BS EN 300: Oriented Strand Boards (OSB) -
Definitions, classification and specifications.
Figure 3 – Sole plate/foundation junctions

Plywood should be Class 3 Structural in accordance
with BS EN 636: Plywood. Specifications.
Impregnated soft boards should be Type SB.HLS

in accordance with BS EN 622-4: Fibreboards.
Specifications. Requirements for soft boards.
Medium board should be type MBH. HLS1 or MBH. Breather membrane based board at least 12mm thick;
HLS2 in accordance with BS EN 622-3 Fibreboards. A breather membrane is a water resistant, moisture • An independently assessed and certified
Specifications. Requirements for medium boards. vapour permeable membrane used to provide proprietary product.
temporary weather protection during construction,
Tempered hardboards should be Type HB. HLA1 or HB. and secondary protection from moisture once the Insulation materials
HLA2 in accordance with BS EN 622-2: Fibreboards. building is complete. Insulation materials should be chosen with
Specifications. Requirements for hard boards. consideration for their breathability and interaction
The timber frame structure should always be with the timber frame.
7.3.1.4 Other material specifications protected by a breather membrane.
Thermal insulation products typically used are:
Fixings Breather membranes should be:
All sole plate fixings and holding down products • Mineral fibre (glass or rock);
should be austenitic stainless steel. • A Type 1 membrane in accordance with • Wood fibre/wool;
BS 4016: Specifications for flexible building • Blown cellulose.
Timber components and structural sheathing membranes (breather type);
boards may be fixed with: • Self-extinguishing; Other insulation materials may be used, subject to
• Securely fixed to protect the outside face of the relevant third party certification.
• Nails; timber frame structure with austenitic stainless
• Staples. steel staples. Insulation may be specified in any or all of the
following locations:
Nail fixings should be: Cavity barriers
Cavity barriers are required to prevent the spread • Between the load bearing studs;
• Austenitic stainless steel; of smoke and flame within concealed spaces. • On the outside of the timber frame;
• Galvanised; • On the inside of the timber frame.
• Sheradised. Cavity barriers may be constructed from:
Insulation installed to the outside of the timber
Staple fixings should be: • Steel at least 0.5mm thick; frame structure should have third party certification
• Timber at least 38mm thick; for this application, and retain a clear cavity
• Austenitic stainless steel or similar. • Polythene sleeved mineral wool; dimension as detailed in Table 1 in Chapter 7.3.4.
• Mineral wool slab;
• Calcium silicate, cement-based or Gypsum
External walls should be subject to U-Value and • A minimum 125 micron thick (500 gauge) Masonry supporting timber frame, foundations,
condensation risk calculations. A wall build up will polythene sheet; kerb upstands etc.
be considered satisfactory if there is no calculated • A third party approved proprietary vapour Foundations and masonry supporting timber
risk of surface or interstitial condensation at any control membrane product. frame structures should be in accordance with the
time of the year, and it fulfils the minimum National relevant Technical Manual chapter as indicated
Requirement for thermal performance. Subject to a favourable condensation risk analysis, below:
a novel or reverse wall construction may not
Special consideration should be given to require the use of a high moisture vapour resistant Chapter 2 - Materials;
condensation risk, where non-breathable insulation vapour control membrane. Chapter 4 - Site Investigation;
products are installed on the outside of the timber Chapter 5 - Foundations;
frame structure. Wall linings Chapter 6 - Substructure;
The internal lining of the timber frame wall may be Chapter 7 - Superstructure.
Vapour control layer required to perform four functions:
A vapour control layer (VCL) is a moisture vapour Claddings
resistant material located on or near the warm side • To provide the finish or a substrate to accept Timber frame external walls should be finished
of the thermal insulation. the finish on the inner face of the wall; externally with a cladding system. This cladding
• To contribute to the racking resistance of the wall; system may take the form of masonry or a
Its purpose is to: • To contribute to the fire resistance of the wall; lightweight rain screen system. Regardless of the
• To contribute to the acoustic performance of cladding system used, a cavity with provision for
• Restrict the passage of moisture vapour through the wall. drainage and ventilation should be provided
the structure of the wall; between the cladding and the timber frame.
• Mitigate the risk of interstitial condensation. Wall linings are typically:

Wall ties
The vapour control layer is also typically used as an • Gypsum plasterboard; External wall ties and fixings between the timber
air tightness layer. • Cement bonded particle board. frame and masonry cladding shall:
The VCL may take the form of: Other lining materials may be used subject to • Comply with BS EN 845: Specification for
the material satisfying any relevant performance ancillary components for masonry. Ties, tension
• A vapour control plasterboard comprising a criteria, e.g. fire resistance and possessing relevant straps, hangers and brackets;
metallised polyester film bonded to the back third party certification. • Be constructed from austenitic stainless steel;
face of the plasterboard;
• Accommodate all anticipated differential

movement;
• Be of adequate length and masonry bond
to provide a clear cavity of at least 50mm.
7.3.2 Manufacture
Timber
All structural timber components should be
specified in accordance with the requirements of
Chapter 7.3.1.
Timber frame external wall panels shall:
• Be manufactured in accordance with the

Structural Engineer’s design;
• Consist of solid timber studs and rails;
• Have studs at a maximum of 600mm centres;
• Be braced with a structural sheathing board.
Figure 4 – Typical wall panel

Panel moisture content Sheathing fixings must not be over-driven through • Studs should be provided around window and
All structural timber components should be at the face of the sheathing board. door openings and adjacent to movement
a moisture content of 20% or less at the time of joints to allow the installation of wall ties or other
manufacture. Once panels are manufactured, Wood-based board materials used for sheathing cladding fixings.
they should either be stored in a covered storage should be fixed to the studwork frame leaving a
area, or loosely covered with a waterproof sheet minimum of 3mm gap between boards to allow for Breather membrane
material as shown in Figure 6. moisture related movement. Breather membranes should be lapped by a
minimum of 100mm at horizontal joints and a
Manufacturing tolerances Studs minimum of 150mm at vertical joints. If breather
Based on the tolerances given in pr EN 14732, wall Any point load imparted onto the timber frame membranes are trimmed flush with the edges
panels shall be manufactured to the following should be transferred down through the building of wall panels, additional strips of breather
tolerances: to the foundations with the use of multiple studs. If membrane, at least 300mm wide should be
these are not installed during the manufacture of supplied and site fixed over panel junctions.
• Length: + 0mm, - 5mm; the panels, the requirement for installation must be
• Height: + 3mm, - 3mm; clearly conveyed to site. The location of solid timber studs should be
• Diagonals should be equal, acceptable clearly marked on the outer face of the breather
deviation is +/- 5mm; Wall panels should be designed to minimise thermal membrane to ensure that cladding fixings are
• Opening dimensions: + 3mm, - 3mm. bridging. Gaps between studs within the wall panel installed into solid timber.
and at wall panel junctions should be large enough
Sheathing to allow the installation of insulation. Closed panel construction
The fixings securing the structural sheathing board If wall panels are to be of closed panel construction,
to the timber studwork wall panels provide racking Openings the guidance in Chapter 7.3.4 applies equally to
resistance as calculated by the Structural Engineer. All openings including doors, windows, flues manufacture. For the purposes of this Manual,
and ventilation ducts should be designed and closed panels are classified as open panels with at
The sheathing board shall be fixed to the timber constructed to maintain structural performance: least insulation installed in the factory.
studwork in strict accordance with the Structural
Engineer’s fixing schedule. Fixing centres should not • A lintel may be required where openings do Special precautions must be taken to protect
exceed 150mm around the perimeter of the board not fall between studs, unless vertical load is closed panels from moisture during storage,
and 300mm centres in the field of the board. adequately transferred by other elements; transportation and erection on-site.
• Lintels will require support by cripple studs;
7.3.3 Site preparation and erection • Unwrapped if tightly bound in polythene and
loosely re-covered with a waterproof
7.3.3.1 Precommencement membrane to allow ventilation;
To allow the building to be constructed as • Below 20% moisture content;
designed, all necessary drawings, specifications • Confirmed as square by sample checking
and fixing schedules shall be provided to site for equal diagonal measurements, lengths
before work commences. and heights.
Foundations
It is important that the tight tolerances for timber
frame are understood. Getting the location and
level of the foundation correct is one of the most
important parts of the build process.
The foundations or upstands which support the

timber frame should be set out to the dimensions
noted on the timber frame drawings:
Figure 5 – Possible gas membrane detail
Figure 6 – Storage of wall panels
• Within +/- 10mm in length, width and line;
• Diagonals should be within +/- 5mm up to 10m, Timber frame delivery and storage
and +/- 10mm more than 10m; Timber frame components should be: 7.3.3.2 Timber frame erection
• Levelled to +/- 5mm from datum.

• Carefully unloaded to avoid damage or Sole plates
If ground conditions require gas membranes, they distortion of components; The sole plate should be accurately levelled,
should be located so as not to inhibit drainage and • Stored off the ground on an adequate number located and securely fixed to the substructure as
ventilation to all areas of the timber frame structure. of level bearers; specified by the Structural Engineer. Where no
• Have packs loosely covered with a waterproof sole plate is specified, the following guidance
membrane to allow protection from moisture applies equally to wall panel bottom rails. Timber
while allowing ventilation if they are not to be sole plates should be treated in accordance with
used for a prolonged period; Chapter 7.3.1.3.
Location Damp proof course (DPC)

Sole plates should: A DPC should:
• Be located so that all structural timber is at least • Be located directly below all timber sole
150mm above external ground level (except for plates bearing on other materials which
localised ramping at door openings). The use of may transfer moisture;
a foundation kerb upstand may be an • Overlap at DPC junctions by at least 100mm;
appropriate method to achieve this; • Be located flush to the outside edge of the
• Be levelled to +/- 5mm from datum; sole plate.
• No overhang or be set back from the
foundation edge by more than 10mm; Packing
• Be set out within +/- 10mm in length and in line Structural shims or grout may be required under
within +/- 5mm, as defined by the timber frame sole plates to level them and transfer vertical load.
drawings; Longer sole plate to foundation fixings may be
• Diagonals should be within +/- 5mm up to 10m, needed to allow for the size of the gap.
Figure 8 – Kerb upstand detail to allow level threshold
and +/- 10mm more than 10m.
Structural shims should:
• Be non–compressible and inert;

• Be located under every stud;
• Provide equal cross sectional area to the studs
they support;
• Be located under sole plates to provide full
width bearing to studs;
• Provide full bearing under point loads;
• Not exceed a total of 10mm in height without a
Structural Engineer’s approval.
Figure 7 – Locating sole plates

Structural grout should be: Fixings

Fixings should:
• Considered for use by a Structural Engineer for
gaps exceeding 10mm; • Be installed to the Structural Engineer’s
• Non shrinkable; specification;
• Full bearing under sole plates; • Not damage the substructure or sole plates
• Packed under the DPC. during installation;
• Be placed to provide adequate lateral restraint
at door openings;
• Be specified with consideration for use with gas
membranes where appropriate.
Wall panel erection tolerances

Wall panels should be erected to the following
tolerances:
• +/- 10mm from plumb per storey height;

• +/- 10mm from plumb over the full height of Figure 10 – Wall panel erection tolerances
the building;
Figure 9 – Packing of sole plates • +/- 3mm from line of sole plate with maximum Fixings and junctions
+/- 5mm deviation from drawing; All fixings are to be installed to the Structural
• +/- 5mm from line at mid height of wall panel; Engineer’s specification unless otherwise justified.
Note: • Inside faces of adjacent wall panels should Guidance is as follows:
The use of structural grout is not considered be flush;
suitable for gaps less than 10mm due to installation • Adjacent wall panels should be tightly butted. • Junctions of wall panels and sole plates/head
difficulties. binders should not occur together;
• Head binder laps should wherever possible
occur over a stud, preferably at least 600mm
from the panel junction;
• Wall panel to wall panel connections should be

a maximum of 300mm centres;
• Bottom rail to sole plate fixings should be one or
two per stud bay;
• Wall panels should be adequately braced
during erection to maintain tolerances;
• Disproportionate collapse fitting and fixings must
be installed if specified;
• Multiple stud clusters must be installed to the full
width of point load bearings;
• Point loads must be transferred down through
wall panels and floor zones to foundations;
• Closed panel walls manufactured off-site must
be fixed together as specified;
Figure 11 – Head binder lapping
• Closed panel walls should not be exposed for
longer than necessary to avoid moisture ingress;
• Engineered timber components should not be
exposed to moisture for longer periods than Air leakage
those stated by the manufacturer; Detailing and installation instructions must be Figure 12 – Typical floor zone air tightness detail
• Roof trusses/rafters should be adequately fixed followed to achieve adequate air tightness.
to wall panels; Breather membrane
• Floor joists should be nailed down to wall panels; Breather membrane should be:
• If no head binder is present, floor joists must bear
directly over studs; • Lapped to deflect moisture away from the
• Waistbands and alignment of floors over walls timber frame structure;
should remain within tolerances for wall panels. • Lapped by a minimum of 100mm at horizontal
joints and a minimum of 150mm at vertical
joints;
• Trimmed leaving a 25mm lap below the
lowest timber sole plate;
• Repaired if damaged.
• To sub-divide extensive cavities. Please refer to

National Regulations for specific requirements.
Figure 13 – Lapping and repair of breather membrane
7.3.3.3 Cavity barriers

Figure 14 – Locations of cavity barriers and open perpends
Location
In England and Wales, cavity barriers shall be Note: Installation

installed: Cavity barriers may also be required between walls Cavity barriers shall be installed:
and floors within the building. Consult National
• At the edges of all cavities including around Regulations for further guidance. • So they fully close the cavity;
openings. e.g. windows, doors; • So the ends are tightly butted to form a
• Between an external cavity wall and a continuous barrier;
compartment wall or compartment floor; • Backed by solid timber studs, rails or floor joist at
• Around meter boxes in external walls; least 38mm wide;
• Around service penetrations in external walls, • In accordance with manufacturer or
e.g. extract or boiler flue; independent certifier’s guidance.
A cavity tray should be proved directly above a 7.3.4 Main contractor • Allowance should be made for differential
horizontal cavity barrier, lapped at least 100mm movement to occur at floor zones;
behind the breather membrane (except at eaves 7.3.4.1 Insulation • Cavity barriers should be tightly fitting and
and verge). If insulation is specified between external walls remain effective in a fire;
studs, all voids shall be filled with insulation to • It should not retain or transmit moisture to
maintain the thermal envelope of the building. cause the timber structure to exceed 20%
When noggings or boards are installed between moisture content;
studs to support services or heavy fittings, the void • Its stated thermal performance should not be
behind them shall be fully insulated. affected by cavity moisture. A breather
membrane installed over the insulation may be
Insulation should not be installed until the structural required to assist in this;
timber frame is below 20% moisture content and • A method of installing wall ties through the
the building is weather tight as wet insulation can insulation directly into the studs should be used.
retain moisture. If closed panel timber frame is
specified, additional care must be taken to protect 7.3.4.2 Services
the panels from exposure to moisture during In addition to general provisions for the installation
Figure 15 – Cavity tray above horizontal cavity barrier
construction. of services, the following are of particular note for
timber frame construction external walls:
Timber cavity barriers should be protected from If external wall insulation is to be used:
masonry cladding by the use of a DPC. The cavity • The routing and termination of services should
face of the cavity barrier should be left uncovered • Insulation should be installed in a manner to not affect the fire resistance of the structure;
to allow drainage and ventilation of the timber. maintain its stated performance by minimising • Electrical services are to be rated for their
The use of timber cavity barriers around openings gaps which lead to thermal bridging and air location with consideration for insulation;
allows for effective sealing to be installed between washing; • Wet services are not to be installed on the cold
them and the opening frame. • Installation should not allow external wall cavity side of the insulation;
moisture to become trapped between it and • Service penetrations through the vapour control
the timber frame; layer should be tight fitting to reduce air
• Cavity trays should be fixed and lapped to leakage and the passage of moisture vapour;
deflect cavity moisture away from the • Avoid running electrical services in the external
timber frame; wall cavity, except for meter tails;
• Services should be protected with metal plates 7.3.4.3 Vapour control layer (VCL) Vapour control plasterboard should be:
if they pass within 25mm from face of stud; A VCL should not be installed until the structural
• Adequate allowance for differential movement timber frame is below 20% moisture content and • Fixed in accordance with the plasterboard
to occur without causing damage should be the building is weather tight. manufacturer’s installation guidance;
provided for rigid services rising vertically • Tightly cut and fitted around service
through a building; Installation penetrations;
• Services which pass through the external wall A sheet membrane (polythene or proprietary) • Discarded if the vapour control backing
cavity and provide an opening (such as flues/ VCL should be: is damaged.
vents) should be enclosed with a cavity barrier
and protected with a cavity tray. • Securely fixed to and cover all areas of the 7.3.4.4 Plasterboard
timber frame external walls, including all sole
plates, head binders and window/door reveals; Installation
• Lapped by at least 100mm at joints; In order to provide the specified period of fire
• Lapped over studs, rails or noggings; resistance, the plasterboard must:
• Sealed around service penetrations;
• Lapped fully into window and door reveals; • Protect all areas of the timber frame structure;
• Lapped with DPM/DPC at the junction with • Have all edges supported by timber studs or rails;
the ground floor/foundation by a minimum • Be fixed in accordance with the plasterboard
of 100mm. manufacturer’s guidance;
• Be cut and tightly fit around service penetrations;
Note: • Have junctions of wall and ceiling linings
Small holes in the vapour control layer should detailed to maintain continuity;
be sealed with a suitable self-adhesive tape. • Be installed using the specified number of layers
If a proprietary membrane is being used, the to achieve the required fire resistance;
manufacturer’s proprietary sealing tape should be • Have all joints staggered when installing
used. Larger holes should be recovered to lap over multiple layers.
adjacent studs and rails.
Figure 16 – Drilling of studs

Fixing of plasterboard Acoustic performance

When installing plasterboard linings:
• Seal gaps between timber frame wall and the
• Each layer must be fully and independently fixed; element being installed into the opening;
• Fixings of the correct length and centres should • The element being installed into the opening
be installed in accordance with the plasterboard may have a minimum acoustic requirement.
manufacturer’s installation instructions;
• Walls requiring plasterboard to provide racking Weather tightness and thermal performance,
resistance should be clearly identified with including thermal bridging and air tightness:
plasterboard installed to the Structural
Engineer’s specification or plasterboard • The element being installed into the opening is
manufacturer’s specification, whichever is likely to have a minimum thermal performance;
more onerous. • Seal gaps between the timber frame wall and
the element being installed into the opening to
7.3.4.5 Openings provide thermal performance, weather
Figure 17 – Window/wall junction (jamb)
All openings, including doors, windows, flues tightness and air tightness;
and ventilation ducts should be designed and • Cavity trays should be installed over the heads
constructed to maintain: of all openings, lapped behind the breather 7.3.4.6 Claddings
membrane by a minimum of 100mm. A flashing All external wall claddings should be separated
Fire performance may be acceptable for some types of claddings; from the timber frame structure by a drained and
• Lap cavity barrier DPC with internal VCL ventilated clear cavity. If partial fill cavity insulation
• Internal reveals require equal fire resistance to around openings. Where no DPC is used, is to be used, the same width of clear cavity is to
the rest of the structure; breather membrane should be lapped with be maintained in addition to the insulation depth.
• Window fixing straps should not compromise the internal VCL.
integrity of any fire resistant reveal linings; In some locations, for example close to boundaries,
• Cavity barriers should be installed in the external national regulations require claddings to provide
wall cavity around the perimeter of openings; fire resistance to the structure from the outside in.
• If profiled steel lintels are used as cavity barriers,
triangular gaps behind lintels, which occur at Cavity barriers must be provided to meet national
each end should be closed with careful regulations.
positioning of adjacent cavity barriers.
7.3.4.6.1 Self-supporting claddings (masonry) above horizontal cavity barriers/trays; • At the base of the external wall concealed
Self-supporting (masonry) claddings should be • Be installed over openings in the external wall space;
connected to the timber frame using wall ties: cavity, e.g. windows and doors at a maximum • Above horizontal cavity barriers/trays;
of 900mm centres; • Over openings in the external wall cavity,
• Installed into studs provided around openings • Maintain a clear cavity, with care taken to e.g. windows and doors;
and movement joints, not just through sheathing; reduce mortar droppings at the base of the wall. • Allowing differential movement to occur while
• Angled to drain moisture away from the timber retaining an adequate gap;
frame, even after differential movement Weep-holes alone are unsuitable for timber frame • With openings protected by a mesh to prevent
has occurred; construction. Open perpends should be used. the passage of insects.
• Installed at a minimum density of 4.4 per square Proprietary open perpend inserts are available with
metre (a maximum of 375mm vertically with insect screening incorporated. Their equivalent Timber frame external wall minimum cavity widths
studs at 600mm centres and a maximum open area must be considered. Masonry 50mm
of 525mm with studs at 400mm centres). In Render on unbacked lath 50mm
accordance with BS 5268-6, closer centres may In areas of severe or very severe exposure, Render on backed lath or board 25mm
be required in exposed locations; check reveals should be constructed to provide Timber 19mm
• Installed at a maximum of 300mm centres additional weather protection. Tile hanging 25mm
vertically and 225mm horizontally around Table 1 – Minimum cavity widths
openings and movement joints; Vertical loadings from masonry claddings must not
• Installed within 225mm of the head of a wall. be supported by the timber frame structure. 7.3.5 Differential movement
Appropriate allowances must be made for
Cavity drainage and ventilation in masonry 7.3.4.6.2 Claddings supported on the timber frame differential movement to occur without causing
cladding should: Claddings which are supported on the timber damage to the building.
frame should be connected to it on vertical
• Be provided with the use of full height open treated timber battens, or a carrier system, to form Differential vertical movement occurs as a result of
perpends at a maximum of 1350mm centres or a drained and ventilated cavity to all areas of the compression, closing of gaps and shrinkage of the
equivalent open area; external timber frame wall. These should be fixed timber frame structure and occurs during the first
• Be fitted in the brick or block course below the into structural timber, not just through the sheathing 24 months following completion. Shrinkage occurs
lowest timber sole plate, above external finished to the Structural Engineer’s specification. across the grain and is due to a reduction in the
ground level and below DPC; moisture content of timber elements. The shrinkage
• Be provided to ensure drainage and ventilation Cavity drainage and ventilation should provide an of plates, rails, binders, floor and roof joists should
to each external wall concealed space, directly open area of not less than 500mm2 per metre run: be considered. The building should be designed to
ensure that differential movement occurs evenly to

external elevations and the internal structure.
Figure 18 – Differential movement at floor zones
Anticipated differential movement can be

calculated using the allowance of 1mm for every
38mm of horizontal cross grain timber. As solid

timber joists contribute significantly to anticipated
differential movement, engineered timber joists
should be considered where it is desirable to
reduce differential movement.
Figure 19 – Anticipated differential movement dimensions

If fillers or seals are to be installed into differential

movement gaps, their fully compressed dimension,
considering the area of the seal and force required
to compress it, must be added to the calculated
gap size. Materials should be chosen to provide an
effective weather tight seal dependant on whether
they are to be subjected to compression, expansion
or shear forces. Cover strips may also be used.
Figure 22 – Differential movement at verge
7.3.5.1 Self-supporting claddings (masonry)
Any material or component attached to the
timber superstructure which overhangs the brick or
blockwork (for example, cladding attached to the
timber frame; window sills; roof eaves and verges;
or projects through the masonry, for example,
balcony supports; flues; extractor fan vents or
Figure 20 – Differential movement gap under sill
overflow pipes) should have a clear gap beneath
and at the top of the masonry cladding to allow
differential movement to take place, avoiding
damage to the component or cladding.
The size of the gap should be calculated by

Figure 23 – Differential movement at cantilevered overhang
allowing 1mm for every 38mm of horizontal cross
grain timber which is present between the gap
location and the lowest structural timber. Gaps
will therefore increase in size up the building. The
dimensions noted in Figure 19 should be used if site
specific calculations have not been provided.
Figure 21 – Differential movement at eaves

each floor zone using the formula above of 1mm copper gas and water pipes, dry risers, internal
for every 38mm of horizontal cross grain timber. downpipes, SVPs and blockwork lift shafts. While
gap allowances externally are allowed below, for
example, a sill, when a branch comes off a rigid
stack internally, the gap needs to be left above a
service to allow the timber frame to drop around it.
7.3.6 References
BS EN 1995-1-1:2004+A1:2008
Euro-Code 5 Design of timber structures. General.
Common rules and rules for buildings.
BS 5268-2: 2002
Structural use of timber. Code of Practice
for permissible stress design, materials and
Figure 24 – Differential movement at service penetration workmanship.
Masonry cladding should not be supported on the Figure 25 – Differential movement at floor zone with cladding BS 5268-3: 2006
supported on timber frame
timber frame structure, but claddings do need to Structural use of timber. Code of Practice for
be supported. trussed rafter roofs.
Gap sizes should allow for anticipated differential

Horizontal cross grain timber and construction movement while allowing for drainage and BS 5268-4 Section 4.1:1978
gaps are concentrated at floor zones and this is ventilation requirements. Insect infestation should Structural use of timber. Part 4 Fire resistance of
where the majority of movement occurs. Vertical be avoided by using screens to cover gaps timber structures. Section 4.1 Recommendations for
timber battens or other rigid cladding support exceeding 4mm. calculating fire resistance of timber members.
systems should not span over the floor zones of
timber frame buildings. Gaps should be provided to Services BS 5268-4 Section 4.2: 1990
accommodate anticipated differential movement. Rigid services within the timber frame structure Structural use of timber. Part 4 Fire resistance of
Unlike self-supporting claddings, movement is not also require an equal allowance for differential timber structures. Section 4.2 Recommendations for
cumulative but should be calculated individually for movement as shown in Figure 19. Examples include calculating the fire resistance of timber stud walls
and joisted floor constructions. BS EN 622-4: 2009

Fibreboards - Specifications. Requirements for
BS 5268-6.1: 1996 softboards.
Structural use of timber. Code of Practice for timber
frame walls. Dwellings not exceeding seven storeys. BS EN 622-3: 2004
Fibreboards - Specifications. Requirements for
BS 5268-6.2: 2001 medium boards.
Structural use of timber. Code of Practice for timber
frame walls. Buildings other than dwellings not BS EN 622-2: 2004
exceeding four storeys. Fibreboards - Specifications. Requirements for
hardboards.
BS EN 14081-1: 2005
Timber structures. Strength graded structural timber BS 4016: 1997
with rectangular cross section. General requirements. Specification for flexible building membranes
(breather type).
BS 8417: 2003
Preservation of timber. Recommendations. BS EN 845-1:2003+Amendment 1:2008
Specification for ancillary components for masonry.
BS EN 13986: 2006 Ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets.
Wood-based panels for use in construction.
Characteristics, evaluation of conformity and pr EN 14732: 2011
marking. Timber structures. Prefabricated wall, floor and roof

elements. Requirements Draft for comment.
BS EN 300: 2006
Oriented Strand Boards (OSB). Definitions,
classification and specifications.
BS EN 636: 2003
Plywood. Specifications.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.4: WINDOWS AND DOORS
7.4 WINDOWS AND DOORS
Workmanship Design
person in a workmanlike manner; A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
Materials Standards and Euro-Codes.
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years.

7.4.1 Windows and doors - general • BS 4873 Aluminium windows; with the correct specification of materials
Timber used for external joinery should be a species • BS 5286 Specification for aluminium framed and consideration given to design, location
classified as suitable in BS EN 942 and preservative sliding. and exposure.
treated, if not, use a moderately durable species • Wherever possible, locate the entrance door
or better (sapwood excluded). Guidance on Glass doors: away from the prevailing weather and provide
selection is provided in TRADA Wood Information a storm porch.
Sheets 3.10 and 4.16. • BS 6510 Steel windows and doors;
• BS 7412 PVC-u windows;
Workmanship should follow the recommendations • BS EN 514 PVC-u windows.
of BS 1186:2. Preservative treated joinery which is
cut or adjusted on-site should be liberally brushed PVC-u windows and doors should also be subject
with an appropriate and coloured preservative. to independent third party certification.
Where the colour of the preservative will adversely
affect the final appearance of the joinery, an Windows should comply with the current Building
appropriately clear preservative should be used. Regulations taking into consideration:
Bay, oriel and dormer windows require particular • Means of escape in the event of a fire;
care in detailing and fitting so that they are stable, • Thermal insulation; Figure 1 – Typical level threshold suspended beam and block floor
weather tight and reasonably airtight. • Ventilation;

• Safety.
Roof lights should be proprietary components,
fixed within prepared openings in accordance with 7.4.2 Thresholds and sills
manufacturer’s instructions, and have effective Thresholds and sills should be at least 150mm above
weather-sealing. ground level. Where the top of a threshold is more
than 225mm above ground level, the following
Non-timber components should comply with steps are necessary:
the following British Standards (as appropriate)
and be installed and fixed in accordance with • Where level (threshold) access is required,
Figure 2 – Typical level threshold suspended concrete slab
manufacturer’s recommendations: builders can follow the general guidance
given in Figures 1, 2 and 3 ensuring a high
level of supervision and workmanship, together
• BS 4787:1 Internal and external wood door sets, guarding should be provided to the opening
doorleaves and frames; in accordance with the design requirements
• BS 6262 Code of Practice for glazing for specified in the relevant Building Regulations.
building;
• BS 6375:1 Performance of windows; 7.4.5 Control of condensation
• BS 644:1 Wood windows; Minimise the effects of condensation on glazing
• BS 8213:1 Windows, doors and roof lights. and frames by:
7.4.3 Security • Using insulated metal frames;

External door leaves should be of a robust • Using details which prevent condensation
construction. Timber doors should be no less running on to walls or floors;
than 44mm thick (or equivalent strength for other • Housing window boards into frames to prevent
Figure 3 – Typical level threshold with canopy protection
materials). Flush doors should be of solid core condensation entering the joint;
construction. Door stiles to which locks are fitted • Providing thermal insulation to walls at lintels, sills
should be of sufficient width so as not to create a and jambs. Guidance on this subject is provided
It is recommended that a matwell be constructed weak point in the general robustness of the door in BRE report, “Thermal Insulation: Avoiding Risks”.
within the entrance hall to accommodate the (119mm minimum width recommended for timber).
swing of the door without fouling the carpet and/or Non-glazed panels should be sufficiently small to 7.4.6 Security
the proprietary door seal to maintain the integrity prevent access into the dwelling. Additional security Door frames should be securely fixed and the
of the seal. may be provided within the design if required. rebate formed preferably from a solid section.
Where planted stops are used, they should be
External doors and opening lights to windows 7.4.4 Protection from falling glued, screwed and pelleted. Door and window
should be reasonably airtight by ensuring that For houses and flats, the guidance in Approved frames should be fixed to vertical reveals with
effective draught seals are fitted. Document K2 specifies a minimum guard height corrosion-resistant fixings at a minimum of 600mm
of 800mm to window openings in the external centres, with the end fixings being located within
External joinery should be designed and wall. This would normally be achieved by forming 150mm of the top and bottom of the frame.
constructed in accordance with the requirements window openings of at least 800mm above
of the following British Standards: finished floor level. The wall beneath the opening is
therefore considered to be the barrier to falling.
Where window openings are formed less than
900mm from the finished floor level, permanent
door should be non key operated (this is a fire Roof lights should not be used on single storey or
precaution requirement). other accessible roofs unless they are specifically
designed to provide a deterrent against forced
On the ground floor, with the exception of kitchens, entry and can be locked with a removable key.
all habitable rooms should either open directly onto Externally located hinge pins should be non-
a hall leading to the entrance or other suitable exit, demountable, e.g. welded or disturbed ends.
or be provided with a suitable window or door.
7.4.7 Means of escape
External doors (except main entrance doors) and Emergency egress windows in two storey dwellings -
sliding patio doors should be provided with robust with the exception of kitchens, all habitable rooms
bolts at the top and bottom of the closing edge of in the upper storey served by one stairway shall be
the door, e.g. 100mm barrel bolts fixed with 30mm provided with a window:
No. 8 screws. (See Figure 4). Where espagnolette
multi-locking points are provided, the bolts can • Which has an unobstructed opening area of at
Figure 4 – Security provisions to an entrance door

be omitted. least 0.33m2;
• Be at least 450mm high x 450mm wide;
Sliding doors should be designed so that they • The bottom of the opening area should not be
External doors should be hung on 3 no. 100mm cannot be lifted out of the frame from the outside. more than 1100mm above the floor.
hinges. A restraint arm or security chain should be Letter plates should comply with BS 2911 and
provided to main entrance doors. Main entrance either be located no closer than 400mm from
doors should be provided with at least one security the door lock or be fitted with a limited opening
lock and keep. flap. Where fitted to a fire resistant door, e.g. flats,
the letter plate should not adversely affect the
If a second lock is fitted, it is suggested that this fire resistance of the door. Windows should be
is positioned 600mm away. A 5 lever deadlock provided with a securing device which cannot be
should be provided to other external doors, sprung by levering the casement or sash from the
including patio doors. The lock should comply with outside of the building when in a closed position.
BS 8621 (and Euro Norm-12209) or be of a similar A key operated lock should also be provided to all
performance standard. Locks to entrance doors ground floor windows and others which are readily
of flats should not operate automatically and the accessible from the outside, either as part of the Figure 5 – Emergency egress window provision
deadlock mechanism on the dwelling side of the securing device or as a separate unit.
Installation of doors and windows 7.4.8 Fire doors

Window and door frames should be installed so that: Any door between a dwelling and an attached or
integral garage should be a half hour fire resisting
• They do not carry loads unless designed to do so; door and frame.
• The face of the frame is set back at least 38mm
from the masonry face. Masonry on the external 7.4.9 Bay windows
side of a vertical DPC should not be in contact The vertical DPC and cavity closer should be
with internal finishes; installed as shown in Figure 8.
• The window head is set back behind the edge
of the cavity tray;
• The frame to wall junction is weather tight and
reasonably airtight;
• In areas of severe/very severe exposure,
Figure 6 – Rebated window framed for areas of severe exposure
checked rebates should be provided. The
frame should be set back behind the outer leaf
and should overlap it as shown in Figure 6.
Alternatively, an insulated finned cavity closer
may be used that has third party accreditation
Figure 8 – Typical bay window detail
for use in less severe locations, as shown in
Figure 7;
• Distortion is minimised by not locating radiators 7.4.10 Workmanship
or other heaters close to doors; Window and door frames should be installed either
• The water drip to window and door sills projects by building in tightly as work proceeds, or by fitting
beyond the wall or sub-sill by at least 10mm and Figure 7 – Typical window reveal detail (normal exposure) into preformed openings, suitably dimensioned
the sill edge by at least 25mm. to provide an accurate fit for the frame plus the
perimeter weather tight joint.
Proprietary materials, possessing third party
should be used to close cavities at window and Timber frame windows and doors can be installed
door openings. They should also be installed so they abut the masonry. Any gap provided
in accordance with the manufacturer’s should not exceed 10mm. For gaps less than 5mm,
recommendations. the sealant must cover both the frame and the
masonry by 6mm. For gaps greater than 5mm, These “critical locations” as shown in Figure 9 are: Small panes should be:
a backing strip should be provided behind the
sealant. The sealant should have a minimum depth • In a door or side panel within 300mm of it • No more than 0.5m2 in area, and;
of 6mm. between floor level and a height of 1500mm; • No wider than 250mm.
• In an internal or external wall or partition
PVC-U frame windows and doors should be between floor level and a height of 800mm. Where concealed glass is used, a minimum of
installed with a gap of between 5mm and 10mm to 6mm thickness is recommended (4mm for lead or
allow for thermal expansion. For large framed units It is important that any glazing within these “critical copper lights). Some materials are inherently strong
such as patio doors, the gap can be up to 15mm. locations” should be either: such as glass blocks or polycarbonates, whereas
concealed glass will require to be of an increased
Frames should be fixed in accordance with • Provided with permanent protection; thickness as the area of the panel increases to be
the manufacturer’s recommendations or, if no • Small panes; considered ‘safe’. As an alternative to any of the
instructions are given, with the following guidance: • Robust; above solutions, it is possible for the material to
• Break safely. break ‘safely’ when tested to BS 6206 which would
• Fixings should be at 600mm maximum centres mean that:
and within 150mm of corners of the frame; If permanent protection is provided there is no
• Frames should be fixed either by galvanized requirement for the glazing itself to be of a special • Only a small opening was created with a limited
steel cramps or by non-corrodible screw fixings type. The permanent protection may take the form size of detached particles;
to the surrounding wall. of railing or barriers and should: • The balance would create only small pieces
that are not sharp or pointed;
7.4.11 Glazing • Be designed to be robust; • The pane disintegrates with only small detached
• Have a maximum opening or gap in any railing particles.

Critical locations of 75mm or less;
Glazing in doors and windows in areas known • Be a minimum of 800mm high; Detailed guidance on this aspect of glazing can
as “critical locations” need to be given special • Be non-climbable (especially where floor is be found in Approved Document N of the Building
consideration in order to prevent potential injury to acting as a balcony). Regulations.
people within or around the building.
Small panes, either an isolated pane within glazing
bars or copper or lead lights, should be restricted in
size so that any breakage would be strictly limited.
Linseed oil putty glazing should not be used when

the joinery is finished with vapour permeable paint
or stain; putty glazing should also not be used with
organic solvent based stains. Putty should be neatly
finished to receive a protective paint coat.
Putty is not suitable for double glazed units.

Workmanship should be in accordance with
BS 8000:7. To ensure compatibility of the whole
glazing system, with a high level of workmanship
and control, it is recommended that factory pre-
glazed systems be installed in all external openings.
External glazing beads should be pinned at a

maximum of 150mm centres (a maximum of
50mm from corners) or screwed at 200mm centres
Figure 9 – Glazing to critical locations
(maximum 50mm from corners).
The preferred method of installation for double

Glazing should be in accordance with BS 6262. • Any glazing on-site must have a drained and
glazed units is either:
Insulated glass units (IGU) should meet ventilated bottom bead;
requirements of BS EN 1279 - Glass in building - • Any glazing with an area greater than 1m2 must
• Drained and ventilated frames as
insulating glass units. IGUs should carry third party have a drained and ventilated bottom bead;
recommended by the Glass and Glazing
accreditation. This includes windows in possession • Glazing with an area less than 1m2 may be
Federation (GGF). Where possible, this method
of a BBA certificate and timber windows. solid bedded;
should be adopted for external glazing;
• All spacer bars should be stamped with
• Solid bedding of units in 16-18mm deep frame
• They should have dual seals - single seal units BS EN 1279;
rebates. 18mm rebates are recommended
are not acceptable; • PVC-U frames and spacer bars should be
by the GGF to allow for tolerances. In all cases,
• Desiccant should be provided to every stamped with BS 7412, 7413 and 7414.
sealants should not be sensitive to ultra-violet
spacer bar;
light. External glazing beads should be fixed
at a maximum of 150mm centres and the
glazing bedded in a non-setting putty. Louvred Glazing 7.4.12 Cast stone jambs and mullions
windows should not be used. Double glazing When viewed in daylight from within the room and Stainless steel dowels in the sides of the jambs
should be fixed and bedded as recommended at least 2m from the panes (3m for toughened, should be bedded into adjacent mortar joints as
by the GGF. laminated or coated glass) and looking at the masonry is constructed.
right angles through the glass, the following are
Control of condensation acceptable if they are not obtrusive or bunched:
Minimise the effects of condensation on glazing
and frames by: • Bubbles or blisters;
• Hairlines or blobs;
• Using insulated metal frames; • Fine scratches no more than 25mm long;
• Using details which prevent condensation • Minute particles;
running on to walls or floors;
• Housing window boards into frames to prevent Note:
condensation entering the joint; The above does not apply within 6mm of the edge
• Providing thermal insulation to walls at lintels, sills of the pane, where minor scratching is acceptable.
and jambs; Scratches on doors, windows and frames, factory
• Using trickle ventilators or similar, to provide finished door and window components should not
background ventilation where required by have conspicuous abrasions or scratches when
the Building Regulations. Further guidance on viewed from a distance of 0.5m.
this subject is provided in BRE report, BR262
Thermal Insulation: Avoiding Risks 2002. • Surface abrasions caused during the building-in
process should be removed in accordance with

manufacturer’s instructions which may include
polishing out, re-spraying or painting;
• In rooms where there is no daylight, scratches
should be viewed in artificial light fixed wall or
ceiling outlets and not from portable equipment.
Sills
The DPC should be overlapped by the vertical DPC
at the jambs and should be turned up at the back
and ends for the full depth of the sill.
The mortar bed below sills should be trowelled

smooth, allowed to set, cleaned off and then
a DPC laid over. The open section below the sill
should be sealed with a flexible material only at
completion of the structure.
To control water penetration through joints in

window surrounds, e.g. at junctions between jambs
and mullions and sills, rectangular and T-shaped
water bars should be provided.
Cast stone heads
A cavity tray must be provided above all heads
as this discharges water to the outside face of the
masonry, but also acts as a slip plane. A slip plane
will be required at the end of the cast stone head
as well as a soft joint between the top of the head
and the steel support lintel.
Cast stone window/door surrounds

Where cast stone butts up to other materials,
Figure10 – Stone heads and sills
allowance must be made to accommodate
differential movement, e.g. where cast stone abuts
clay brickwork, a slip surface between the two
materials must be incorporated or the cast stone
should be flexibly jointed.
Figure 11 – Stone sill with insulated cavity closer
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.5: CHIMNEYS
7.5 CHIMNEYS
Workmanship Design
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as defined i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication of the design
in Chapter 1 of this Manual; intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level of performance;
Materials Standards and Euro-Codes.

7.5.1 Support 7.5.2 Chimneys and flues A suggested checklist for these reports are
If a chimney is not provided with adequate support Ensure that all gas flues terminate to the open air, provided in Approved Document J. Special blocks
by ties or securely restrained, its height (measured i.e. flue blocks must terminate at an appropriate are made to accommodate gas fire flues which
to the top of the chimney) should not exceed ridge vent or similar even where no appliance is tend to be slightly thicker than normal units. When
4.5 x its least horizontal dimension, when measured fitted prior to the sale/occupancy of the property. used in external walls, care should be taken not to
from the highest point of intersection with the roof To demonstrate that flues comply with Building reduce the clear cavity width below 50mm.
surface (density of masonry must be a minimum of Regulations, reports showing flues have passed
1500kg/m3). appropriate tests are to be made available. If the chimney is in a severe exposure zone, the
cavity should extend around the outside of the
stack and be continuous up to roof level as per
BS 5628 Part 3: 2001. Where the chimney breast
is gathered in, the lower projecting masonry
should be protected with a suitable capping and
cavity trays. A 50mm cavity at the back of the
chimney breast is maintained to prevent rainwater
penetration.
Flue liners are used as specified with sockets upper

most and jointed with fire resisting mortar and flue
liners should be:
• Non-combustible;
• Reasonably smooth internally:
• Correctly jointed with mortar with the space
between the liners and the brickwork filled with
weak insulating concrete, unless the
manufacturer recommends an alternative
Figure 1 – Typical chimney details specification;
• Properly jointed at the junctions with the starter
block or lintel and outlet terminal.
A notice plate containing safety information about 7.5.4 Chimney tray, low level
any hearths and flues should be securely fixed in an Required at low level where a cavity-walled
unobtrusive but obvious position within the home. chimney with brick shoulders is built on to an
external wall; the tray prevents water which may
Where a chimney forms part of a wall, the enter the shoulders from penetrating to the inner
foundation should project at least 100mm wider leaf of the wall.
than the chimney base and should be the same
depth as the adjacent wall foundation. Factory Material: 1mm aluminium alloy sheet to BS EN 485-2:
made insulated chimneys should have a life of at 1995 ‘Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Sheet strip
least 30 years and be designed in accordance with and plate. Mechanical properties’. This has a
BS 4543, BS EN 1859 and installed in accordance higher melting point than lead, so is suitable for
with BS 7566. Where a chimney is not directly over installation close to a heat source.
an appliance or opening, a soot box accessible for Figure 2 – Typical flashing to chimneys
emptying should be formed. Chimney tray, high level required to prevent the
entry of water at high level where a chimney rises
7.5.3 Corrosion of lead work through a pitched roof; suitable for new build or
Where free lime from mortar comes into contact remedial work minimises disturbance to surrounding
with lead trays or flashings, (due mainly to the construction in remedial work.
continual saturation of the brickwork) in areas such
as chimneys, the lead should be protected from Material: Lead sheet to BS 1178: 1982 ‘Specification
corrosion by the use of a thick coat of bitumen for milled lead sheet for building purposes’.
paint covering the faces likely to be in contact Code 4 as standard. Standard sizes:
with the mortar. The protection against corrosion 800mm x 800mm, 900mm x 900mm,
of lead work buried in mortar is suggested in 950mm x 950mm to suit either 195mm square or
guidance issued by the Lead Sheet Association. 195mm diameter circular flue.
This treatment can also reduce staining of lead
and brickwork. It is unnecessary to treat flashings
Figure 3 – Flashings to chimneys at ridge
buried only 40mm–50mm into mortar joints (cover
flashings), as this close to the drying surface
carbonation of free lime is rapid and there is no risk
of corrosion in such circumstances.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.6: BALCONIES
7.6 BALCONIES
Workmanship Design
Materials iii. Balconies must have appropriate guarding meeting the relevant
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which Building Regulations;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; iv. The balcony design and construction must meet the relevant
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; Standards and Euro-Codes.
7.6.1 Balconies, public access terraces and • Roof zone depth (height from ceiling to
podium decks termination of waterproofing);
• Likely point loading;
Introduction • Construction process (a completed inverted
This section should be read in conjunction with warm deck roof, with suitable protection, and
Chapter 7.10. Where appropriate, cross reference which may be suitable for storage or access by
will be provided to the relevant section in 7.10. other trades. A warm deck roof will not be).
This provides specific advice and requirements in
respect of balconies and terraces of three types
as follows:
Figure 3 – Cold roof (section)

• Where the balcony or terrace forms part or the
entire roof to other occupied parts of a building;
• Warm deck; 7.6.2.2 Loading
• Inverted warm deck system;
• Where the balcony or terrace projects beyond 7.6.2.2.1 Statutory requirement
the building elevation; Design for loading must comply with Statutory
• Cold deck roof system. Figure 1 – Warm roof (section) Building Regulations.
7.6.2 Design 7.6.2.2.2 Resistance to wind load

In all situations, including ballasted and inverted
7.6.2.1 System types roofs, a calculation of wind load to BS EN 1991-1-4

should be undertaken by a suitably competent
Selection of system type person. Wind load acting on a balcony will
The cold deck roof system is not permitted on be affected significantly by the design of the
balconies or terraces that form part or the entire perimeter and by the geometry and finishes on
roof to other occupied parts of the building. In the elevations of the building. Any changes to
these circumstances, the selection of system type these elements will necessitate a review of the
(warm deck or inverted warm deck) should be calculation output.
based upon the following criteria:
Figure 2 – Inverted warm roof (section)
7.6.2.2.3 Resistance to imposed loads Wherever practical, balconies and terraces should 7.6.2.3.3 Creation of falls
At the earliest possible stage, the employer should be designed to fall away from the building elevation. Roof falls may be created either during the
define the range of potential imposed loads If this is not practical for reasons of continuity of construction of the deck or alternatively by the
for which the balcony is to be designed, such rainwater services, the falls should be arranged use of tapered insulation systems (warm deck roof
as planters, storage and public access. In the across the balcony, parallel to the elevation. systems only).
absence of such a performance requirement, the
loading limits of the balcony should be defined. Where the roof finish is to include paving on
supports, consideration should be given to the
7.6.2.3 Falls and drainage height difference created by the falls and spacing
of rainwater outlets. In order that the maximum
7.6.2.3.1 Statutory requirement height of paving supports is not exceeded, the
Design for drainage should comply with the minimum height of upstands is not affected or trip
Building Regulations 2000, Approved Document hazards created. On large balconies and terraces, it
Part H – Drainage and Waste Disposal – Part H3 – may be necessary to increase the number of outlets
Rainwater Drainage. in order to reduce maximum roof zone depth.
7.6.2.3.2 British and industry standards 7.6.2.3.4 Drainage

The requirements of BS 6229 should prevail in If a balcony is served by a single rainwater outlet,
respect of balconies and terraces, whether or an overflow facility of equivalent capacity and
not they form part or the entire roof to occupied clearly visible externally should be provided at
parts of a building and irrespective of the type of or near the same location, no more than 50mm
waterproof membrane. above the level of the waterproof membrane.
Figure 4 – Drainage layout options

Falls are not required for podium decks provided: Rainwater outlets should be readily accessible
without disruption to the pedestrian finish. On finishes
• They are designed with pedestrian finishes, raised above the waterproof membrane (warm
which allow rainwater to drain rapidly from the deck roofs) or water control membrane (inverted
finished surface and not to accumulate upon it; roofs), this may be achieved by a suitably marked
• The waterproof membrane has current paving slab or demountable section of decking.
certification (see Chapter 7.10), for use at zero
falls in this application.
Where rainwater downpipes from other higher waterproofing integrity, given that installation of 7.6.5.3 Protection of waterproof system during
roof areas or balconies discharge via a lower balustrade or glazing stanchions may occur after construction
balcony or terrace, an open downpipe shoe is not the installation of the roof system. At the earliest possible stage, the anticipated
permitted. The downpipe should be connected loading of the balcony, terrace or podium area by
directly to the downpipe serving the lower balcony Acceptable examples include the following, in plant and access during service should be assessed
or terrace. order of preference: in terms of:
7.6.3 Thermal performance • Full height parapet walls; • Load, e.g. foot traffic, equipment;
• Stanchions or rails secured to low parapet walls • Frequency;
Statutory requirement above the level of the waterproof membrane • Risk of impact.
Design for thermal performance must comply with (incorporated in copings or secured to
the current Building Regulations, as appropriate. elevation); If such usage is intense or long-lasting, during the
• Stanchions secured, clamped and sealed construction phase, consideration should be given
7.6.4 External fire performance to stainless steel (SS) bolts set in raised plinths, to temporary works only, with completion occurring
which were constructed prior to application of after all non-roofing usage has ceased, as follows:
Statutory requirement waterproof membrane (suitable for warm deck
Design for external fire performance must comply and inverted warm deck roof systems); • Warm deck roof system: installation of
with the current Building Regulations. • Stanchions secured, clamped and sealed to SS temporary vapour control layer, to be overlaid
bolts set at deck level, which were installed prior when remainder of system is installed;
7.6.5 Provision for access to application of waterproof membrane • Inverted warm deck roof system: overlay of
(suitable for warm deck roof systems only). completed waterproof membrane with
7.6.5.1 Statutory requirement geotextile and continuous temporary decking

Balconies should have suitable access and If the design requires a collar of waterproof such as plywood, Oriented Strand Board or
drainage meeting the requirements of the current membrane at the stanchion, the stanchion should compatible recycled thermoplastic board.
Building Regulations. be of circular section at this point and should
incorporate a weathering apron. 7.6.5.4 Pedestrian access finishes
7.6.5.2 Edge protection The design should include protection to suit the
The guarding to the perimeter of balconies, anticipated conditions as appropriate:
terraces and podium decks should be designed
to provide the simplest means of achieving
Roof system type Waterproof membrane type • Downstands (of separate metal or other
Finish Warm Inverted Cold Single ply Bitumen Mastic Liquid flashings) should lap the upstand by a minimum
(Podium) membrane membrane asphalt applied
of 75mm;
Porous concrete tiles adhered to Y N Y N Y Y (2.) Y
• Where the balcony or terrace forms part of the
waterproof membrane (1.)
Fired tiles bedded in screed and grouted (1.) Y N Y Y Y Y (2.) Y
entire roof of an occupied building, a
Precast concrete paving slabs on Y Y Y Y Y Y Y continuous barrier to air leakage should be
adjustable supports (3.) maintained;
Timber decking on timber supports (4.)
Y (6.)
Y (5.6.)
N Y (7.)
Y Y Y • Reliance on sealant as the sole means of
Table 1 – Pedestrian finishes for balconies, terraces and podium decks protection should be avoided.
The total roof zone depth should be assessed at

Notes: required to isolate the waterproof membrane critical points, such as the top of drainage slopes
1. Product should be certified for use with from spillage of liquids or timber preservatives. to ensure that there is enough free upstand
waterproof membrane (see Chapter 7.10); available to create the minimum required 150mm of
2. Consideration should be given to the effects of 7.6.6 Detailing waterproofing protection above finished roof level.
solar gain on the stability of mastic asphalt It is important that this minimum 150mm upstand is
under point loading in this situation; 7.6.6.1 General principles maintained at all points around the waterproofed
3. Paving support pad bearing area should At an early stage in the design process, an audit of area except at door access to balconies (see
be suitable for the compressive strength of the balcony, terrace or podium geometry should be continuous water checks and verges). Balconies are
insulation under design loadings; carried out to establish what types of details will be a frequent and acceptable exception due to the
4. Bearers should not impede drainage and should required and whether they are to be weatherproof need for level or unobstructed access, provided
be sized to suit the compressive strength of the (incorporating an upstand/cover flashing the recommendations in this section are followed.
insulation under design loadings; arrangement) or waterproof (providing continuous
5. Decking should be of sufficient dead load to waterproofing across the detail).
provide resistance to wind load and temporary
flotation of insulation; The following key principles should be followed in
6. Suitable certification for external fire the design of all details:
performance should be provided;
7. Membrane manufacturer’s recommendations • Upstands to extend 150mm above finished
should be followed, regarding protection layers roof level except at door access to balconies
and terraces (see Figures 5-7);
7.6.9.1.2 Temporary protection (during construction)

Responsibility for temporary protection and a
method statement for its use should be agreed
prior to commencement of works. Suitable
materials should be selected in consultation
with membrane manufacturer’s as appropriate,
for example:
• Linked recycled thermoplastic sheets;

• Rolled recycled thermoplastic or elastomeric
sheets.
Particular consideration should be given to

locations of concentrated access such as step-out
Figure 5 – Details. Principles – Upstand at door access - Warm areas onto the roof or where wheeled equipment
deck roof – Level threshold
may be used.
Figure 7 – Details. Principles – Upstands to decking and paving
finishes (e.g. balcony parapet) – Warm roof
7.6.9.1.3 Permanent protection (during service)
Permanent protection should be laid on routes
7.6.7 Design for sustainability where access is most likely. It should not be laid on
As per Chapter 7.10. routes where temporary ponding is likely, e.g. near
parapet walls in the absence of cross falls between

7.6.8 Materials rainwater outlets.
As per Chapter 7.10.
It is recommended that concrete paving is laid on

7.6.9 Installation support pads as this allows adjustment, reducing
risk of trip hazard. Recommendations are as follows:
7.6.9.1 Protection of the roof
• The height of support pads should not exceed

the maximum recommended by the
Figure 6 – Details. Principles – Upstand at door access - Inverted
warm deck roof manufacturer;
• Paving should not be cut; representation from the general contractor and 7.6.10.3.2 High voltage electrical discharge
• Paving should be firmly butted up against roofing contractor in attendance. The high voltage electrical discharge method
support pad separating pegs; is best suited to the testing of continuous thin
• Support pad separating pegs should provide 7.6.10.2 Procurement of testing services films such as liquid-applied coatings. Its use is not
clear space for rapid disposal of rainwater If testing to demonstrate waterproofing integrity is recommended with polymeric single ply, reinforced
between paving slabs; required, it should be undertaken by a third party bitumen membranes and mastic asphalt.
• Provision for movement at perimeters should that is independent of the roofing contract. The
comprise either a 75mm margin of washed testing service provider should provide evidence of 7.6.10.3.3 Vacuum
stone or a compressible rubberised fill. In either the following: Vacuum testing of seams of membranes
case, drainage should not be obstructed and manufactured off-site is an effective means of
a suitable restraint trim should be used to ensure • Efficacy of the method proposed in the quality assessment, but is not recommended as a
stone does not fall beneath the paving adjacent. circumstances of the project; method of demonstrating the integrity of flat roofs.
• Experience and training of operator;
7.6.9.2 Vapour control layer (VCL) • Membership of an appropriate trade 7.6.10.3.4 Flood testing
As per Chapter 7.10. association that sets a Code of Conduct for Flood testing is a suitable method of demonstrating
the service. the integrity of balconies, terraces and podium
7.6.9.3 Thermal insulation decks. However, consideration should be given
As per Chapter 7.10. 7.6.10.3 Methods of test to the effect of ingress on programme and risk of
entrapped water in insulation (warm deck roofs)
7.6.9.4 Waterproof membrane 7.6.10.3.1 Low voltage earth leakage and decks (all types). The area under any one test
As per Chapter 7.10. Low voltage earth leakage is a safe and effective should not exceed 50m2.
method for the testing of waterproofing integrity

7.6.10 Testing in roofs, where the waterproof membrane is an 7.6.11 Provision of Information
electrical insulator and the deck provides an
7.6.10.1 Final inspection electrical earth. It is not suitable for testing flat 7.6.11.1 Operation and maintenance manual
At practical completion of the balcony, terrace or roofs where the waterproof membrane has been The following information is required:
podium deck, all areas should be clear of stored overlaid with insulation and ballast (inverted roofs)
material, other site operations and all protection. or ballast only (ballasted warm roofs); therefore • Specification, as-built:
A thorough, recorded, visual inspection of all testing should be carried out prior to completion of
areas including details should be carried out with the roofing system. i. Waterproof membrane: generic type,
product(s) and (as appropriate) thickness;
ii. Thermal insulation: generic type, product(s)

and thickness;
iii. Acoustic insulation: generic type, product
and (as appropriate) thickness;
iv. Vapour control layer: generic type,
product (as appropriate) and thickness
(as appropriate);
v. Rainwater outlets: type, product, capacity,
location and means of access;
• Procedure for maintenance of waterproof

membrane including (where appropriate)
recommended frequency and method of
application of solar reflective finish;
• Procedure for repair of waterproof membrane.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.7: CLADDING
7.7 CLADDING
Workmanship Design
person in a workmanlike manner; A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
approved installer. iii. The cladding materials, design and construction must meet the
relevant Building Regulations and other statutory requirements,
Materials British Standards and Euro-Codes.
to the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in

any circumstances less than 15 years.
7.7.1 Render membrane and 50mm when the mesh or metal no upper limit on its soluble salts content. (e.g.
Rendering should be in accordance with BS 5262 lathing is unbacked. A DPC should be provided N designation clay bricks). Parapets, chimneys,
and workmanship in accordance with BS 8000. In between unbacked render and timber battens. retaining walls and walls below DPC level with
particular the following should be considered: this background should employ sulphate resisting
Battens should be either 25mm x 38mm or cement in the render and mortar.
• Abutments between cement render and other 50mm x 50mm, preservative treated (BS 8417, or
cladding materials or components should be equivalent, hazard class 2) and fixed at spacings It is recommended that:
weather tight and allow for differential recommended in BS 5262. Fixings and preservatives
movement; should be compatible. • The backs and exposed horizontal surfaces of
• Any joints in the wall where movement may parapets are not rendered;
occur should be continued through the Battens should be fixed to each stud with annular • Throats or drips to copings of parapets and
rendering; ring nails of length at least twice the batten chimneys should project beyond the finished
• Render should not bridge the Damp Proof thickness plus the sheathing thickness. Nails should faces to throw water clear;
Course (DPC) and be finished onto a durable be hot dipped galvanised, stainless steel or equally • Rendering to chimneys should only be carried
render stop; durable. Where cavity barriers are required, they out where brickwork contains little or no
• External rendering should comply with BS 5262; should be correctly fitted without gaps, fill the sulphates. Splatterdash treatment should
• Sand for rendering should be stored separately cavity and be fixed with stainless steel staples or be used;
from other building and concreting sands; equally durable fixings. Maintain settlement joints • As before horizontal DPC and damp proof
• For bellcasts a galvanised steel bead is below external frames and soffits. membranes (DPMs) must not be bridged;
acceptable; • Rendering is not used below DPC. However
• For other beads and stops an epoxy or PVC Where cement render spans across an where this is not practical, the render must still
coated galvanised steel is acceptable. intermediate floor zone in timber frame not be allowed to bridge the DPC. A bellcast
construction, allow for differential movement due must be formed in the render above the DPC.
7.7.1.1 Timber frame background to timber shrinkage by incorporating a movement
A drained and vented cavity should be provided joint. Vertical movement joints should also be 7.7.1.3 Other construction detailing
behind render on timber framed construction. provided at maximum 5m horizontal centres. Ensure that drips and throating to sills, coping etc.
Mesh or metal lathing should be one approved project beyond the face of the finished render
by an independent authority and fixed to vertical 7.7.1.2 Masonry background above the DPC.
battens at stud centres. The minimum size of the Walls should be examined for excessive moisture
cavity should be 19mm when the mesh or metal content prior to rendering. This is particularly
lathing is backed by a water-resistant important where the masonry background has
Notwithstanding wind loadings, the larger the Dead and live loads should be transferred safely • External and internal air and water seals;
eaves overhang the better. This will provide to the building structure without undue permanent • Drained and ventilated glazing rebates.
protection to the top joint and prevent rainwater deformation or deflection of any component. Sealants should be specified in accordance
percolating behind the render. with BS 6213 and the manufacturer’s
Imposed loads should be calculated in recommendations.
Angles, stop beads and jointing sections should be accordance with BS 6399.
secured with drilled or shot-fired fixings and not with It should be designed to minimise the risk of surface
Gypsum plaster. Movement should be accommodated without any and interstitial condensation by the use of thermal
reduction in performance. breaks and a continuous vapour control layer. The
Check whether the rendering can be applied system should be designed to resist the passage
directly onto the wall or whether any preparatory Fixings and supports should be designed to of airborne and impact sound within the building;
treatment is required in accordance with the accommodate specified loads and take account particular attention should be given to flanking
manufacturer’s instructions. The surface should be of product manufacturer’s recommendations. transmission at:
checked for suction by dampening the wall with Pull-out or destructive testing of anchors should be
clean water. carried out in accordance with BS 5080 and the • The edges of separating floors;
Construction Fixings Association guidance note • The outer edges of separating walls;
7.7.1.4 Vertical and horizontal flatness ‘Procedure for Site’. • The outer edges of partition walls;
Rendering should have a maximum vertical and • The junctions with roof constructions and
horizontal deviation from flatness of +/- 10mm in 5m 7.7.2.2 Testing parapets.
and is measured in a similar way to straightness on Packing of brackets to achieve surface tolerance
plan and plumb of masonry. should be permitted only in accordance with the It should comply with BS 7671: Requirements for
manufacturer’s recommendations. Electrical Installations for electrical continuity and

7.7.2 Curtain walling earth bonding.
It should resist the passage of water to the inside of
7.7.2.1 General the building, allowing free drainage and not trap The risk of bimetallic corrosion should be avoided
Curtain walling systems should have third party water and should have: by isolation of dissimilar metals.
certification confirming satisfactory assessment
in accordance with the Centre for Window and The curtain wall system should not include materials
Cladding Technology (CWCT) Standard for Curtain liable to infestation attack by micro-organisms,
Walling. The CWCT Standard provides detailed fungi, insects or vermin.
guidance on performance and testing.
7.7.2.3 Tolerances Where timber boarding or plywood spans across should be fixed to each stud (and not to the
Design should allow for the line, level, plumb and an intermediate floor zone in timber frame sheathing) with annular ring nails of length at
plane of the completed curtain wall to be within construction, allow for differential movement least twice the batten thickness plus the sheathing
the acceptable tolerances of: caused through timber shrinkage, by incorporating thickness (or plain shank nails of length 2.5 times the
a movement joint. batten thickness plus the sheathing thickness).
• +/- 2mm in any one storey height or structural
bay width; and; Where cavity barriers are required they should be Boards should be fixed to battens by face or secret
• +/- 5mm overall. correctly fitted without gaps, fill the cavity and nailing with annular ring nails at least twice the
be fixed with stainless steel staples or equally board thickness or plain shank nails at least 2.5
7.7.3 Insulated render systems durable fixings. times the board thickness.
These are systems which are applied to the exterior
walls of existing or new buildings, comprising of an Abutments between cladding and other weather- Butt joints at board ends should occur at battens.
insulant and a weather protective finish, of which resisting elements should be neatly made, be Nails should be either hot dipped galvanised,
there are three main types: weather tight and allow for differential movement. stainless steel or equally durable. Aluminium
Workmanship should comply with BS 8000:5. nails should not be used with copper containing
• Traditional renders and finishes; preservative treated timber and galvanised nails
• Thin coat renders and synthetic finishes; 7.7.4.1 Timber boarding should not be used with Western Red Cedar.
• Preformed cladding materials. Timber boarding should be at least 16mm thick
and allowance for moisture movement in boarding
All insulated render systems must have appropriate should be made by making tongues, joints or
third party certification. overlaps at least 10% of the board width.
7.7.4 Timber cladding Timber boarding should be battened off the

Timber and boards for exterior use should be of supporting background to provide a minimum
a durable species, with sapwood excluded, or 19mm cavity for draining and venting.
preservative treated by pressure impregnation
using preservatives suitable for use in hazard class Battens should be a minimum 38mm wide,
3 in compliance with BS 8417:2003, or equivalent. preservative treated and at maximum 600mm
Further guidance on the durability of timber is centres. A breather membrane should always
provided in Chapter 2. be installed when horizontal battens are located
against the sheathing. Battens on timber frame
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.8: ROOF STRUCTURE
7.8 ROOF STRUCTURE
Workmanship Design
iii. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
Materials Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which Standards and Euro-Codes.

7.8.1 Statutory requirements roofs, should be considered especially for single- 7.8.1.3 Allowances for wind loading
hipped and non-hipped roofs of more than 40° for The need for a roof to withstand wind pressure and
7.8.1.1 Roof structure and loading detached houses. suction will be met if the proposed roof is braced
Roof framing and rafter design must be in effectively, as discussed elsewhere in this Manual,
accordance with current Building Regulations. Section 2B of Approved Document A (England and and secured to the structure, as detailed below
Wales) contains advice on ‘sizing of certain timber with walls adequately restrained.
The building roof shall be constructed so that the members in floors and roofs for dwellings’ and refers
combined dead, imposed and wind loads are the Designer on to the following sources: Securing of roofs to the supporting structure roof
sustained and transmitted by it to the ground timbers are normally supported on a timber wall
safely; and without causing such deflection or • ‘Span tables for solid timber members in floors, plate or similar, which should be levelled using
deformation of any part of the building, or such ceilings and roofs (excluding trussed rafter roofs) a spirit level so that loadings from the roof are
movement of the ground, as will impair the stability for dwellings’. Published by TRADA; directed perpendicularly down the supporting wall.
of any part of another building. • BS 8103-3: Structure design of low-rise buildings,
Code of Practice for timber floors and roofs The wall plate may as good practice, be fixed to
Section 2A of Approved Document A (England for dwellings; ensure correct positioning when roof timbers or
and Wales) gives basic requirements for the stability • BS EN 1995-1: 2004+A1, Euro-Code 5 design of trusses are being installed, by means of galvanised
of low rise residential buildings. With respect to the timber structures. General. Common rules and mild steel holding down straps (30mm x 5mm x
roof, it requires that the structure should be of such rules for buildings. 1000mm long at maximum 2m centres), nailed
construction that it has adequate interconnection to the wall plate and securely fixed to the inner
with the walls, so that it can act as a horizontal 7.8.1.2 Section 2C of Approved Document A surface of the wall with compatible fixings.
diaphragm capable of transferring the wind forces The design criteria set out is intended to be
to buttressing elements of the building. adequate for imposed roof loads of 1.00kN/m2 for There is a need to ensure that holding down straps
spans not exceeding 12m and 1.50kN/m2 for spans are provided in areas of severe wind exposure
In this respect, it is acknowledged that a traditional not exceeding 6m. where required by the roof design.
cut roof, i.e. using rafters, purlins and ceiling
joists generally has sufficient built-in resistance All structural timber used in a conventional cut roof, 7.8.2 Treatment of timber
to instability and wind forces, e.g. from either i.e. rafters, purlins, ceiling joists, binders and other Preservative treatment of roof timbers is normally
hipped ends, tiling battens, rigid sarking, or the timber elements should be stress graded. All such unnecessary, except where specifically required
like. However, the need for diagonal rafter bracing timber must be either stamped as ‘DRY’ or ‘KD’ under relevant standards and Codes of Practice,
equivalent to that recommended in BS EN 1995-1: (Kiln Dry). The use of ungraded or “green” timber is and in the following circumstances:
2004+A1, or Annex H of BS 8103-3 for trussed rafter not acceptable.
• Roof timbers should be preservative treated The treatment should be impregnated with a 7.8.3 Trussed rafter design
where the insulation and ceiling line follow the preservative suitable for use in hazard Class 2, in
roof pitch; accordance with BS 8417:2003, or equivalent, for 7.8.3.1 Design responsibility
• The Approved Document of Regulation 7 of the a 60 year anticipated service life. Cut ends must The Building Designer is responsible for the ‘framing’
Building Regulations for England and Wales be liberally brushed or dipped with an end-grain of any given roof as a whole. This means that he or
requires that in certain geographical areas, all preservative. she must take responsibility for the bracing together
softwood roof timbers should be treated against (framing) of the trussed rafter configuration, which
attack by the House Longhorn Beetle. It is strongly recommended that where punched, then supports the roof covering as well as tying
metal fasteners are proposed to roof trusses - only together the supporting walls.
The areas at risk are: micro-emulsion or organic solvent preservatives
should be used for timber treatment to limit the Whilst it is the supplier of the rafters who generally
• The District of Bracknell Forest; possibility of corrosion of the fasteners and so as not has the knowledge and expertise required to
• The Borough of Elmbridge; to adversely affect glued joints. achieve the best engineering solutions, the Designer
• The Borough of Guildford (other than the area must be certain that the loading calculations and
of the former Borough of Guildford); resultant configuration is fit for purpose.
• The District of Hart (other than the area of the
former urban District of Fleet); The following checklists, derived from BS EN 1995-1:
• The District of Runnymede; 2004+A1, set out:
• The Borough of Spelthorne;
• The Borough of Surrey Heath; • Information required by the Manufacturer from
• In the Borough of Rushmoor, the area of the the Designer; and;
former District of Farnborough; • Information that should be supplied by the

• The District of Waverley (other than the parishes Manufacturer to the Designer.
of Godalming and Haslemere);
• In the Royal Borough of Windsor and Designer to Truss Manufacturer
Maidenhead, the parishes of Old Windsor,
Sunningdale and Sunninghill; • The height and location of the building with
• The Borough of Woking. reference to any unusual wind conditions;
• The profile of the trussed rafter including camber
if required;
Figure 1 – Timber treatment • The span of the trussed rafter;
• The pitch or pitches of the roof; • The positions, fixings and sizes of any lateral 7.8.3.3 Loads
• The method of support and position of supports; supports necessary to prevent buckling of Trussed rafters and the framed roof must support
• The type or weights of roof tiles or covering compression members such as rafters and struts. the dead loads as specified in BS EN 1991-1 and
including sarking, insulation and ceiling (Details of the permanent bracing necessary BS EN 1991-1-7, the wind loads in BS EN 1991-1-
materials; to ensure the overall stability of the complete 4:2005+A1, and the imposed loads in BS EN 1991-1-3.
• The size and approximate position of any water roof structure and supporting walls should be Loads acting on rafters are dead loads (tiles/slates,
tanks or other equipment to be supported on provided by the Building Designer); battens, underlay and rafter self-weight), and
the trussed rafters; • The method of support for tanks and ancillary imposed loads (snow load and maintenance) and
• The overhang of rafters at eaves and other equipment together with the capacity or the wind uplift load. Other dead loads act on the
eaves details; magnitude of additional load assumed; ceiling ties (ceiling, insulation, water tanks and the
• The positions and dimensions of hatches, • The range of reactions to be accommodated tie self-weight) and imposed loads (loft access and
chimneys and other openings; at the support positions including those required weight of storage) will also have to be taken into
• The service use of the building with reference to to resist wind uplift forces; account by the Designer.
any unusual environmental conditions and the • The basis of the design;
type of preservative treatment where required; • Details of any changes in spacing to BS EN 1991-1 and BS EN 1991-1-7 specifies the
• The spacing of trussed rafters and special timber accommodate chimneys or openings; following limits for imposed loads on the rafters
sizes where these are required to match • Any special precautions for handling and uniformly distributed over the whole roof, measured
existing construction. erection, in addition to those covered by on plan:
BS EN 1995-1: 2004+A1.
Truss Manufacturer to Designer • Roofs pitched 10° to 30°: 0.75kN/m2;
7.8.3.2 Spans • Roofs pitched 31° to 75°: 0.75kN/m2 - 0 kN/m2
• Finished sizes, species, stress grades or strength Maximum permissible spans for the most common (reduced linearly);
classes of timber members; building types and rafter configurations are given
• The type, sizes and positions of all jointing in BS EN 1995-1: 2004+A1 Section 9. For designs that Or:
devices with tolerances, or the number of fall outside BS EN 1995-1: 2004+A1 conditions, the
effective teeth or nails required in each trussed rafter must demonstrate adequate jointing • A concentrated load of 0.9kN, whichever
member at each joint; and structural integrity by calculation. produces the greater stress or deflection;
• The positions and sizes of all bearings; • Experience shows that for most common tiled
• Loadings and other conditions for which the and slated roofs, the uniformly distributed load is
trussed rafters are designed; more severe.
• The spacing of trussed rafters;
7.8.3.4 Bracing, support and typical roof openings • Anticipated loading of the roof structure, i.e. There is a need to ensure that the trusses are stored
(BS EN 1995-1-1:2004+A1) the weight of the roof tiles and the exposure of in a vertical position as in Figure 2, to prevent
As stated in Chapter 7.8.3.1, the Designer is the site should it attract excessive wind loads; any distortion.
responsible for framing the roof. The correct • Position and size of water tanks;
bracing configuration locks all timber supporting • Position and size of openings; i.e. loft hatches,
roof elements into a single structural, load bearing roof windows, chimneys;
unit. Standard bracing details are given in • Due to the site locality, any particular
BS 5268-3, Appendix A and further information can preservative treatment necessary for the timber,
be found in BRE Defect Action Sheets 83 and 84. e.g. to protect against House Longhorn Beetle;
• Eaves details, i.e. overhang required, etc.
Re-covering of roofs Approved Document A,
Section 4 deals with the requirements for checking In return, the Trussed Rafter Designer should supply
the structural integrity of the roof and supporting the following details for site use:
structure when considering the re-roofing of
buildings. • Position, bearing and spacing of trussed rafters;
• Position, fixings and sizes of lateral supports to
Figure 2 – Site storage of trusses
Information and design criteria necessary for prevent buckling of compression members such
ordering BS 5268:3 provides a comprehensive list as rafters and struts;
of criteria that should be supplied by the Building • Deviations from standard spacings, etc. to Horizontal storage is sometimes possible as in
Designer or Site Supervisor to the Trussed Rafter accommodate openings; Figure 3. In both cases, stacks of trusses should
Designer/Fabricator to enable a design to be • Support details for water tanks; be covered with a weatherproof cover, whilst
prepared. • Any special handling equipment. maintaining adequate ventilation to prevent the
occurrence of condensation. Trusses should be
This includes: 7.8.3.5 Site storage checked visually upon arrival at site for damage
The delivery of trussed rafters should be planned occurring during transportation and again before
• Span of the trussed rafter, wall plate to wall so as to minimise the period of storage necessary site use to check for damage occurring during
plate plus the width of wall plate at each end; on-site. When delivered, the trusses should, at all storage. Trusses where moisture content exceeds
• Pitch of the roof; times, be kept clear of the ground and vegetation 20% should not be installed.
• Method of support; and be supported by level bearers sited under or
• Position of support; adjacent to the points of support assumed by
the design.
Figure 4 – Suggested method of manual lifting
Figure 3 – Horizontal storage of trusses
7.8.3.6 Handling and transportation Figure 6 – Mechanical lifting
When transporting and handling trussed rafters,

sagging and flexing should be avoided at all
7.8.3.7 Erection
times. Whether handling is manual or by using
Figure 5 – Avoid bending or see-sawing of trusses
It is essential when erecting a trussed rafter roof to
mechanical equipment, trusses should be moved in
ensure that the first trussed rafter is erected and
a vertical position unless support can be provided
braced rigidly in the correct vertical position so
to every joint.
that it provides a base model against which all the
Mechanical lifting
other trusses can be set out.

Manual lifting Ideally where mechanical lifting is used, the trusses
On long span trusses it may be necessary to employ should be lifted in banded sets and lowered onto
Any temporary bracing should not be removed
additional labour at intermediate positions. If suitable supports. Lifting points should be rafter
until permanent bracing has been installed.
required, the truss may be inverted so that the apex or ceiling intersections or node points. Lifting
Immediately prior to the fixing of permanent
hangs down. See-sawing the truss across walls and trusses singularly should be avoided but where
bracing, the trussed rafters should be checked
scaffolding must be avoided. Individual designs and unavoidable a suitable spreader bar should be
again for alignment and verticality.
site conditions may dictate different requirements used to withstand the sling force.
in order to install trusses in their final position.
The International Truss Plate Association Technical Sarking boards such as moisture resistant plywood
Handbook, available from trussed rafter suppliers, (minimum thickness 9mm) and moisture resistant
provides additional advice on trussed rafter erection. chipboard (minimum thickness 12mm) may provide
adequate bracing without the need for additional
7.8.3.8 Bracing to duo-pitched roofs wind bracing to the roof. Sarking boards should
be laid with staggered joints and nailed at 200mm
Fixing centres on every truss with 50mm long x 3mm
To achieve a stable and wind resistant roof and diameter galvanised round wire nails.
gable wall structure, the roof must be secured to
the gable wall, if applicable, and fully braced by Longitudinal bracing
100mm x 25mm timber, twice nailed to roof timbers Longitudinal bracing is shown in Figure 7; it should
Figure 7 – Trussed roof installation
using 65mm long, 3.35mm diameter galvanised be positioned tightly to abut separating and
wire nails. Where nail guns are used 3.1mm x 75mm gable walls. In timber frame construction, you
long annular ring-shank nails are allowed. They do should ensure that longitudinal braces are fixed to
Procedure for erection using Figure 7 not need to be galvanised. timber frame gables/separating walls to provide
additional lateral restraint.
• Before placing first truss, mark required position Types of bracing
of trussed rafters on opposing wall plates; There are three main types of wind bracing, which Chevron bracing
• Erect and brace first trussed rafter (A); should be fixed: Chevron bracing is only required for roof spans
• Erect next adjacent trussed rafter (C) and brace exceeding 8m. Chevron bracing can be identified
back to A using brace D; • Diagonal rafter bracing; as diagonal bracing to the web members of the
• Erect other trussed rafters as with (C); • Longitudinal bracing; roof truss.
• When the final accurate positioning of the • Chevron bracing (only necessary on trussed
trussed rafters has been confirmed, the rafter rafter spans over 8m). For spans of between 8m and 11m, such bracing
feet can be fixed in position; may only be required to a single web member
• Fix permanent diagonal bracing (E) - only one Diagonal and longitudinal bracing are required on either side of the roof. For spans exceeding
brace shown for clarity; in all trussed rafter roofs. Bracing for wind loads 11m more extensive chevron bracing may
• Fix longitudinal bracing (F) - only three shown can also be enhanced by adequately fixed be necessary.
for clarity; tiling battens and/or sarking boards. The ceiling
• Fix all remaining bracing; plasterboard (12.5mm thickness) or a similar rigid
• Remove all temporary bracing. material will also contribute to the bracing process.
Mono-pitched roof bracing 7.8.3.10 Mono-pitch and girder trusses on trussed The Roof Designer should provide all necessary details.
In mono-pitched trussed rafter roofs, the diagonal rafter hipped-end roofs
bracing pattern for narrow fronted houses should Mono-pitch trussed rafters can be used in
be adopted. The requirement for longitudinal conjunction with girder trusses on trussed rafter
bracing is the same as for duo-pitched trussed hipped roofs.
rafter roofs.
Mono-pitched trusses are fixed to girder trusses by
Chevron bracing is required to the webs in roofs metal shoes. The bearing of mono-pitched trusses
exceeding 5m span and also to upright members onto the mild steel proprietary girder shoe should
where inadequate lateral restraint is provided at be confirmed with the Roof Designer before site
the apex of the roof. installation is attempted.
7.8.3.9 Diminishing trusses Girder trusses are strengthened trusses designed

The Truss Roof Designer should provide details of to support loads in another plane (such as mono-
fixings for the diminishing truss to the main roof truss. pitched trusses).
• Where the diminishing truss has a splayed 7.8.3.11 Multiple-trussed rafters

Figure 8 – Roof trusses trimming around a chimney
bottom chord which matches the pitch of the Multiple trussed rafters may be specified for a
main truss (usually where the roof pitch is less particular purpose. The trussed rafters may be 7.8.3.13 Tank stands
than 30°), the truss can be skew-nailed delivered to site already fastened together. Confirmation should be obtained from the Roof
to the main truss with 2 no 3.35mm diameter x Alternatively, fixing together on-site of multiple Designer that a trussed rafter roof design is capable
75mm galvanised wire nails. rafters may be necessary; in which case full details of supporting water storage tanks. Tanks should
• Where the diminishing truss has a square will be necessary from the Roof Designer. be supported by bearer beams, supported on
bottom chord the truss can be skew-nailed the ceiling ties portion of the truss. Bearers should
to the main truss and supported on a 7.8.3.12 Provision for openings, i.e. loft hatches, be skew-nailed to supports as appropriate.
continuous binder also fixed to the main truss. chimneys, etc. Alternatively, proprietary joist hangers can be used.
The top of the binder should be splayed to Wherever possible, a trussed rafter roof should be Tank bearers should be situated as close as possible
suit the bottom chord to 2 no. 3.35mm diameter designed to accommodate necessary openings to the node or intersection points of the trussed
x 75mm. Galvanised wire nails should be used within the trussed rafter spacing, e.g. a loft hatch. rafter. The dimensions of the bearers depend upon
for the fixing. If this is not possible, the spacing of trussed rafters the size of the supported tank and the span of the
may be extended to accommodate an opening. trussed rafters.
nominal loadings have been allowed for. If in 7.8.4.2 Definitions

doubt, consult the Roof Designer.
Couple roof
7.8.4 Traditional pitched roofs This is the simplest method of producing a pitched
roof, consisting of pairs, or couples of rafters
7.8.4.1 General pitched against each other at their heads, with
feet bearing on opposite walls. It is economical, but
Traditionally framed roof is structurally limited as heavy supporting walls are
The moisture content of structural timber should not required to resist outward spread. When a steep
exceed 20% at the time of stress grading and at the pitch is combined with low eaves, the resulting
time of erection. All structural timber for use within clear roof space can be used to advantage.
Figure 9 – Tank stand configuration the building fabric should be stress graded marked Where such roofs are designed, full structural
‘KD’ (Kiln Dry) or ‘DRY’. calculations prepared by a Chartered Structural
7.8.3.14 Modifications to trussed rafters Engineer should be provided to demonstrate how
Trussed rafters should never be cut, altered or The purlins/binders should be adequately supported eaves spread will be prevented.
repaired for use without the full agreement of the to contribute fully to the roof structure. For example,
Trussed Rafter Designer. Remedies for defects to they could be built into the inner leaf of a gable end
erected trusses can be found in BS 5268:3, but the wall and supported by struts onto the load bearing
Roof Designer’s advice should be sought prior to structure at centres specified in the design.
repairs being carried out.
Always ensure that the correct strength class of
7.8.3.15 Combined trussed rafter and traditionally timber is both ordered and used. Structural timbers
framed roofs are allocated a strength class by BS 5268:2. The most
Extra care is necessary where the two principal common strength classes used are C16 and C24.
timber pitched roof types are being used in
conjunction. The trussed rafters should be The timber supplier will require the following
specifically designed to accept any additional information before supplying timber:
loadings imposed by an adjacent traditional roof.
Similarly, account should be taken of any loadings • Type and strength class of timber required;
imposed by trusses on traditional roofs where only • Required sizes of timber; Figure 10 – Couple roof
• Any treatment required.
Close couple Raised collar roof 7.8.5 Fire stopping

Pairs of rafter feet are joined together with When ties are introduced at a higher level than
ties, often doubling up as ceiling joists, to form the rafter feet, they are termed ‘collars’. The Compartmentation
triangulation. The tie resists the outward thrust, higher the collar, the less influence on rafter spread The spread of fire within a building can be
and load is transferred vertically to supporting and the larger the rafter section required to resist restricted by sub-dividing it into compartments
walls. The connection of ceiling joists or ties with a the bending moment. The height of supporting separated from one another by walls and/or floors
binder, supported from the ridge by hangers allows walls may be reduced, as the roof is effectively of fire-resisting construction. The roof void, like most
a smaller timber section to be used. Rafter and lowered so that the rafters and collars support the spaces within a building can provide a route for the
ceiling joist dimensions for typical spans are given in ceiling. To resist eaves spread, the height of the spread of fire and smoke. As an often concealed
the TRADA document “Span Tables for Solid Timber collar should be no higher than 1/3 of the vertical space, it is particularly vital that fire resistant cavity
Members in Floors, Ceilings and Roofs for Dwellings” height between the wall plate and ridge. Rafters barriers are provided at the following points:
supporting collar ties should be designed by a
Chartered Structural Engineer taking into account • At junctions of separating wall and external
the additional point load imposed by the collar. cavity wall;
The collar should be fixed to the rafters using 10mm • At junctions of compartment wall and
bolts incorporating large washers to prevent the compartment floor (not illustrated);
bolt from being pulled through the timber. • At junctions of separating wall with roof, under
roof tiles;
• Within boxed eaves at separating wall position.
Junctions of compartment walls with roof

A compartment wall should be taken up to meet

the underside of the roof covering or deck, with
fire-stopping, where necessary, at the wall/roof
Figure 11 – Close couple roof
junction to maintain the continuity of fire resistance.
The compartment wall should also be continued
across any eaves cavity. If a fire penetrates a
roof near a compartment wall, there is a risk
that it will spread over the roof to the adjoining
compartment. To reduce this risk, a zone of the
Figure 12 – Raised collar roof roof 1500mm wide on either side of the wall should
have a covering of designation AA, AB or AC

on a substrate or deck of a material of limited
combustibility.
Figure 13 – Typical fire stopping details

CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.9: ROOF COVERINGS – TRADITIONAL SLATE AND TILE
7.9 ROOF COVERINGS – TRADITIONAL SLATE AND TILES
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Roof coverings must prevent any external moisture passing into the
person in a workmanlike manner; internal environment of the dwelling;
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
an approved installer. A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
Materials iv. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; Standards and Euro-Codes.

7.9.1 Legislation and planning for Management of Health and Safety at Work. to high levels of deluge rainfall. BS 5534 defines two
Tiled and pitched roof coverings should be in categories of exposure, based on the driving rain
accordance with the relevant Building Regulations. Certain advisory bodies such as Loss Prevention data given in BS 8104 and BR 262 and should be
Council, Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE) used for buildings up to 12m in height. For buildings
The principal British Standards relevant to this and Timber Research and Development Association over 12m in height, the influence of increased
document are: (TRADA) also produce recommendations and wind speeds should be taken into account using
guidance on roof construction. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1.
BS 5534: ‘Code of Practice for slating and tiling
(including shingles)’ which gives recommendations 7.9.2 Weather exposure Performance of tiles and slates
for the design, materials, application, installation Rain penetration of the roof covering is dependent
and performance of slates and tiles; 7.9.2.1 Rain and snow on a combination of the rainfall rate, wind speed,
The roof of the building shall adequately protect and the ability of the roof tile or slate to resist the
BS 5534 should be read in conjunction with BS 8000-6; the building and people who use the building ingress of snow and rainwater. The Designer should
from harmful effects caused by precipitation and therefore be aware of the various means by which
BS 8000-6: ‘Workmanship on building sites. Code wind-driven spray. Roofs are required to resist the rain and snow can, under certain conditions,
of Practice for slating and tiling of roofs and penetration of precipitation (rainfall) to the inside penetrate the roof covering.
claddings’. Applies to the laying and fixing of of the building, thereby preventing damage to any
clay and concrete tiles, natural and fibre cement part of the building where it might be carried. These include:
slates and their associated fixings and accessories.
Common Arrangement of Work Section (CAWS) Most pitched roofs keep the rain and snow out of • Capillary action and rainwater creep;
classifications H60, H61 and H65. BS 5250: ‘Control of the building and give satisfactory performance. • Raindrop bounce and negative pressure
Condensation in Buildings’. This describes the causes However, it is acknowledged that similar roofs rain suction;
and effects of surface and interstitial condensation built to the same design and using identical roof • Driving rain, deluge rain and flooding;
in buildings and gives recommendations for control materials, but in different locations, may not • Surcharging of rainwater over laps on long
of condensation in roofs; necessarily provide the same level of assurance rafter roofs;
since they will be subject to different weather • Wind-driven snow.
To ensure safe working practices during construction, conditions and exposure.
the Designer should consider relevant safety Roof pitch
regulations. These include the Construction (Design Exposure to driving rain When determining the pitch, head-lap and/or side-
and Management) Regulations and the Health The UK has a high risk of severe driving rain, and lap of a tile or slate, the roof pitch is taken to be
and Safety Executive’s Approved Code of Practice even in some sheltered locations, may be subject equal to the rafter pitch. Hence, all references to
pitch refer to the rafter pitch, with the laid angle of (boarding or sarking), and/or underlay shielding, loadings, mix of mortar, design and movement of
the roof tile or slate always being less than roof pitch. when calculating wind uplift loads. The standard the roof structure. The use of mortar bedding should
method in BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1 ‘Euro-Code 1. be supplemented by suitable mechanical fixings to
The actual pitch of a slate or tile should be determined Actions on Structures. General Actions. Wind actions’ ensure the component is mechanically fixed.
in accordance with the following guidelines: should be used to determine the basic wind speed of
the site, which is then used to calculate the effective Note:
• Tile/slate to rafter pitch angles; wind speed and dynamic wind pressure on the roof, Dry fix ridge and hip systems are available to
• Plain tiles: 7° less than rafter pitch; by applying a series of factors to account for terrain, provide full mechanical fixing of all ridge and hip
• Interlocking single-lap tiles and slates: 5° less topography, building height and length etc. tiles to meet BS 5534 recommendations.
than rafter pitch;
• Double-lap fibre cement slates: 1.25° less than Control of internal pressure Aircraft vortices
rafter pitch. The total wind force on a roof is dependent on Roofs near airports can experience high local wind
the pressure differential between the inner and load forces due to air vortices created by certain
If the design rafter pitch is less than the minimum outer faces of the roof covering. Such pressures aircraft when taking off and landing, which may be
recommended rafter pitch for the particular tile are significantly reduced by the use of underlay or greater than the calculated wind loads to BS 5534.
or slate, then they can only be considered to boarding beneath tiling or slating. Its contribution Designers should seek advice from the Airport
have an aesthetic function. In such cases, the true towards shielding the underside of the tiles or slates Authority Planning Department when designing roof
weatherproofing of the roof system must rely on from the full transmission of internal pressures, places fixings in these locations, and refer to the guidance
a fully supported waterproof membrane with an a requirement for the underlay to have an adequate contained in BRE Digest 467 ‘Slate and tile roofs:
uninterrupted drainage path between counter- tensile strength for the specific application. The tensile avoiding damage from aircraft wake vortices’.
battens to the eaves gutter. strength of the underlay, it’s air permeability factor
and withdrawal resistance of batten nail fixings is Calculating the fixing specification
7.9.2.2 Wind therefore important when determining the overall The procedures for calculating the wind loads
resistance to wind uplift of the roof system. and determining the fixing specification for tiles
Design for wind loading and slates in accordance with BS EN 1991-1-
When considering the wind loading on the roof Ridges and hips 4:2005+A1 and BS 5534 are complex to undertake.
covering, Designers should consult BS 5534. This The use of mortar for the bedding of concrete or Designers are advised to obtain a full roofing
provides calculation methods to assess the wind clay ridge and ridged hip tiles on concrete or clay fixing specification either from the slate or tile
load on each tile or slate as a uniformly distributed tiles or fibre cement slates, does not provide sufficient manufacturer or by reference to the Zonal Fixing
load, and also takes into account the porosity of the tensile bond strength to resist wind uplift as it can Method tables, which provide a conservative
tiles or slates and the effectiveness of the substrate be affected by a number of factors such as wind interpretation of the fixing requirements in BS 5534.
Zonal Fixing Method 7.9.3 Condensation and ventilation • The avoidance of gaps and holes in a ceiling;
The Zonal method is a method for obtaining a fixing • The siting of access doors or hatches into the
specification for roof tiles and is a simplification 7.9.3.1 Statutory requirements roof space away from moisture producing areas
of the calculations defined in BS 5534, ‘Code of The roof should be designed and constructed in such as bathrooms or kitchens;
Practice for Slating and Tiling (including shingles)’ accordance with clause 8.4 of BS 5250 and • That hatch covers must be effectively sealed;
and BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1 ‘Euro-Code 1. Actions BS EN ISO 13788.” Detailed information on methods • High levels of workmanship.
on structures. General actions. Wind actions’. The to control harmful condensation is given in British
assumptions made in the simplification process Standard BS 5250 ‘Code of Practice for Control of Air tightness of ceilings
may produce a specification with more or Condensation in Buildings’ Section 8.4 ‘Roofs’. Air leakage through gaps in a ceiling transfer more
stronger fixings than that required if the full BS 5534 heat and moisture into the roof by convection
calculation is undertaken. Prevention of condensation in roof voids is best than passes through the ceiling materials by
achieved by the provision of natural air ventilation. diffusion. Sealing the ceiling is therefore an essential
Zonal fixing Single lap tiles Double lap
specification tiles BS 5250 states that the Designer should take account requirement when considering the design of the
A No fixings required Refer to of the following moisture sources in buildings: roof envelope.
B Each tile once nailed (right manufacturer
hand nail hole – flat tiles)
• Water incorporated during the construction Key design issues to consider are as follows:
C Each tile twice nailed
(flat tiles only) process (including precipitation);
D Each tile clipped • Precipitation after construction; • Avoid construction gaps;
E Each tile once nailed • Water vapour arising from the occupants and • Avoid roof access doors or hatches in rooms
and clipped
their activities; that produce excessive moisture;
F Each tile twice nailed
and clipped • Temporary condensation occurring when cold • Use a proprietary sealed loft hatch and
Note: weather conditions are followed by warm, frame and seal correctly in accordance with
1. The manufacturer may also specify the use of
improved nails for fixing tiles, e.g. ring shank nails. humid weather. manufactures recommendations.
Where these are required, the Zonal fixing
specification letter will be marked with an asterisk,
e.g. C*. Sealed ceilings BS EN 13141-1 - Ventilation for buildings
2. Manufacturers may define additional fixing BS 9250 emphasises the importance of well sealed Performance testing of components/products
specifications to those in the table and assign fixing
ceilings as a means to curb the transfer of moisture for residential ventilation. Externally and internally
specification letters from ‘G’ onwards.
3. In some cases, the manufacturer may specify a into a roof space by means of moisture laden air. mounted air transfer devices:
‘Proprietary Fixing System’ and this will be marked
This means:
‘PS’. The manufacturer should be contacted for
details of the requirements for this fixing method.
Table 1 – Zonal fixing specification

• Seal all services and roof lights; • Mono-pitch/lean-to roof • Duo-pitch roof A
• Use recessed light fittings rated IP60 to IP65 to If the roof space is 15° or less, a free airspace On each side of the roof a free airspace of
BS EN 60529; of 25,000mm2/m is required at the eaves or 10,000mm2/m is required at the eaves or at low
• Seal the head of cavity walls to prevent transfer at low level (equivalent to a continuous 25mm level (equivalent to a continuous 10mm
of warm moist air into the loft. opening). If the roof pitch is more than 15°, a opening). If the roof space is 15° or less, a free
free airspace of 10,000mm /m is required at the
2
airspace of 25,000mm2/m is required at the
It is recommended that Designers should undertake eaves or at low level (equivalent to a eaves or at low level (equivalent to a
a Condensation Risk Analysis in accordance with continuous 10mm opening). A free airspace of continuous 25mm opening).
BS 5250 to determine the level of ventilation required. 5,000mm2/m should also be provided at high
level (equivalent to a continuous 5mm
7.9.3.2 Cold roof opening).
The following suggest the correct positioning of
vents and the precise amount of free airspace
required for four types of ‘cold roof’ construction, in
accordance with current Building Regulations and
BS 5250.
These recommendations apply if a HR underlay

is used.
Figure 2 – Duo-pitch roof A
Figure 1 – Mono-pitch/lean-to roof

• Duo-pitch roof B • Duo-pitch roof with fire break walls Vapour permeable (type LR) underlays
Where pitches are 35° or greater and spans This is similar to examples A and B on the If an LR underlay is used, interstitial condensation
are 10m or wider, a free airspace of previous page, but with a fire wall beneath is unlikely to occur, provided the ceiling is well
5,000mm /m should also be provided at the
2
each roof pitch. The roof now comprises three sealed and the eaves have a minimum continuous
ridge or at high level (equivalent to a voids instead of one and for the purposes of ventilation opening of 3mm. If the ceiling is not
continuous 5mm opening) to provide effective ventilation each roof void is treated separately. well sealed, openings equivalent to 7mm should
through-ventilation. The two smaller voids each require 10,000mm2/m be used. 10mm eaves vent systems will satisfy both
of free airspace at the eaves or at low level requirements.
and also 5,000mm2/m at high level below
the firewall. BS 5250 does not consider the situation where it is
proposed to provide no ventilation to the roof void,
The larger void requires 10,000mm /m of free
2
or ventilation more limited than above. Should
airspace immediately above the firewall at low Designers wish to adopt this principle, they should
level and also 5,000mm /m at the ridge or
2
refer to the conditions attached to Technical
at high level (equivalent to a continuous 5mm Approvals given by UKAS (or European equivalent)
opening) to provide effective through- accredited technical approval bodies.
ventilation.
7.9.3.3 Roof with sloping ceilings

The following illustrations suggest the correct
Figure 3 – Duo-pitch roof B
positioning of vents and the precise amount of free
airspace required for three types of ‘warm roof’

construction in accordance with BS 5250.
Figure 4 – Duo-pitch roof with fire break walls

• Duo-pitch roof • Mansard roof • Pitched roof with pitched and flat dormers
On each side of the roof a free airspace of Mansard ventilation is similar to that for duo- For the main roof, a free airspace of
25,000mm2/m is required at the eaves or at low pitch constructions, requiring a free airspace of 25,000mm2/m is required at the eaves or at low
level (equivalent to a continuous 25mm 25,000mm2/m on each side at the eaves or level (equivalent to a continuous 25mm
opening). at low level (equivalent to a continuous 25mm opening) plus 5,000mm2/m at the dormer sills
opening) and 5,000mm2/m at the ridge or and also 5,000mm2/m on each side of the ridge
A free airspace of 5,000mm /m should also
2
at high level (equivalent to a continuous or at high level on each slope (equivalent to a
be provided at the ridge or at high level on 5mm opening). continuous 5mm opening). For dormers
each slope (equivalent to a continuous 5mm with cold pitched roofs, a free airspace of
opening). A minimum 50mm clear air path must A minimum 50mm clear air path must be 10,000mm2/m is required at the dormer eaves
always be maintained between the insulation maintained between the insulation and the (equivalent to a continuous 10mm opening).
and the underlay to ensure effective through- underlay at mansard level to ensure effective For dormers with flat roofs a free airspace
ventilation. through-ventilation. of 25,000mm2/m is required at the roof edges
(equivalent to a continuous 25mm opening).
A minimum 50mm clear air path must always

be maintained between the insulation and the
underlay to ensure effective through-ventilation.
Figure 6 – Mansard roof
Figure 5 – Duo pitch roof with sloping ceilings
Figure 7 – Pitched roof with pitched and flat dormers

Tiled and slated roofs containing rooms 7.9.4 Thermal Insulation

These should be ventilated as in accordance with
Figures 5-7, but if an obstruction to a ventilation 7.9.4.1 Building regulations
path occurs, such as fire separating walls, Thermal insulation must be installed to meet current
additional ventilation openings should be provided: Building Regulations to an acceptable level of
workmanship avoiding cold bridges and meet the
• Immediately below the obstruction equivalent following provisions:
to 5mm along the length of the obstruction;
• Immediately above the obstruction equivalent • If required by BS 5250, use a vapour control
to 25mm along the length of the obstruction. plasterboard or a separate vapour control layer
behind the plasterboard;
7.9.3.4 Warm roof construction • Use a proprietary eaves ventilator to ensure
Insulation may be provided above the rafter and ventilation is in accordance with BS 5250;
between rafters to form a warm roof construction. • The use of over joist and under rafter insulation
Figure 8 – Warm roof construction (vented battens)
The position of insulation and vapour control layers is considered best practice as it eliminates the
must be strictly in accordance with the insulation cold bridge caused by the joist/rafter;
manufacturer’s recommendations. All warm roof • The installation of the eaves ventilator must
construction products must have appropriate third not prevent free water drainage below the
party certification. tiling battens.
Ventilation to counter batten void will be required 7.9.4.2 Compliance

where vapour permeable (type LR) underlays are The requirements of the regulations are designed to
not used. reduce carbon emissions from new buildings and
to improve the performance of existing buildings
where new work is carried out.
Figure 9 – Warm roof construction (vapour breathable underlay)

7.9.5 Materials certification for the use intended.

• LR† underlay to BS EN 13859-1 Class W1
7.9.5.1 Underlay water penetration classification with third party
certification for the use intended.
Underlay nails
Nails for use with roofing underlay’s should be clout *HR (high water vapour resistance) underlay - >
head-nails of no less than 3mm shank diameter 0.25MN.s/g
and 20mm length made of copper; aluminium † LR (low water vapour resistance) underlay - <
alloy or steel coated by any of the zinc or zinc alloy 0.25MN.s/g
coating methods specified in BS EN 10230-1.
(LR underlays are sometimes referred to as ‘vapour
Underlay permeable’ or ‘vapour open’)
These types of underlay should comply with
Figure 10 – Roof underlay provision
BS EN 13859-1, or have third party accreditation, Vapour control layer (VCL)
i.e. a BBA certificate. If a VCL is installed it should be placed on the
Fully supported underlays warm side of the insulation. Installation of a VCL
There are two categories of underlay: HR, non- at ceiling level will increase the need for sufficient
vapour permeable (for example, Type 1. For • BS 8747 Class 1B Bitumen (Fiber base). ventilation below it during the drying out of wet
Type 5U (as described in BS 5534); and type LR, • 2HR* underlay to BS EN 13859-1 Class W1 trade construction phases. Performance of a VCL
vapour permeable. These types of underlay should water penetration classification with third party depends not only upon the material selected,
comply with BS EN 13859-1, or have third party certification for the use intended. but also on workmanship and the ability of the
accreditation, i.e. a BBA certificate. It should also • 3LR† underlay to BS EN 13859-1 Class W1 construction to be assembled on-site, see BS 5250.
have sufficient tensile and nail-tear strength, and water penetration classification with third party It is essential that a VCL be adequately lapped and
low extensibility to produce the required resistance certification for the use intended. all joints sealed and that it’s integrity is maintained.
to wind uplift. Particular care should be given to detail design
Unsupported underlays and installation around penetrations through the
Underlays for use beneath tiles and slates are VCL, e.g. services, compartment walls and to the
either fully supported over boarding, sheathing • BS 8747 Class 1F reinforced bitumen or Class 5U sealing of punctures caused by fixings.
or sarking, or unsupported draped over rafters/ polyester reinforced bitumen.
counter battens, and should meet the conditions • HR* underlay to BS EN 13859-1 Class W1
as detailed in Figure 10. water penetration classification with third party
7.9.5.2 Timber battens 7.9.5.3 Tile and slate fixings Tile clips
BS 5534 recommends the use of aluminium or Located over the side lock of the tile immediately
Timber species stainless steel nails under normal conditions of behind the overlapped tile, and nailed to the tiling
Tiling battens and counter battens should be exposure. Plain or galvanised nails may be used for batten, tile clips provide resistance to the applied
selected from the timber species set out in BS 5534 fixing battens to rafters, but care must be exercised overturning moment more successfully than a nail
and their characteristics and defects should not when there is high humidity, where it is known fixing. The latter is closer to the pivot line where the
exceed the permissible limits given in Annex C of that certain timber preservative treatments may nib touches the batten and cannot resist the uplift
BS 5534. corrode steel, zinc or aluminium. force at the tail. The phenomenon is also related to
roof pitch and the step height of the roof covering,
Sizes Tile nails and BS 5534 acknowledges that, at roof pitches of
Timber battens should be graded and marked Nails for use with tiles should be of copper, 45-55°, all tiles should be at least nailed to battens
in accordance with BS 5534. Timber batten sizes aluminium, stainless steel, phosphor or silicon to prevent displacement. At pitches exceeding 55°
should be not less than the minimum values bronze. Aluminium nails intended for use with tiles all tiles must be both head nailed and tile clipped
recommended in BS 5534 for the common should conform to BS 1202-3 and should be clout to reduce ‘chatter’ in high winds.
applications listed therein. head nails of 3.35mm or 2.65mm diameter. The
length of nail will be determined by the required
Other sizes wind uplift and the design of the tile. Stainless steel
Battens for large spans or special loading nails for use with tiles should conform to BS 1554,
conditions should be designed by structural grade 302, 304, 315, 316, 321 or 347, and should be
calculation for strength and stiffness in accordance specified for coastal areas, areas of high exposure,
with Annex E of BS 5534. or where there is a risk from chemical reaction.
Preservatives
BS 8417:2011 provides recommendations for
preservatives for timber. Indicative preservative
Figure 12 – Tile clips
treatment schedules are given in Annex D of
BS 5534. Battens that have been treated with
preservatives can contain toxic substances that
could introduce an environmental hazard, and
should be disposed of safely.
Figure 11 – Nailing tiles to battens
Slate nails and rivets 7.9.5.4 Flashings and weathering’s • Nails and screws
Nails intended for use with fibre cement slates Lead is generally ideal for roofing purposes; it is easily Copper wire nails (with jagged shanks) should
should be of copper, conforming to the dressed over complicated shapes using simple be a minimum 25mm long x 10 gauge. Stainless
requirements for clout nails specified in hand tools, and can be joined by soldering or lead steel annular ring shank wire nails should be a
BS 1202-2. The shank diameter and length should burning. For most roofing purposes Codes 3, 4 and minimum 25mm x 12 gauge. Screws should be
be determined by the exposure of the site and the 5 will be adequate, but for extreme conditions of brass or stainless steel, minimum 25mm long x
nail’s withdrawal resistance. Normally, exposure, even thicker codes may be necessary. 10 gauge.
30mm x 2.65mm copper nails are adequate for
most applications. For exposed sites or where Clips 7.9.5.5 Mortar
aggressive environments are encountered, contact Clips for flashings are important in all roofing The mortar used in roof construction should conform
the slate manufacturer. Copper disc ‘tail’ rivets are applications and where used should be fixed to the recommendations given in BS 5534. Mortar
used to further secure the tail of fibre cement slates at 300mm–500mm centres, depending on the should typically consist of the following mixes:
against wind chatter. exposure of the building.
Cement and sand
Clips may be formed from the following materials: Roofing mortars should be
1:3 cement to sand with plasticizer. The mix should
• Lead be based on sharp sand with soft sand added to
Only suitable for sheltered locations with a achieve workability. The proportion of sharp sand
thickness the same as that of the flashing it should not be less than 1/3 of the total sand content.
is fixing;
Alternative proprietary mortar mixes may be
Figure 13 – Fixing slates

• Copper accepted if they are shown to have similar
Should be 0.6mm thick (minimum) and may be strength, durability and workability.
Slate hooks
thicker for very exposed locations;
Hooks are formed from stainless steel wire
7.9.6 Workmanship
conforming to BS 1554, grades 316 S11 or 316 S19.
• Stainless steel
For further advice on the use of slate hooks - refer to
Should be 22swg or 28swg thick and is used for 7.9.6.1 Slate and tile fixing
BS 5534 Section 4.13.3 ‘Hooks and rivets for slates.’
very exposed locations or where the fixing Slate and tile fixing should be in accordance with
point is more than 75mm from the free edge of BS 8000-6.
the flashing;
7.9.6.2 Fixing timber batten Recommended batten sizes for pitched roofs and 7.9.6.3 Underlays
Battens and counter battens should be graded to vertical work (BS 5534 in accordance with clause Lay specified roofing underlay parallel to eaves or
meet requirements as recommended in BS 5534 in 4.12.4.1). ridge with horizontal overlaps as specified in Table 3.
respect to timber species, permissible characteristics Vertical side laps should be 100mm (minimum).
Tile type Basic minimum sizes*
and defects and preservative treatment. Battens Minimise gap at laps resulting from different
Rafters/supports 450mm span 600mm span
should be at least 1200mm in length and supported tautness between underlay courses. Drape in
width depth width depth
at each end and intermediately by a total of at underlay between supports to be no less than
Plain 38 25 38 25
least three rafters, trusses or walls. Stagger butt pitched/vertical 10mm and no greater than 15mm. Fix underlay
joints over intermediate supports. Splay nail each Single lap interlocking 38 25 50 25 with fixings specified, keeping the number of
batten end and nail battens to each rafter. tiles/slates perforations to a minimum. Handle and fix underlay
Fiber cement 38 25 50 25 with care to ensure no tears or punctures. Repair
Slates
On trussed rafter roofs for interlocking tiles, allow any tears or punctures prior to tiling. Ensure that
not more than one joint in any four consecutive *All dimensions subject to re-sawing allowance: width + underlay does not obstruct flow of air through
3mm depth - 0 or + 3mm based on measurement at a
battens on same support. On trussed rafter roofs for reference moisture content of 20%. ventilators located at eaves, ridge or in main roof.
plain tiles, allow no more than three joints together Table 2 – Minimum sizes of timber battens
Weather appropriately all holes formed in underlays
in any twelve consecutive battens on same for soil vent pipes etc. Avoid contact between
support. Batten sizes given in Table 2 should be Fixing roof battens underlay and underside of tiles. To prevent wind
taken as minimum dimensional requirements. Take Fix specified battens up roof slope on top of rafters uplift, fix additional battens or timber strips where
care that nails used to secure tiles do not penetrate ensuring minimum 40mm nail penetration into rafters laps occur between tiling battens.
underside of battens or underlay. (smooth shank). Nail counter battens at maximum
300mm centres vertically up roof slope where Minimum horizontal lap for underlays: (BS 5534 in
boarding is used to coincide with line of rafters. accordance with clause 6.2.1.1).
Fixing wall battens Rafter pitch Not fully Fully supported

supported (mm) (mm)
Fix specified battens to boarding/sheathing/sarking
12.5° to 14° 225 150
in line with vertical supports, or to masonry wall as
15° to 34° 150 100
specified. Secure counter battens to masonry walls 35° and above 100 75
with improved nails or with plugs and screws.
Table 3 – Minimum horizontal laps for underlays
Figure 14 – Fixing battens to rafters

7.9.7 Slate and tile details – Key check points 7.9.7.2 Verge (in accordance with BS 5534 and • Use correct mortar mix;
BS 8000-6) • Bed and point tiles in one operation;
7.9.7.1 Eaves and bottom edge (in accordance Battens should overlap onto the outer skin of the • Keep mortar clear from ends of tiling battens;
with BS 5534 and BS 8000-6) brickwork or the under cloak material; for plain tiles • Fix all perimeter tiles and slates (clip and/or nail).
At the eaves (bottom edge), the batten should the verge should project 38mm–50mm; interlocking
be set to provide the required overhang of tiles can project 30mm–60mm. Where the distance Under cloak
the tiles, slates or shingles into the gutters. The of the nearest batten fixing to the rafter is greater Where an under cloak is used, it should comprise
recommended overhang is 45mm to 55mm than 300mm, an additional mechanical fixing is plain tiles, slates or fibre-cement sheet strip. It is
horizontally or to the centre of the gutter, recommended. usually fixed at verges beneath the battens and
whichever is the lesser. on top of the underlay, to support the mortar on to
Note: which the verge tiles or slates are bedded.
• Ensure fascia board is to correct height so as to Where proprietary verge tiles or systems are
prevent tiles/slates kicking up or drooping; specified, the detailing should be in accordance
• Fit duct trays to retain insulation; with those manufacturers’ recommendations that
• Fix underlay protector trays, fascia vents and are relevant to UK conditions of use.
comb fillers (profiled tiles);
• Clip eaves course where required; • Use recommended under cloak for mortar;
• Ensure vent path to roof space is achieved. • Level off irregularities in brickwork;
• Carry underlay over gable wall or bargeboard
and fit under under cloak; Figure 16 – Verge detail
7.9.7.3 Valley (In accordance with BS 5534 and

BS 8000-6)
The design of pitched valley gutters is just one roof
detail where the latest guidance has been much
improved over previous Codes of Practice. The
valley is the most vulnerable area of a pitched roof
in respect to potential water ingress, as it drains all
of the water from adjacent roof slopes.
Figure 15 – Eaves and bottom edge details

Consequently, the design data is related to the 7.9.7.4 Ridge (in accordance with BS 5534 and
pitch of the roof, the rainfall rate, the length of the BS 8000-6)
valley and the catchment area or area of the roof The ridge or top course batten should be set to
to be drained. Designers are able to determine the allow the ridge tiles, ridge units or metal ridge to
width of valley trough appropriate for discharging overlap the top course of tiles, slates or shingles
the rainwater from the adjacent roof covering to by the overlap necessary for the main tiles, slates
the eaves gutter. or shingles. For interlocking tiles this should be not
less than 75mm. For double-lap products the top
• Check roof pitch, area to be drained and batten should be set to allow the ridge to overlap
rainfall rate to determine width of valley gutter; the penultimate course by the required head-lap. Figure 17 – Ridge detail
• Consider length of valley when choosing

proprietary valley troughs (over 8m); • Check ridge tile is suitable for pitch of roof; 7.9.7.5 Hip (in accordance with BS 5534 and
• Ensure groundwork provides adequate support • Edge bed components onto tiles or slates; BS 8000-6)
for valley lining. Make flush with top of rafter; • Ensure top course tiles or slates are • Check hip tile is suitable for pitch of roof;
• Don’t place bitumen underlay beneath lead mechanically fixed; • Mitre tiles neatly at hip ridge junctions and use
sheet valley; • Mitre tiles neatly at hip ridge junctions and use a a lead saddle under for protection;
• Keep open gutter width 100mm-250mm; lead saddle under for protection; • Use correct hip iron at base of hip;
• Keep roof design as simple as possible; • Use correct mortar mix; • Use correct mortar mix;
• Avoid discharge of valleys onto roofing • Use dentil slips in deep profiled tiles into all joints • Use dentil slips in deep profiled tiles into all joints
wherever possible, but where inevitable use a in excess of 25mm thick to reduce mortar and in excess of 25mm thick to reduce mortar and
lead saddle; risk of shrinkage; risk of shrinkage;
• Avoid direct contact with lead when using • All ridge tiles that are mortar bedded must also • All hip tiles that are mortar bedded must also be
mortar. Provide an under cloak or tile slips; be mechanically fixed (screws, nails, clips, etc). mechanically fixed (screws, nails, clips, etc).
• Don’t block tile laps with mortar to avoid
water damming; Note: Note:
• Mechanically fix all tile and slates adjacent Dry fix ridge systems are available to provide full Dry fix ridge systems are available to provide full
to valleys. mechanical fixing of all ridge and hip tiles to meet mechanical fixing of all ridge and hip tiles to meet
BS 5534 recommendations. BS 5534 recommendations.
Side abutment: (stepped cover flashing) on low pitches in exposed locations, maximum
security can be achieved by a combination of
• Turn roofing underlay 50mm (minimum) both secret gutter and cover flashing.
up abutment;
• Finish tiling battens as close to abutment • Form secret gutters before starting tiling;
as possible; • Fix a support between last rafter and abutment.
Figure 18 – Hips • Lay tiles to butt as close as possible to wall; This should be a minimum of 75mm wide and
• Cut a piece of Code 4 lead to form a run full length of abutment;
7.9.7.6 Flashings and weatherings combined step and cover flashing; • Fix a splayed timber fillet at discharge point to
The following is a brief summary of metal flashing • Flashing should not exceed 1.5m in length and raise lead lining to the right height. Avoid
details; for the best advice on the use of lead, should be 150-200mm in width or wide enough backward falls;
reference should be made to the Lead Sheet to cover the first roll, whichever gives the • Fix a counter batten along outer edge of rafter;
Association: (Lead Sheet Association: greater cover; • Line gutter with Code 4 or 5 lead, in lengths of
Telephone 01892 822773, Fax 01892 823003 or refer • Chase out brickwork mortar joints and push folds not more than 1.5m;
to their website on www.leadsheetassociation.org). of flashing into chases and wedge in with small • Lap each strip offered over the lower one by a
pieces of lead; minimum 150mm and fix with copper nails
A coat of patination oil should be applied to lead • Dress cover flashing as tightly as possible to at head;
flashings after fixing. Lead can be used in contact tile profile; • Turn up lead welts to provide a weather check
with other metals such as copper and stainless steel • Repoint brickwork; and exclude birds and vermin from entering tile
without risk of bi-metallic corrosion, but should not • In areas of high exposure or when dressing lead batten space;
be used with aluminium in a marine environment. over flat tiles, use clips to hold cover flashing in • Gutter should be a minimum of 25mm deep
place. When using this type of flashing with flat and have a vertical upstand of no less than
Interlocking tile tiles below 25°, increase cover of flashing over 65mm above the top surface of the tiles or slates;
tile to 200mm. • Fit a stepped flashing, chased into brickwork as
Side abutments before and dressed over vertical upstand;
There are three common ways of weathering a Side abutment: (secret gutter; with and without • Turn roofing underlay up side of counter battens
side abutment with interlocking tiles; stepped cover cover flashing) and butt tiling battens up to counter batten;
flashings, secret gutters and a combination of A secret gutter may be formed as an alternative to • Lay tiles to leave a gap of 15mm by the side
stepped cover flashing above secret gutter. a step and cover flashing, when using single lap flat of abutment;
interlocking tiles and slates. In view of the increased • A lead cover flashing above secret gutter
risk of water penetrating under the lead, especially is advisable for interlocking tiles and slates,
particularly in areas of high exposure or on roofs Double lap plain tiles • Code 3 lead soakers, minimum width 175mm
under trees, where risk of blockage is high. If this and length equal to gauge + lap + 20mm, are
is done, width of secret gutter may be reduced Side abutment: (Soakers and step flashings) to be interleaved with the slates and turned
to 50mm. Soakers are used where double-lap plain tiles abut 75mm up the wall;
a wall. • The Code 4 stepped lead flashing should be
Top edge abutment secured in the brickwork bed joints with lead
• Turn underlay 50mm up abutment and cut tiling wedges and dressed neatly over the soakers.
• Turn roofing underlay 50mm (minimum) battens 10mm-25mm short of the wall and
up abutment; fix securely; Top edge abutment flashings
• Fix top tiling batten as close as possible to • Lay tiles close to abutment with a soaker fitted
abutment; between each tile; • Continue underlay 50mm (minimum) up the wall;
• Complete tiling in the usual way; • Form Code 3 lead soakers with an upstand of • Position two battens downslope from the
• Chase abutment and insert lengths of Code 4 75mm to place against abutment. They should abutment, the upper to receive the top edge
lead, no more than 1.5m long and wedge in be 175mm wide and 190mm long allowing a of the top course slate and the lower the top of
with small pieces of lead no less than 450mm 25mm downturn over back of tile. After all tiles the full length slate;
apart; and soakers have been fixed, insert a stepped • Head nail the top course slate and use a disc
• Lead should be wide enough to give at least flashing into abutment wall and dress down rivet to secure the tail in the usual manner.
150mm cover to top course of tiles, e.g. below over upturned edges of soakers. Centre nail and rivet the full length slate below
30° this increases to 290mm at 15° rafter pitch; in the normal way;
• Vertical upstand should be 75mm-100mm; Fibre cement and natural slates • Dress Code 4 lead cover flashing over the top
• Lap each length of lead by not less than 100mm; course slates and turn up the wall face 100mm
• Dress lead to profile of tiles; Side abutment: (Step and cover flashing with soakers) (minimum), with the top edge turned into the
• Secure lead flashings with copper or stainless brickwork bed joint and secured with wedges;
steel clips with frequency dependent on • Continue the underlay across the roof and turn • Extend lead down over the slate to lap the
exposure (see Lead Sheet Association up the wall by 50mm (minimum). Cut the surface a minimum of 150mm and secure the
recommendations). battens 10mm to 25mm short of the wall and bottom edge with a clip to resist wind uplift.
fix securely;
• Finish the slating with alternate courses of slates Dormers
and slate-and-a-half slates, cut as necessary to Treat tiled dormer roofs in a similar way to the main
maintain the bond; roof work. However, single lap tiling is less suitable
for small covered areas and for a dormer, it is
generally preferable to adopt an alternative form Roof protrusions The following guidance notes apply to this detail:
of covering. The treatment of tiling against chimney stacks,
skylights and other similar projections through the • Use counter battens over masonry construction
• When dormer cheeks are tile hung, close roof surface should be similar to that described for (38mm x 25mm minimum) to reduce direct
cut vertical tiles to rake of roof over a flashing abutments where appropriate. fixing. Special masonry fixings may be required;
fixed to side of dormer and dress well into the • Slate-and-a-half should be used in alternate
adjacent tiles. Formation of a secret gutter is • Make perforations for pipes, chimney stays, courses at internal and external corners and
not recommended. supports for ladders etc. weather tight by adjacent to openings;
dressing over and under tiling, with a lead • Use Code 3 lead soakers to weather internal
Back gutters or copper slate to which a sleeve is burned and external corners;
Back gutters may be lead welded off-site and or soldered; • Fix slates by two nails and one rivet, and slate
positioned when tiling is undertaken. A gutter • Boss sleeve around pipe or stay, and seal at top and-a-half by three nails and two rivets;
should be formed where the bottom edge of tiling by a collar. • Code 4 lead cover flashings should be used
meets an abutment. Form the gutter before tiling, above and below openings in accordance with
but after felting and battening is complete. Saddles Lead Sheet Association recommendations.
The following details can apply to any type of
• Fix a lay board to support lead lining, with a valley or hip/ridge intersection: Vertical tiling with plain tiles
tilting fillet, close to abutment to flatten pitch Plain tiling is an excellent, weatherproof and
of lead; • Use Code 4 lead no less than 450mm square attractive cladding to the vertical walls of any
• Dress a sheet of Code 5 lead (width of and large enough to give a lap of at least building. Feature and ornamental tiles may also be
abutment plus 450mm) into position with a 150mm over gutter lining on each side; used with normal plain tiles to create decorative
vertical upstand of at least 100mm up abutment; • Saddles should be capable of being readily patterns. Fibre cement slates can also be used for
• Dress extra width of lead around corner of dressed down when in position. vertical cladding.
abutment after any side abutment weathering
has been fitted; 7.9.7.7 Vertical tiling and slating • Use counter battens over masonry construction
• Dress upper edge of lead over tilting fillet and (38mm x 25mm minimum) to reduce direct
turn it back to form a welt; Vertical slating with fibre cement slates fixing. Special masonry fixings may be required;
• Chase abutment, insert a cover flashing of Fibre cement slates can be fixed to vertical • Ensure tiling details do not interfere with the
Code 4 lead and dress it over vertical upstand surfaces and provide an attractive and opening of windows and doors;
of gutter. weatherproof cladding on both timber frame and • Lead flashings and soakers should be used
masonry constructions. around openings in accordance with Lead
Sheet Association details; Note: Further guidance

• Use double course of tiles at eaves, by laying There are no British Standards for these products. NFRC Zonal Method User Guide:
first course of eaves/tops tiles with course of full Specifiers should seek evidence of third party available from NFRC website
tiles over; testing; http://www.nfrc.co.uk/
• At top of wall or under a sill, use a course of eaves/
tops tile laid over a course of full tiles. Dress a Users should pay particular attention to the Practical guidance on the application of single-lap
Code 4 lead cover flashing over by 100mm; resistance to wind load and durability performance and double-lap tiling can also be obtained from
• Use internal and external angle tiles at all 90° of dry roofing products. CITB/CS Trainer Resource Package for Operatives
corners. Purpose made 135° angle tiles are also in the Construction Industry Manuals’, Construction
available. For other angles, close mitre tiles and APPENDIX Industry Training Board, 2002:
use Code 3 lead soakers;
• All tiles should be twice nailed. British Standards: • CTP 036/1 – Roof Slating and Tiling – Common
BS EN 490; Materials and Methods;
7.9.7.8 Dry fix systems BS EN 492; • CTP 036/2 – Roof Slating and Tiling – Single–lap,
Proprietary dry roofing products and systems may BS EN 1304; Variable Gauge, Interlocking Tiles;
be used as an alternative to mortar bedding BS 5250; • CTP 036/3 – Roof Slating and Tiling – Double-lap,
at verges, ridges, hips and valleys to provide BS EN 1990:2002+A1; Variable Gauge, Plain Tiles;
weathering and mechanical resistance properties. BS 5534:2003+A1; • CTP 036/5 – Roof Slating and Tiling – Single-lap,
Dry roofing products as fitted should not adversely BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1; Fixed Gauge, Interlocking and mitred tiles.
affect the performance of the roof as laid. BS 8000-6;
EN 13859-1;
Specifiers should seek evidence that this will not be BS 6399–2.

the case and should use dry roofing products only if
such evidence is available.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.10: ROOF COVERINGS – CONTINUOUS MEMBRANE ROOFING
7.10 ROOF COVERINGS – CONTINUOUS MEMBRANE ROOFING
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Roof coverings must prevent any external moisture passing into the
in a workmanlike manner; internal environment of the dwelling;
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by an iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
approved installer. A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations

Scope Vapour control layer (VCL) 7.10.2.1.1 Warm deck roof

Construction material (usually a membrane) that The principal thermal insulation is placed
7.10.1 Definitions substantially reduces the transfer of water vapour immediately below the roof covering, resulting in the
For the purposes of this standard, the following through the roof; structural deck and support being at a temperature
definitions shall apply: close to that of the interior of the building.
Water control membrane (WCM)
Flat roof Construction material (usually a sheet membrane) The design should ensure that:
A roof having a pitch not greater than 100 to that substantially reduces the transfer of rainwater
the horizontal; to the insulation in an inverted warm deck roof; • The structural deck is maintained at a
temperature above that which could cause
Condensation Protection layer condensation to occur at this level during
Process whereby water is deposited from air Construction material (usually a geotextile all rigid service;
containing water vapour, when its temperature board) which isolates another construction material • A vapour control layer is provided by the deck
drops to or below dew point; from mechanical damage; or by a membrane placed above the deck;
• The insulation has sufficient mechanical
Interstitial condensation Filter layer characteristics to resist loading;
Condensation occurring within or between the Construction material (usually a geotextile) that • The waterproof membrane has sufficient
layers of the building envelope; substantially reduces the transfer of mineral and resistance to temperature to suit the conditions
organic material to the insulation in an inverted created by a substrate of insulation.
Thermal bridge warm deck roof;
Part of a roof of lower thermal resistance than its
surrounding elements, which may result in localised Separation layer

cold surfaces on which condensation, mould Construction material (usually a geotextile) which
growth or staining may occur; separates two construction materials which are not
chemically compatible.
Structural deck
Continuous layer of the construction (comprising 7.10.2 Design criteria
concrete, profiled metal or timber panel) which
is supported by the building structure and which 7.10.2.1 System types
supports the roof system;
Figure 1 – Warm roof (section)
7.10.2.1.2 Inverted warm deck roof 7.10.2.1.3 Cold deck roof carried out in such circumstances to ensure that
A variant of the warm deck roof in which the The principal thermal insulation is placed at the deck is above dew point during service.
principal thermal insulation is placed above the or immediately above the ceiling, i.e. below
waterproof membrane, resulting in the waterproof the structural deck, resulting in the waterproof
membrane, structural deck and structural support membrane and structural deck being substantially
being at a temperature close to that of the interior colder in winter than the interior of the building.
of the building. Generally, the principal insulation is The structural support will typically form a thermal
secured by separate ballast (paving or stone). bridge between the high and low temperature
zones of the construction. It is very difficult to
A filter membrane or water control membrane insulate a cold roof system to current mandatory
(WCM) should be provided to control mineral levels without introducing thermal bridges and/or
and organic material passing into and below the increasing the risk of interstitial condensation in the
insulation joints. A WCM is recommended because system. In addition, the mandatory requirement
it will provide improved rainwater run-off, which for uninterrupted external air circulation limits
Figure 3 – Cold roof (section)
may allow reduced thickness of insulation and the application of the system where abutting
reduced loading of ballast. If a WCM is included, it elevations or changes in building geometry occur.
is essential that the drainage design facilitates the Therefore, it is not recommended. 7.10.2.1.4 Hybrid roof
rapid transfer of rainwater across the product and Many roofs combine the features of two or more
to rainwater outlets. If an existing cold deck roof is refurbished, it is of the roof types previously described. Examples
important to ensure that the ventilation include structural decks of high thermal resistance
requirement is achieved, whether or not the level combined with additional insulation and existing
of insulation is to be increased. It is also not roofs to which thermal insulation is added. Once
feasible to introduce vapour control and insulation assessed in terms of their thermal and water vapour
below an existing structural deck, of concrete transmission characteristics, such roofs will generally
for example, if during refurbishment a cold deck fall into one of the categories described.
roof is converted to a warm deck roof by placing
insulation above the deck and closing off the In some constructions, the waterproof membrane
ventilation. It is necessary to provide at least is placed between two layers of insulation,
as much thermal resistance above the deck combining the properties of warm roof and
as was previously provided below the deck. A inverted warm roof construction. This form of
Figure 2 – Inverted warm roof (section) condensation risk calculation should always be construction is generally known as a ‘duo roof ’.
7.10.3 Loading less than 1:80, the intended finished fall at intersecting roof planes;
such intersections should be considered at an • Falls between rainwater outlets along a
7.10.3.1 Statutory requirement early stage. perimeter.
Design for loading must comply with the current
Building Regulations. Design falls should take account of any potential Since the primary function of the roof is to exclude
deflection and construction tolerances. In water, it is important to consider how best to direct
7.10.3.2 Resistance to wind load the absence of detailed calculation, this may this into the drainage system.
In all situations, including ballasted, green and necessitate design falls of twice the minimum
inverted roofs, a calculation of wind load at finished falls (1:40 or 2.5%). Cut-to-falls systems are Ponding on membrane roofs should be avoided
each zone of the roof to BS EN 1991-1-4 should be often produced to a 1:60 (1.7%) fall or 1:40 (2.5%) because:
undertaken by a suitably competent person. fall to ensure that deflection of the deck and/
or construction tolerances are overcome. This is • It encourages the deposition of dirt and leaves
7.10.3.3 Resistance to imposed loads particularly important in design for inverted roofs, which can be unsightly, may obstruct outlets
At the earliest possible stage, the employer should where calculation of dead loading should be based and/or become a slip hazard;
define the range of potential functions of the upon the ballast type and depth that is to be used. • In the event of damage, the interior will suffer
roof as regards loading with equipment, e.g. air increased water ingress;
handling, renewable energy capture and the The manufacturers of certain waterproofing • The load may cause progressive deflection of
intensity and frequency of foot traffic. This should products have certification for their use in the deck;
inform the selection of the deck, insulation, safety ‘completely flat’ or ‘zero falls’ applications. For the • Ice or algae may create a slip or wind hazard,
guarding and protection. purposes of this standard, the design conditions of particularly on walkways.
BS 6229 shall be assumed to prevail.
7.10.4 Falls and drainage Independent research has shown that roofs
Consideration should also be given to: with extensive ponding require increased
7.10.4.1 Statutory requirement maintenance input.
Design for drainage must comply with the current • The available upstand height at the high end of
Building Regulations. the falls. This may be a limiting factor on the Waterproof coverings of all types are tested for
length/size of the roof area to be drained; water absorption and water tightness as part of
7.10.4.2 British and industry standards • Avoidance of ponding behind wide obstructions third party certification. However, the construction
BS 6229 states that a minimum finished fall at any to the drained slope such as plant plinths or process including the installation of components
point of 1:80 (1.25%) should be achieved. Since roof lights; and the forming of seams is clearly facilitated in
adjoining roof planes at 1:80 will meet at a mitre of • Avoidance of gutters by designing with dry, well drained conditions.
7.10.4.3 Creation of falls • Mitred falls can be created easily, to direct

Roof falls may be created either during the rainwater to single points where outlets are
construction of the deck or alternatively by the use to be located.
of tapered insulation systems.
Where falls are created by tapered insulation, the
Creation of falls in the deck should always be design should ensure that average U-Value and
attempted because it has the following advantages: maximum U-Value at any point, required by SBEM
or SAP Calculation, is achieved.
• There will be a consistent thermal environment
across the roof; Where the roof finish is to include paving on access
• The vapour control layer will also be to fall and routes, consideration should be given to the height
will act as a temporary line of defence to water difference created by the falls and spacing of
ingress during construction; rainwater outlets in order that the maximum
• If mechanical fasteners are to be used for height of paving supports is not exceeded or trip
the waterproof membrane, their length will hazards created.
be constant, which facilitates planning
and installation.
Cementicious screeds provide a stable substrate

to mitred falls with minimal tolerances and are
recommended. Screeds should be in accordance
with BS 8204. Lightweight screeds should be Figure 4 – Drainage layout options
overlaid with a 1:6 (cement:sand) screed topping

of minimum 10mm thickness. 7.10.5 Drainage
Drainage design should be based upon calculation
Tapered insulation schemes, suitable for warm deck in accordance with BS EN 12056 Part 3 given a
roofs only, have the following advantages: design head of water (typically 30mm). Rainwater
outlet capacity should be taken from properly
• It is possible to create effective drainage layouts certificated information provided by manufacturers
to complex plan areas; and the resulting number and layout of outlets
should allow for obstruction and drag due to any 7.10.6 Thermal performance Manufacturers of thermal insulation and water
additional surface finishes such as walkways. control membranes provide calculation of the
7.10.6.1 Statutory requirement effects of thermal bridging by fasteners and
It is not generally necessary to provide separate Design for thermal performance must comply with drainage respectively. Further advice is available
box gutters where two planes of roofing intersect, current Building Regulations, as appropriate. in Building Research Establishment BR 262 Thermal
or where a single plane falls to an abutment. In the Insulation: avoiding risks 2002 edition.
latter case, there will be no fall between outlets, 7.10.6.2 Thermal transmittance
so consideration should be given to creating these Design for thermal transmittance should take 7.10.6.3 Air permeability
in the structure or insulation. Box gutters are slow, account of the effect of thermal bridging within Relevant contract drawings should define the
difficult to construct and introduce unnecessary the roof field and at interfaces between the roof position of the component – the air barrier – which
complexity. The need to maintain a fall in gutters system and adjoining elements such as parapet determines resistance to air permeability. This may
and to comply with the energy requirements of the walls or abutments. be achieved by an additional, purpose-designed
Building Regulations may be difficult to achieve. membrane or by an additional function of
In particular, allowance should be made for the another component such as the deck or
All waterproof membranes are compatible with effect of: waterproof membrane.
siphonic roof drainage systems. For larger roofs,
siphonic drainage offers many advantages: • Thermal bridging by metal fasteners used to 7.10.6.4 Control of condensation
secure insulation and/or membrane. Thermal Any provision required to control interstitial
• Very high capacity, enabling fewer outlets and break telescopic tube fasteners are condensation within the roof should be determined
so less detailing work on-site; recommended to avoid this; to the calculation method defined by BS 5250, but
• Smaller bore horizontal collector pipe work, • Thermal bridging due to drainage of rainwater with ambient conditions set in BS 6229. Calculated
enabling reduced roof void depth; or snow-melt through insulation in inverted maximum accumulation of moisture within thermal
• Self-cleaning in many situations. roofs. The use of water control membranes insulation should not exceed the limits defined
beneath ballast, to reduce thermal bridging, in BS 6229.
For further information, see is recommended;
www.siphonic-roof-drainage.co.uk • Locations of above-average thermal 7.10.7 External fire performance
transmittance at sumps, gutters or areas of
minimum thickness of tapered insulation. 7.10.7.1 Statutory requirement
Design for external fire performance must comply
with current Building Regulations.
7.10.7.2 Certification of system • Slip-resistant walkway material; • Upstands to extend 150mm above finished
The manufacturer of the waterproof membrane • Polymeric single ply membranes: compatible roof level;
must demonstrate by reference to independent sheets or tiles welded to the membrane; • Downstands (of separate metal or other
test certification that the system of waterproofing • Reinforced bitumen membranes: heavy-duty flashings) should lap the upstand by a
and insulation (type and thickness) for a particular mineral surfaces sheets or tiles; minimum of 75mm;
project meets or exceeds the minimum level of fire • Liquid-applied membranes: additional coating • Construction should achieve independence
performance defined by the Building Regulations. with textured finish; between different elements and trades;
• Mastic asphalt: heavy-duty mineral surfaces • Thermal and fire performance should be
7.10.8 Provision for access sheets or tiles; maintained across the detail;
• Load-spreading materials; • A continuous barrier to air leakage should
7.10.8.1 Statutory requirement • All waterproof membrane types: paving on be maintained;
Design for access must comply with current Building paving supports or protection layer; • Reliance on sealant as the sole means of
Regulations. • Polymeric single ply and reinforced bitumen protection should be avoided.
membranes: galvanised steel sheet with
7.10.8.2 Edge protection additional covering with slip-resistant finish. The total roof zone depth should be assessed at
In the absence of suitable parapet walls, critical points, such as the top of drainage slopes to
permanent edge protection should be provided 7.10.9 Detailing ensure that there is enough free upstand available
along pedestrian routes to equipment at roof level to create the minimum required 150mm of
which requires regular access for servicing. 7.10.9.1 General principles waterproofing protection above finished roof level.
At an early stage in the design process, an audit
7.10.8.3 Protection of roof system of roof geometry should be carried out to establish It is important that this minimum 150mm upstand is
At the earliest possible stage, the anticipated what types of details will be required and whether maintained at all points around the waterproofed
loading of the roof by plant and access during they are to be weatherproof (incorporating area except at continuous water checks and
service should be assessed in terms of: an upstand/cover flashing arrangement) or verges. Balconies are a frequent exception due
waterproof (providing continuous waterproofing to the need for level or unobstructed access (see
• Load, e.g. foot traffic, equipment; across the detail). Chapter 7.6). Designers should carefully consider
• Frequency; the risks of any departure from this criterion. In
• Risk of impact. The following key principles should be followed in the event of this being unavoidable, a written
design of all details: justification should be provided.
The design should include protection to suit the
anticipated conditions as appropriate:
Figure 8 – Detail – principles – plant support
Figure 6 – Penetration through roof system

Figure 5 – Principles of detailing. An example of warm deck roof at 7.10.9.2 Renewable energy capture equipment
an abutment
Renewable energy capture equipment includes
photovoltaic panels and multi-panel arrays, solar
thermal panels and multi-panel arrays and wind
Special design features are essential, depending turbines. All such equipment should be secured
upon the generic type of waterproof membrane, to a frame and/or posts which transfer their load
including: directly to the structure. The roof system and
waterproof membrane should be designed to
• Minimum clearances to enable waterproof enable equipment to be demounted without
membrane to be installed; loss of integrity of the roof waterproofing.

• Termination of waterproof membrane at Support systems based on ‘top-fixed’ plate and
interfaces to other elements; post components should be accompanied by
• Penetrations; documentation to demonstrate their compatibility
• Supports. with the waterproof membrane.
7.10.9.3 Handrails and balustrades

See Chapter 7.6.
Figure 7 – Detail – principles – flat roof interface to pitched roof

7.10.9.4 Mechanical and electrical services certificated for fitness for purpose by the British additional screed. Information on compressive
Detailed design should take account of the Board of Agrément or other notified body. strength, resistance to point load and drying
installation of such equipment by other (usually periods of wet screeds can be obtained from
following) trades, as follows: 7.10.10.2 Structural deck suppliers and relevant trade associations.
• Services entry/exit points should be suitably 7.10.10.2.1 General Where structural movement joints are required in
weathered to enable connection without loss of At the earliest practical stage, the likely deflection large concrete decks, a clearly defined movement
integrity of the waterproof membrane; in the deck and the tolerance in the level of its joint detail should be constructed to a design and
• The upstand of the waterproof membrane at finish should be confirmed because this informs with the materials that afford durability equivalent
risers should be arranged to enable a separate the design for drainage. If the deck is intended to that of the roof system.
downstand or weathering flashing to be to receive mechanical fasteners for attachment
formed in ductwork; of roof system components such as insulation, 7.10.10.2.3 Profiled metal (steel or aluminium)
• Cladding to insulation placed around ductwork or equipment such as fall-arrest line posts, its Profiled metal decks should have a crown width at
should not be sealed to the waterproof resistance to pull-out should also be confirmed. least 50% of the profile width. To provide a sound
membrane; base for the insulation and waterproofing system
• Sufficient clearance should be provided to 7.10.10.2.2 Concrete and to avoid reduced drainage performance,
horizontal ductwork to ensure it does not rest Precast concrete construction should be designed the mid-span deflection of the metal deck should
upon the waterproof membrane or roof finish. in accordance with BS 8110. Information on span not exceed 1/200 of the span under uniformly
capability and installation requirements of precast distributed design loads. When considering the
7.10.10 Materials panels can be obtained from manufacturers. deck profile and the necessity for side lap stitching
Information on the location of required movement and metal deck closures, reference should be
7.10.10.1 Requirement – general joints should be obtained early in the design process made to the manufacturers of the deck, insulation
Materials for use in the flat roofing systems are as they have implications for drainage layout and and membrane.
suitable only if the manufacturer has declared detailing. Precast panels installed to a fall can
compliance with the relevant harmonised provide a simple layout but without cross-falls.
European Product Specification and has affixed
the CE Mark to the product. Where no relevant In-situ concrete construction should be designed
harmonised European Product Specification exists, in accordance with BS 8110. It is more difficult to
the product should either be in compliance with lay to a fall and is more common to create falls
a relevant British Standard or be independently in the insulation (warm roofs only) or by use of an
7.10.10.3 Vapour control layer

The vapour control layer should be selected with
regard to the following minimum criteria:
• Ease with which it can be sealed at laps and

at abutments to other elements;
• Method of attachment;
• Condensation risk, expressed as calculated
Figure 9 – Profiled metal decks - critical dimensions
vapour pressure based on notional conditions
pertaining to the project building;
• Compatibility with waterproof membrane and
Profiled metal decks should conform to the Plywood, specifications minimum Service class 2 – thermal insulation.
following standards: ‘Humid Conditions’ or where required Service
class 3 – ‘Exterior Conditions’. The following is a minimum recommended
• Galvanised steel: minimum recommended specification. The actual specification will depend
thickness 0.7mm to BS EN 10346 Fe E280G Z275. 7.10.10.2.5 Composite panels (deck/vapour on the level of vapour resistance required, based
Typical gauge range 0.7-1.2mm; control/insulation) on calculation, and the type of deck.
• Plain aluminium: minimum recommended The suitability of composite panels providing a
thickness 0.9mm to BS EN 485-2 AA3004 H34. combined deck, vapour control layer and
Reference should also be made to BS EN 1396 thermal insulation in a single component should
as appropriate. be assessed with reference to the loading and
hygrothermal conditions in the application. There

7.10.10.2.4 Timber panels is no relevant British Standard. Products suitable for
Roofing grade Oriented Strand Board should be roofing should have current certification by one of
manufactured to BS EN300 grade OSB/3 and be the following:
certificated by the British Board of Agrément. The
minimum recommended thickness is 18mm. • British Board of Agrément;
• Another member of the UEAtc;
Plywood should be minimum 18mm thickness • Another notified body.
and certificated to conform to BS EN 1995-1-1 Euro-
Code 5. Design of timber structures and to BS EN 636
Roof system Deck type VCL Attachment Note: Roof Insulation type (1. 2.) Insulation Minimum
type 1. Reinforced bitumen membranes: minimum system code compression
Reinforced Profiled S2P3 (2.) Partial bond type resistance (3.)
recommended specification based on (KPa)
bitumen (1.) metal by 3G or
membrane approved classification in BS 8747; Warm Polyisocyanurate PIR 150
proprietary 2. S and P are classifications 1-5 of Strength deck foam
alternative roof Expanded EPS 150
(tensile strength and elongation) and resistance
Concrete S2P3 Fully bonded polystyrene
to puncture (static and dynamic). The higher
Timber S2P3 Partial bond Extruded XPS 200
panel by 3G or the rating, the higher the performance. polystyrene
approved Mineral wool MW 75
proprietary
alternative 7.10.11 Thermal insulation Cellular glass CG N/A
High density All 200μ Loose laid The thermal insulation should be selected with Inverted As per certification XPS 200
Polyethylene beneath regard to the following minimum criteria: warm
mechanically- deck
fixed insulation roof
High density As per Proprietary Fully bonded • Thermal resistance (and therefore thickness) to
Table 2 – Minimum recommended resistance to compression of
polyethylene certification to prepared suit minimum clearances at details; thermal insulation
and metal substrate
foil laminate all as per • Resistance to compression;
manufacturer’s • Compatibility with the vapour control layer and Note:
instructions 1. As defined in the appropriate European
waterproof membrane;
Coated As per Proprietary Fully bonded Product Specification;
metal foil certification to prepared • Compatibility with adhesives (if insulation is
laminate – substrate adhered); 2. Results for composite products should meet or
self-adhesive all as per exceed the minimum for each component
• Contribution to the external fire performance of
manufacturer’s
instructions the system; when tested separately;
• Acoustic properties: resistance to external 3. Results should be expressed at CS (10), i.e. at
Table 1 – Minimum recommended specification for vapour control
layer for warm deck roofs sound is not currently regulated. However, 10% compression when tested to BS EN 826.
there may be a need to consider attenuation
from balconies (see Chapter 7.6). 7.10.12 Waterproof membrane
Note: 7.10.12.1 Requirement

The alternative of a separate acoustic attenuation The waterproof membrane should be selected with
layer should be considered where appropriate. regard to the following minimum criteria:
• Anticipated service life based on independent • British Board of Agrément;

certification; • Another member of the UEAtc;
• Minimum maintenance; • Another notified body.
• Ease of adaptation and repair.
In addition, specifications for systems of multi-layer
7.10.12.2 Polymeric single ply membranes reinforced bitumen membranes for flat roofing
The manufacturer should declare compliance with should comply with the BS 8747.
the harmonised European Product Specification
for single ply membranes, BS EN 13956, which The following specifications will be acceptable as
defines requirements for testing and declaration a minimum:
of characteristic values. There is no relevant British
Standard. Products suitable for roofing should have Roof system type Deck type Insulation type (1.) Venting Underlayer (3.) Cap sheet (4.)
layer (2.)
current certification by one of the following:
Warm deck Profiled metal Thermoplastic foam 3G S2P3 (5.) S4P4 (5.)
Mineral fibre - S2P3 S4P5
• British Board of Agrément;
Concrete Thermoplastic foam - S2P3 S4P4
• Another member of the UEAtc; Mineral fibre - S2P3 S4P4
• Another notified body. Timber panel Thermoplastic foam 3G S2P3 S4P5
Mineral fibre - S2P3 S4P4
Such certification should be accompanied by full Inverted warm Profiled metal Extruded polystyrene 3G S2P3 S4P5
instructions for installation. deck Concrete (XPS) - S2P3 S4P5
Timber panel Deck type not suitable for inverted roofs
7.10.12.3 Reinforced bitumen membranes

Table 3 – Minimum recommended specification for reinforced bitumen membranes
The manufacturer should declare compliance with
the harmonised European Product Specification
for single ply membranes, BS EN 13707, which Notes: 4. Cap sheet: as defined in BS 8747. SBS-modified
defines requirements for testing and declaration of 1. Insulation type: Thermoplastic foam: PIR, EPS, PF. products are recommended;
characteristic values. There is no relevant Mineral fibre: MW; 5. S and P are classifications 1-5 of Strength
British Standard. 2. Venting layer: BS 8747 3G or proprietary (tensile strength and elongation) and resistance
equivalent with suitable certification; to puncture (static and dynamic). The higher
Products suitable for roofing should have current 3. Under layer: as defined in BS 8747. SBS-modified the rating, the higher the performance.
certification by one of the following: products are recommended;
Bitumen membranes should be protected from • Part 4: Flexible unsaturated polyesters; Products suitable for roofing should have current
solar radiation. This should be by integral protection • Part 5: Hot applied polymer modified bitumens; certification by one of the following:
provided in the product in the form of: • Part 6: Polyurethanes;
• Part 7: Bitumen emulsions and solutions; • British Board of Agrément;
• Mineral granules; • Part 8: Water dispersible polymers. • Another member of the UEAtc;
• Metal foil. • Another notified body.
The manufacturer of a product for use in flat roofing
The use of solar reflective paint is not permitted. should declare compliance with the relevant parts The separating membrane should be one of the
The use of stone chippings is not recommended of ETAG 005. In the absence of this declaration, the following and should be laid directly under the
unless required to achieve enhanced external fire product should have a current certificate of fitness mastic asphalt:
performance. If used, chippings should be washed, for purpose issued by one of the following:
crushed rock, normally 10mm to 14mm nominal size • Sheathing felt comprising a base of flax or jute,
aggregate, bedded in a proprietary gritting solution. • British Board of Agrément; or other suitable fibres, impregnated with
• Another member of the UEAtc; bitumen;
7.10.12.4 Liquid-applied membranes • Another notified body. • Glass fibre tissue.
There is no harmonised European Product
Specification for liquid applied membranes Such certification should be accompanied by full Bitumen coated plain expanded metal lathing
for roofing. The European Technical Approval instructions for installation. should be in accordance with BS EN 13658-2.
Guideline ETAG 005 Part 1 – ‘General’ gives
overall guidance on assessment of fitness for use, 7.10.12.5 Mastic asphalt Stone chippings (bedded) for use as a protective
including methods of verification and attestation There is no harmonised European Product topping should be washed, crushed rock, normally
of conformity. The remaining seven parts, known Specification for mastic asphalt for roofing. 10mm to 14mm nominal size aggregate, bedded
as the Complementary Parts or the ETA Parts, deal Products used for flat roofing should comply with in a proprietary gritting solution over the mastic
with specific requirements for particular families BS 6925:1988 Specification for mastic asphalt asphalt membrane.
of products and are the generic types covered for buildings and civil engineering (limestone
primarily by this guidance note, shown following: aggregate). 7.10.12.6 Site-applied hot-melt coverings
There is no harmonised European Product
• Part 2: Polymer modified bitumen emulsions Proprietary grades of polymer modified mastic Specification for site-applied hot-melt
and solutions; asphalt are produced for roofing and paving waterproofing systems.
• Part 3: Glass reinforced resilient unsaturated applications. There is no British Standard or
polyester resins; European Standard for these products.
Products suitable for roofing should have current 7.10.13.3 Access areas: porous concrete tiles • Compliance with BS EN 795;
certification by one of the following: (for use on reinforced bitumen sheets and • Method of attachment;
mastic asphalt only) • Compatibility with the waterproof membrane;
• British Board of Agrément; Porous concrete tiles should be fully bonded in hot • Means of forming a watertight seal to the
• Another member of the UEAtc; bitumen in accordance with the manufacturer’s waterproof membrane.
• Another notified body; instructions.
• Comprehensive instructions for installation. 7.10.13.7 Lightning protection
7.10.13.4 Access areas: flexible walkway tiles The following should be confirmed by reference
As these systems comprise a multi-layer application Evidence of the compatibility of the tile with the to manufacturer’s information or independent
(usually a base coat, reinforcement and top coat), waterproof membrane is required. Tiles for walkways certification, as appropriate:
detailed specification for the system should be or terrace deck paving should be bedded in
available prior to commencement of the works to a bonding compound compatible with the • Design in compliance with BS EN 62305;
enable its suitability for the project to be confirmed. waterproof membrane and fixed in accordance • Method attachment to the waterproof
with the tile manufacturer’s recommendations. membrane, including arrangements for self-
7.10.13 Ancillary components ballasting of conductors and finials (centres,
7.10.13.5 Rainwater outlets compressive loads);
7.10.13.1 Non-access areas; stone ballast The following should be confirmed by reference • Recommended detailing at penetration of
Stone ballast for inverted warm deck roofs and to manufacturer’s information or independent roof system.
ballasted warm deck roofs should be clean, certification, as appropriate:
rounded aggregate graded 20mm to 40mm and 7.10.13.8 Support for renewable energy capture
as free from fines as practicable. Ballast should be • Capacity in litres per second at a range of equipment
applied over a protection layer or water control typical water heads; Renewable energy equipment includes
membrane in warm ballasted and inverted warm • Compatibility with the waterproof membrane; photovoltaic panels and multi-panel arrays, solar
roofs respectively. • Integral insulation to avoid condensation; thermal panels and multi-panel arrays and wind
• Method of attachment. turbines. All such equipment should be secured to a
7.10.13.2 Access areas: concrete paving slabs frame and/or posts which transfer their load directly
Concrete paving slabs for use as walkways or 7.10.13.6 Fall-arrest and edge protection equipment to the structure. Support systems based on ‘top-
as paving on terrace decks should conform The following should be confirmed by reference fixed’ plate and post components are acceptable
to BS EN 1340 and be laid in accordance with to manufacturer’s information or independent only if accompanied by documentation to
manufacturer’s instructions. certification, as appropriate: demonstrate their dead and live loading capacity
and compatibility with the waterproof membrane.
7.10.14 Compatibility of components 7.10.15.1.2 Permanent protection (during service) a reinforced bitumen membrane VCL is used, its
The selection of components within the roofing Permanent protection should not be laid on routes installation should be in accordance with BS 8217.
system should be discussed in detail with the where access is most likely. It should not be laid on
membrane manufacturer or appropriate trade routes where temporary ponding is likely, e.g. near 7.10.15.3 Thermal insulation
association to ensure chemical and mechanical parapet walls in the absence of cross falls between The attachment of the thermal insulation should
compatibility between components, since the rainwater outlets. be designed to resist calculated wind load
incorrect specification may lead to reduced by a declared margin of safety. This includes
performance or premature failure of the roofing It is recommended that concrete paving is laid on consideration of dead loads required in all roof
system. The correct choice of insulation is also support pads as this allows adjustment, reducing zones in ballasted warm roofs and inverted
important when it is to be adhered to the substrate. risk of trip hazard: warm roofs.
In case of doubt, the insulation manufacturer or
relevant trade association should be consulted. • The height of support pads should not Except in tapered insulation schemes, thermal
exceed the maximum recommended by insulation should always be laid in broken bond
7.10.15 Installation the manufacturer; pattern. Where two or more layers are laid, the
• Paving should not be cut; joints in each layer should be offset. On substrates
7.10.15.1 Protection of the roof • Paving should be firmly butted up against of profiled metal, the short dimension should be
support pad separating pegs. parallel to the deck crowns and supported across
7.10.15.1.1 Temporary protection (during construction) half the crown width.
Responsibility for temporary protection and a 7.10.15.2 Vapour control layer (VCL)
method statement for its use should be agreed prior The attachment of the VCL should be designed to Insulation should be lightly butted so as to avoid
to commencement of works. Suitable materials resist calculated wind load by a declared margin thermal bridging caused by gaps. If large gaps are
should be selected in consultation with membrane of safety. All laps should be sealed and the VCL created by damaged or undersized boards, any
manufacturers as appropriate, for example: should be sealed to the adjoining element which infill sections should be attached in accordance
forms the continuation of the resistance to air with manufacturer’s instructions.
• Linked recycled thermoplastic sheets; permeability. The VCL should be extended behind
• Rolled recycled thermoplastic or elastomeric all thermal insulation, including insulation placed
sheets. on vertical surfaces such as parapet walls. Where
the roof system is penetrated by a detail such as
Particular consideration should be given to locations a pipe or duct, a suitable method for providing
of concentrated access such as step-out areas onto continuous vapour control should be provided and
the roof or where wheeled equipment may be used. this method should be followed in practice. Where
Warm roof systems with reinforced bitumen pattern designed to achieve calculated wind load. • Individual fasteners, protected by a flashing;
membrane waterproofing The contractor should allow for temporary loading • A linear bar, protected by a flashing;
The limiting wind load for the different methods of as required to achieve a suitable adhesion and to • Welding the field sheet to a membrane-coated
attachment of insulation is prescribed by BS 8217 achieve the best possible level in the upper surface metal trim secured to the deck (with thermal
as follows: of the insulation. break fasteners where appropriate).
• Partial bitumen bond: up to 2.4kN/m2; 7.10.15.4 Waterproof membrane

• Full bitumen bond: up to 3.6kN/m . 2
Polymeric single ply membranes

Where the method attachment is outside the There is no British Standard for the installation of
scope of BS 8217, the manufacturer should single ply membranes. Installation should be in
demonstrate that the method attachment provides accordance with the Single Ply Roofing Association
sufficient resistance to wind load. ‘Design Guide to Single Ply Roofing’ and with the
specific instructions of the membrane manufacturer.
Warm roof systems with mastic asphalt waterproofing
Generally, mastic asphalt on sheathing felt The attachment of the single ply membrane should
provides sufficient dead load to resist wind load, be designed to resist calculated wind load by a
but this should be demonstrated by calculation in declared margin of safety. This design will normally
all situations. be provided by the membrane manufacturer.
Warm roof systems with polymeric single ply Whatever the means of attachment, mechanical
waterproofing restraint is always required at the roof perimeter, at

Where the insulation is mechanically fixed, the changes of slope and around details. This ensures
number and arrangement of fasteners to resist wind that any tension in the membrane in the roof field
load will be prescribed by the manufacturer. This or upstand is not transferred to the other as a Figure 10 – Methods of restraint of single ply membrane at perimeters
arrangement may vary across the roof according peeling action.
to wind load, but should be followed in all areas.
Perimeter restraint is achieved by several methods,
Where the insulation is adhered, the adhesive depending upon the manufacturer:
should be approved by the insulation manufacturer
and should be laid at the coverage rate and
If the remainder of the roof system is to be bonded, Reinforced bitumen membranes • Guidance Note No. 5 – ‘Health and Safety
it is essential that the design resistance to wind Installation should be in accordance with Provision for LAWS on Roofs, Balconies and
load is also achieved for the attachment of BS 8217. In case of doubt, or where the waterproof Walkways`;
these components. membrane is out of the scope of the Standard, • Guidance Note No. 6 – ‘Safe Use of Liquid
the advice of the Flat Roofing Alliance (National Applied Waterproofing Systems’.
Irrespective of the wind uplift considerations or Federation of Roofing Contractors) should prevail.
distribution requirements for securing the Mastic asphalt
membrane, the fixing of the insulation boards should The safe use of gas torches and the positioning, The number of coats should be appropriate to the
always be considered separately, unless specifically monitoring and transferring hot bitumen to the waterproofing requirements and traffic conditions
sanctioned by the membrane manufacturer. The work face should be adopted, all in accordance of the roof. When laid to falls of 1:80 or more,
number and distribution of mechanical fasteners with the Heath and Safety Executive/Flat Roofing mastic asphalt roofing is laid in two coats to a
required to fix the insulation boards may vary with Alliance Code of Practice for Safe Handling thickness of 20mm, on a separating membrane of
the insulation type, geographical location of the of Bitumen. sheathing felt, all in accordance with BS 8218.
building, topographical data and the height of the
roof concerned. The practice of applying reinforced bitumen On sloping and vertical surfaces over 10° pitch, the
membranes by torching onto thermoplastic foam mastic asphalt should be laid in three coats to a
The upper termination of the single ply membrane insulation is not permitted, unless the boards are thickness of 20mm without a separating membrane.
at linear details such as plinths, parapets, manufactured with a covering of reinforced
abutments and door openings should be secured bitumen membrane. On sloping and vertical surfaces of timber or
by one of the following mechanical means: lightweight concrete, the mastic asphalt should
Liquid-applied membranes be laid in three coats to a thickness of 20mm
• Clamping beneath a metal rail, e.g. a parapet There is no British Standard for the installation of on expanded metal lathing over a separating
capping or roof light frame; liquid applied membranes. Installation should membrane of sheathing felt.
• Welding to a membrane-metal laminate trim be in accordance with the Liquid Roofing and
(itself mechanically fixed); Waterproofing Association guidance, as follows: Site-applied hot-melt coverings
• Mechanical fixing using individual fasteners or a There is no British Standard for the application
mechanically-fixed termination bar. • Guidance Note No. 2 - ‘Substrates for Liquid of proprietary hot melt waterproof membrane
Applied Waterproofing’; systems. Reference should be made to
• Guidance Note No. 4 – ‘Roof, Balcony and independent certification and the manufacturer’s
Walkway Refurbishment using Liquid Applied detailed instructions.
Waterproofing Systems’;
7.10.16 Testing in roofs where the waterproof membrane is an 7.10.17 Provision of information
electrical insulator and the deck provides an
7.10.16.1 Final inspection electrical earth. It is not suitable for testing flat Operation and maintenance manual
At practical completion of the flat roof, all roofs where the waterproof membrane has been The following information is required:
areas should be clear of stored material, other overlaid with insulation and ballast (inverted roofs)
site operations and all protection. A thorough, or ballast only (ballasted warm roofs); therefore • Specification, as-built:
recorded, visual inspection of all areas including testing should be carried out prior to completion of
details should be carried out with representation the roofing system. 1. Waterproof membrane: generic type,
from the general contractor and roofing contractor product(s) and (as appropriate) thickness;
in attendance. High voltage electrical discharge 2. Thermal insulation: generic type, product(s)
The high voltage electrical discharge method is and thickness;
7.10.16.2 Procurement of testing services best suited to the testing of continuous thin films 3. Acoustic insulation: generic type, product
If testing to demonstrate waterproofing integrity is such as liquid-applied coatings. Its use is not and (as appropriate) thickness;
required, it should be undertaken by a third party recommended with polymeric single ply, reinforced 4. Vapour control layer: generic type,
that is independent of the roofing contract. bitumen membranes and mastic asphalt. product (as appropriate) and thickness
(as appropriate);
The testing service provider should provide Vacuum 5. Rainwater outlets: type, product and
evidence of the following: Vacuum testing of seams of membranes capacity;
manufactured off-site is an effective means of
• Efficacy of the method proposed in the quality assessment, but is not recommended as a • Procedure for maintenance of waterproof
circumstances of the project; method of demonstrating the integrity of flat roofs. membrane including (where appropriate)
• Experience and training of operator; recommended frequency and method of

• Membership of an appropriate trade Flood testing application of solar reflective finish;
association that sets a Code of Conduct for Flood testing is not recommended as a method of • Procedure for repair of waterproof membrane.
the service. demonstrating the integrity of flat roofs. It may be
used to test balconies (see Chapter 7.6).
7.10.16.3 Methods of test
Low voltage earth leakage

Low voltage earth leakage is a safe and effective
method for the testing of waterproofing integrity
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.11: ROOF COVERINGS – GREEN ROOFING
7.11 ROOF COVERINGS – GREEN ROOFING
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Roof coverings must prevent any external moisture passing into
person in a workmanlike manner; the internal environment of the dwelling;

7.11.1 Scope Cold deck roof systems (not recommended): water that can be diffused to the plant support
This part of the Manual should be read in layer during prolonged dry periods;
conjunction with Chapter 7.10. Where appropriate, • Waterproof membrane;
cross reference will be provided to the relevant • Continuously supporting deck; Extensive green roof
information in Chapter 7.10. • Ventilation externally; A lightweight, low-maintenance roof system,
• Principal thermal insulation; typically with succulents or other hardy plant
This section provides specific advice and • Vapour control layer. species (often sedum) planted into a shallow
requirements in respect of membrane roof systems substrate (typically less than 100mm) that is low in
over which a finish of living vegetation or materials 7.11.2 Definitions nutrients. Irrigation is not normally required;
that will support vegetation is to be applied. For the purposes of this standard, the following
definitions shall apply: Filter fleece/fines layer
The membrane roof systems may comprise one Geotextile of low resistance to water penetration,
of the following, but the advice of Chapter 7.10 Biodiverse roof which prevents fines and sediments from being
applies: A roof that is designed to create a desired habitat washed out of the green roof into the drainage
that will attract a particular flora and fauna; system;
Warm deck, comprising: whether replicating the original footprint of the
building or enhancing the previous habitat; FLL
• Waterproof membrane; Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung
• Principal thermal insulation; Brown roof Landschaftbau’s (German Landscape Research,
• Vapour control layer; A biodiverse roof where the growing medium is Development and Construction Society);
• Continuously supporting deck. purposely selected to allow local plant species to
inhabit the roof over time; Green roof

Inverted warm deck roof systems: A roof or deck onto which vegetation is
Drainage layer/reservoir board intentionally grown or habitats for wildlife are
• Ballast; Available in a variety of materials, including established, including extensive, intensive and
• Water control membrane; hard plastic, polystyrene, foam, coarse gravel semi intensive roofs; roof gardens; bio diverse roofs;
• Principal thermal insulation; and crushed recycled brick, depending on the brown roofs; public and private amenity spaces;
• Waterproof membrane; functional requirements. This allows excess water
• Continuously supporting deck. to drain away, thereby preventing the water Green roof system
logging of the substrate. Some drainage layers also The component layers of a green roof build-up;
incorporate water storage cells to retain additional
Growing medium/substrate Moisture/protection layer Vapour control layer (VCL)

An engineered soil replacement that contains a Geotextile blanket, available in varying thicknesses Construction material (usually a membrane) that
specified ratio of organic and inorganic material; (typically between 2mm-12mm), performs a substantially reduces the transfer of water vapour
specifically designed to provide green roof plants dual function. Firstly, protecting the waterproof through the roof;
with the air, water and nutrient levels that they membrane during the installation of the green roof
need to survive, whilst facilitating the release of system; and secondly, increasing the water holding Wildlife roof
excess water; capacity of the green roof system; A version of a biodiverse that is designed to provide
a specific habitat to attract a wildlife species.
GRO Root barrier
Green Roof Organisation, the industry forum for A waterproof membrane designed to prevent 7.11.3 Design
green roof development and promotion in the UK; roots from penetrating the waterproofing layer and
building fabric. This function may be incorporated 7.11.3.1 System types
Hydro seeding in a single membrane waterproofing product; Selection of system type.
Spraying a specially designed blend of seeds and
growing medium; Sedum A green roof essentially comprises an organic
Genus of about 400 species of low-growing, leafy vegetation layer and those components
Inspection chamber succulents that are wind, frost and drought tolerant necessary to support its growth, which is placed
A chamber situated over an internal rainwater and found throughout the northern hemisphere. over a membrane roof system. For convenience,
outlet designed to constrain the surrounding Not all species are suitable for roofs; green roofs are divided into the following types
landscaping but allows easy access for but it should be noted that they are in effect a
maintenance. Allows water entry, but helps Semi-intensive green roof continuous range of types:
prevent unwanted silt, debris or vegetation from Intermediate green roof type with characteristics of
entering and obstructing free drainage; both extensive and intensive green roofs. Typically • Biodiverse roof;
100mm to 200mm substrate depth, sometimes • Brown roof;
Intensive green roof irrigated, occasionally managed, and usually • Extensive green roof;
A version of a green roof often referred to as a planted with a range of species; • Semi-intensive green roof;
roof garden that provides benefits akin to a small • Intensive green roof.
urban park or domestic garden. Designed primarily SuDS
for recreational use, intensive roofs are typically Sustainable (Urban) Drainage Systems; The roof system may be of warm deck, inverted
configured with 200mm+ of substrate and often warm deck or cold deck configuration (see
require regular maintenance and irrigation; Chapter 7.10 ). Generally, the warm deck
configuration is recommended unless there are 7.11.4.3 Resistance to imposed loads

specific design circumstances for which inverted At the earliest possible stage, the employer should
and cold roofs are better suited. A technical define the range of potential imposed loads for
justification for any departure from warm deck will which the green roof is to be designed, such as seats,
be required. standalone planters, storage and public access. In
the absence of such a performance requirement,
7.11.4 Loading the loading limits of the roof should be defined.
7.11.4.1 Statutory requirement 7.11.5 Falls and drainage

Design for loading should comply with current
Building Regulations. 7.11.5.1 Statutory requirement
Design for drainage should comply with current
7.11.4.2 Resistance to wind load Building Regulations.
In all situations, including ballasted and inverted
Figure 1 – Extensive green roof - warm roof system (section) roofs, a calculation of wind load to BS EN1991-1-4 7.11.5.2 British and industry standards
should be undertaken by a suitably competent The relevant requirements of BS 6229 should prevail
person. Wind load acting on a green roof will in respect of green roofs, irrespective of the type of
be affected significantly by the design of the vegetative covering.
perimeter and by the geometry and finishes on
the elevations of the building. Any changes to Falls are required for green roofs because:
these elements will necessitate a review of the
calculation output. • Standing water will inevitably result from design

without falls, due to tolerances and deflection.
In biodiverse, brown and extensive green roof Standing water, which may become stagnant,
systems, the dead load contribution from the is not conducive to plant growth and should not
growing medium should be calculated on an be confused with the temporary retention of
assumption of dry substrate conditions. Such water in drainage/reservoir layers;
loadings may be insufficient to restrain the green • Absence of falls will result in ponding,
roof and certain types of waterproof membrane potential slip hazard and retention of mineral
and insulation, necessitating provision of fines in vegetation-free zones, which in turn may
Figure 2 – Intensive green roof - inverted warm roof (section) supplementary ballast or netting restraint. Information encourage growth of weeds.
on loading is available from horticultural suppliers.
7.11.5.3 Creation of falls 7.11.6 Drainage such as the additional retention performance of
Roof falls may be created either during the Drainage design should be based upon calculation green roofs. However, the coefficient that is used to
construction of the deck or alternatively by the to BS EN 12056 given a design head of water reflect this reduction would be based on average
use of tapered insulation systems (warm deck roof (typically 30mm). Rainwater outlet capacity should annual retention and not on responses to dynamic
systems only). be taken from properly certificated information storm events.
provided by manufacturers and the resulting
Where the roof finish is to include paving with or number and layout of outlets should allow for Any drainage infrastructure designed to
without paving supports, consideration should be obstruction and drag due to any additional accommodate this reduced flow rate may not
given to the height difference created by the falls surface finishes such as walkways. accurately account for seasonal differences or
and spacing of rainwater outlets. In order that individual storm events. Any reductions in drainage
the maximum height of paving supports is not Green roofs are proven to reduce the volume and capacity would therefore need to be countered
exceeded, the minimum height of upstands is not rate of transfer of rainwater to rainwater goods. by alternative measures, e.g. appropriate detailing
affected or trip hazards created. This effect is clearly dependent upon many factors to ensure that any attenuation of water at the
including depth and type of growing medium, type roof level will not be detrimental to the building
of drainage/reservoir layer, weather conditions structure or fabric.
prevailing prior to the rainfall event and fall in the
waterproof membrane. Due to these variables, Rainwater outlets should be readily accessible
it is recommended that the design for rainwater without disruption to the green roof or pedestrian
drainage in accordance with EN is conducted finish. On finishes raised above the waterproof
as follows: membrane (warm deck roofs) or water control
membrane (inverted roofs), this may be achieved
• Brown, biodiverse and extensive green roof by a suitably marked paving slab or demountable
systems: no allowance for rainwater section of decking. Within the area of the green
attenuation; roof, a specific vegetation-free inspection
• Intensive green roof systems: attenuation as chamber and cover should be provided in order to
advised by horticultural supplier. If no data is avoid plant growth obstructing the outlet. Purpose-
supplied, no allowance should be made. made products are available from suppliers
of green roof components and waterproof
The UK’s National Annex to BS EN 12056 does membranes and it is recommended that they be
permit the use of a coefficient to factor down the used wherever possible.
Figure 3 – Drainage layout options drainage infrastructure, to account for factors
Rainwater goods from higher roof areas or Provision may include hoses, sprinklers, overhead during drought. The latter is not relevant with
adjacent roof areas should not be designed to irrigation and automated systems that pump from sedum species, which die back but is important for
discharge onto the green roof. The downpipe some reservoir storage. The establishment of a intensive roof gardens or extensive systems planted
should be connected directly to the downpipe need for an irrigation system, and the design of with grasses.
serving the green roof. an irrigation scheme should be in accordance
with the principles of BS 7562-3. Where irrigation is The design should not allow the vegetation to grow
Green roofs are compatible with siphonic roof required, a frost-protected water supply, rainwater or propagate towards adjoining elements such as
drainage systems. In the right circumstances these or grey water storage facility should be provided at abutments, eaves or pitched roofs. It should also be
can offer advantages of: roof level. kept away from openings such as roof lights and
smoke vents.
• Very high capacity, enabling fewer outlets and 7.11.8 Thermal performance
so less detailing work on-site; This is achieved in two ways:
• Smaller bore horizontal collector pipework, 7.11.8.1 Statutory requirement
enabling reduced roof void depth; Design for thermal performance must comply with • A vegetation-free zone of minimum 0.5m width
• Self-cleaning in many situations. current Building Regulations, as appropriate. at all perimeters, abutments and openings. This
zone should be extended to 1m to separate
However, siphonic drainage should be designed 7.11.9 External fire performance large roof zones in excess of 40m length;
specifically for the green roof system because it • Design of flexible walkways, hard paving and
must operate siphonically with sufficient regularity 7.11.9.1 Statutory requirement ballasted areas so as to minimise root and
to avoid silting-up of small-bore pipework. Design for external fire performance must comply plant spread.
with current Building Regulations.
For further information, see

www.siphonic-roof-drainage.co.uk 7.11.9.2 Design for resistance to external fire
The design of green roof systems can influence the
7.11.7 Design for irrigation fire performance of the overall roof system. The
Rainfall is the typical source of water; however rate of growth and moisture content of natural
complementary irrigation options may be required vegetation is unpredictable and determined by
for semi-intensive and intensive systems or those irregular weather conditions. The substitution of
where, for example, the appearance of a grass planted species by others is also unpredictable.
finish may be important. Design to minimise fire risk cannot be based on an
assumption of regular maintenance or of irrigation
7.11.10 Provision for access 7.11.10.3 Permanent pedestrian access finishes

Pedestrian finishes should be designed to suit the
7.11.10.1 Statutory requirement purpose and frequency of access in the context
Design should comply with current Building of the intended planned maintenance regime.
Regulations. For example, paving on paving supports may
be desirable to allow drainage and to level up
7.11.10.2 Temporary provision during construction the finish, but may be unsuitable if plants could
At the earliest possible stage, the anticipated spread beneath the paving. Generally, for amenity
loading of the roof system (prior to application of access, a finish of porous or hard concrete paving
the green roof components) should be assessed laid directly on a suitable protection fleece may be
in terms of: most suitable.
• Load, e.g. foot traffic, equipment; For service and maintenance access only, a flexible
Figure 4 – Green roofs – vegetation-free zones (plan, zone width -
not to scale of building) • Frequency; walkway tile may be sufficient (depending upon
• Risk of impact. the waterproof membrane and roof system type).
If such usage is intense or long-lasting during the 7.11.11 Detailing

construction phase, consideration should be given
to temporary works only, with completion occurring General principles
after all non-roofing usage has ceased, as follows: At an early stage in the design process, an audit
of roof geometry should be carried out to establish
• Warm deck roof system: installation of what types of details will be required and whether
temporary vapour control layer, to be overlaid they are to be weatherproof (incorporating
when remainder of system is installed; an upstand/cover flashing arrangement) or
• Inverted warm deck roof system: overlay of waterproof (providing continuous waterproofing
completed waterproof membrane with across the detail).
geotextile and continuous temporary decking
such as plywood, Oriented Strand Board or The following key principles should be followed in
compatible recycled thermoplastic board. design of all details:
Figure 5 – Green roofs – vegetation-free zone – warm roof (elevation)

• Upstands to extend 150mm above finished roof 7.11.14 Installation 7.11.14.4 Waterproof membrane
level, i.e. top of growing medium; As per Chapter 7.10.
• Downstands (of separate metal or other 7.11.14.1 Protection of the roof
flashings) should lap the upstand by a minimum Note:
of 75mm; • Temporary protection (during construction). Warm roof systems – restraint against wind load. It is
• Reliance on sealant as the sole means of unusual for the installation of ballast and green roof
protection should be avoided; Responsibility for temporary protection and a components to follow immediately after installation
• Consideration of the effect of vegetation method statement for its use should be agreed prior of the roof system. This may be because the roof
growth on the integrity of the weatherproofing. to commencement of works. Suitable materials system and green roof overlay are to be installed
should be selected in consultation with membrane by different contractors or because of site factors
The total roof zone depth should be measured from manufacturers as appropriate, for example: such as limited storage. Unless it is sequenced to do
the surface of the growing medium and assessed at so, the roof system should be installed with restraint
critical points, such as the top of drainage slopes to • Linked recycled thermoplastic sheets; against wind load based on an assumption of an
ensure that there is enough free upstand available to • Rolled recycled thermoplastic or elastomeric exposed waterproof membrane.
create the minimum required 150mm of waterproofing sheets.
protection above finished roof level. It is important 7.11.15 Testing
that this minimum 150mm upstand is maintained at Particular consideration should be given to
all points around the area of the green roof, except locations of concentrated access such as step-out 7.11.15.1 Final inspection
at continuous water checks and at verges. areas onto the roof or where wheeled equipment A thorough, recorded, visual inspection of all
may be used. areas including details should be carried out with
7.11.12 Design for sustainability representation from the general contractor and
As per Chapter 7.10. • Permanent protection (during service) roofing contractor in attendance.
See Chapter 7.11.14.1.
7.11.13 Materials 7.11.15.2 Procurement of testing services
As per Chapter 7.10. 7.11.14.2 Vapour control layer (VCL) The waterproof membrane should be tested
As per Chapter 7.10. for integrity before the application of any
Note: other components above it. Testing should be
If the waterproof membrane is intended also to 7.11.14.3 Thermal insulation undertaken by a third party that is independent of
provide root resistance, suitable certification of As per Chapter 7.10. the roofing contract. The testing service provider
testing in accordance with BS EN 13948 should should provide evidence of the following:
be available.
• Efficacy of the method proposed in the Vacuum 7.11.16 Provision of information

circumstances of the project; Vacuum testing of seams of membranes
• Experience and training of operator; manufactured off-site is an effective means of 7.11.16.1 Operation and maintenance manual
• Membership of an appropriate trade quality assessment, but is not recommended as a The following information is required:
association that sets a Code of Conduct for method of demonstrating the integrity of flat roofs.
the service. • Specification, as-built:
Flood testing
7.11.15.3 Methods of test Flood testing is a suitable method of demonstrating i. Waterproof membrane: generic type,
the integrity of small areas of roof to which green product(s) and (as appropriate) thickness;
Low voltage earth leakage roof system is to be applied. However, consideration ii. Thermal insulation: generic type, product(s)
Low voltage earth leakage is a safe and effective should be given to the effect of ingress on and thickness;
method for the testing of waterproofing integrity, programme and risk of entrapped water in insulation iii. Acoustic insulation: generic type, product
in roofs where the waterproof membrane is an (warm deck roofs) and decks (all types). The area and (as appropriate) thickness;
electrical insulator and the deck provides an under any one test should not exceed 50m . 2
iv. Vapour control layer: generic type,
electrical earth. It is not suitable for testing flat product (as appropriate) and thickness
roofs where the waterproof membrane has been 7.11.15.4 Testing after installation of green roof (as appropriate);
overlaid with insulation and ballast (inverted roofs) system v. Rainwater outlets: type, product, capacity,
or ballast only (ballasted warm roofs). Therefore No reliable method is available for testing the location and means of access;
testing should be carried out prior to completion of integrity of a green roof following application
the roofing system. of the green roof components. With extensive • Procedure for maintenance of waterproof
greening on certain warm roof systems, it may be membrane including (where appropriate)
High voltage electrical discharge feasible to use low voltage earth leakage but any recommended frequency and method of
The high voltage electrical discharge method defects recorded will in any case involve removal application of solar reflective finish;
is best suited to the testing of continuous thin of the green roof components. Therefore, it is • Procedure for repair of waterproof membrane;
films such as liquid-applied coatings. Its use is not strongly recommended to ensure the very highest • Instructions for irrigation (method/frequency),
recommended with polymeric single ply, reinforced possible standards of protection of the waterproof weed control and application of fertiliser (type/
bitumen membranes and mastic asphalt. membrane during the application of the green season/frequency).
roof components.
CHAPTER 7: SECTION 7.12: ROOF COVERINGS – METAL DECK ROOFING
7.12 ROOF COVERINGS – METAL DECK ROOFING
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Roof coverings must prevent any external moisture passing into
person in a workmanlike manner; the internal environment of the dwelling;

7.12.1 Introduction Liner sheets can be solid or perforated to give an For pierce fixed trapezoidal sheets, check for tell
Generally metal roofing is usually built to a decent acoustic, sound deadening roof. Liner sheets are tales to end laps and side laps for the correct
standard, but occasionally things go wrong fixed directly to purlins and can act as a vapour number of rows of tape.
especially where site workmanship has not been up control layer if a separate vapour barrier is not
to standard. specified. If the liner is not used as a vapour control Liner sheets
layer a reinforced vapour control sheet should be Where the liner sheet is solid and used as a vapour
incorporated within the roof. check, note the following:
Insulation must be installed between the vapour • Frequency of main fixings to purlins.
control layer and the top weathering sheet; Frequency of side lap stitchers;
some systems may require ventilation above • End laps to be sealed with mastic tape, check
the insulation and others may not, it varies from the size and that this is continuous. Side laps
manufacturer to manufacturer. Where there is no have a wider 50mm Polyband tape placed
requirement to ventilate, the insulation should be from the inside so this is visible from above;
compressed slightly to ensure that there are no air • Check for cuts or splits in this metal liner;
Figure 1 – Typical metal double skin insulated roof voids where condensation may occur. • Ensure that to eaves and ridge the correct
filler blocks have been used, bedded in mastic;
7.12.2 Double skin insulated roofs 7.12.2.2 Workmanship if necessary a closure flashing must be used
from the crown of the sheet to the wall junction
7.12.2.1 What is a double skin insulated roof? Top weathering sheets to maintain a vapour check. Check the use of
A double skin insulated roof is made up on-site Ensure that the top weathering sheets are installed sealant tapes and fire retardant foam.
from separate components generally comprising in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.

liner sheet; vapour control layer; spacer system; Separate vapour control layer
insulation; breather membrane; and finished These must be long enough to discharge into the This should be a reinforced sheet and is used to
externally with top weathering sheets. gutter correctly and to allow for an eaves angle if ensure a more positive air seal around the perimeter
required by the system. of the building. The vapour check should be sealed
Top weathering sheets are generally secret fixed in the field area with the correct tape, the number
onto clips or standing seam sheets onto halters Check end and side lap tape sizes conform to of rows dependant on the application. Check the
these being machine seamed once fixed. Pierce fix manufacturers requirements. integrity of these tapes and that they are continuous
sheets are still widely used; these are fixed directly and are correctly joined. Where the vapour check
to the spacer system with external visible fixings. abuts the walls to the verge or eaves, it must be
properly sealed in accordance with the architect’s solid support to the roof sheet pans. This is easy to see on separate insulated upstands. With pierce fixed
detail. Around penetrations, the vapour check must during construction and easily felt on completion. trapezoidal roof sheets, roof lights are in line, either
be cut and sealed to any pipes or upstands. The supported pan of the sheet feels solid to walk on. factory or site assembled. Ensure that the correct
size of tape is used, check the number of rows of
The spacer system is fixed through the vapour Support system tape that are required and that side lap tapes are
check and liner into the purlins. The spacer system Check the frequency of brackets against the not twisted by fasteners.
will have a soft sealing pad to ensure the vapour specification and the number of fixings per bracket.
check is maintained around the fixing. Check that they are the correct type of fixing. General
Check surface finishes for abrasions, dents and
Check for punctures of the vapour check by foot With standing seam roofs, the halter may be fixed cuts. Check that the roof has not been used as
traffic or damage and patch as required. with a stainless steel fixing; check type and frequency a cutting surface for flashings or other metal. Hot
of fixing. Check the orientation of the halter in relation swarf from angle grinders burns into the plastisol
Insulation to the lay of the sheet, i.e. will they pick up the seam coating of steel sheets and marks aluminium and
Check the packaging to make sure that the as there is a right and wrong way round for halters. rapidly turns to rust. Flashings should have sufficient
correct thickness is being used if one layer is used, overlap or butt straps, 150mm wide, and be sealed
or a combination of thicknesses to give the correct Manufacturer’s provide halter templates to set and supported. Check frequency of fixings and
specified thickness. For two thicknesses or more, out halters - there must be one on-site to get the that they are of the correct type.
check that all joints are staggered. Check the correct gauging of the halters.
Lambda value against the specification. 7.12.3 Composite panel metal roofing
Roof penetrations
Ensure that no packaging or debris is left in the roof These must be sealed to maintain the vapour 7.12.3.1 What is a composite panel roof?
void prior or during the installation of the insulation. control layer (VCL). Where the liner is used as a VCL, A simple sheet roof system with ensured insulation
The insulation should fill the void or be compressed the metal to metal junction must be sealed with fire thickness which is delivered with top weathering
into the void; there should be no slumping or gaps retardant foam. With a separate VCL, this must be sheet, insulation and white liner all in one sheet.
and it should be packed into voids at the junctions sealed to the upstand or pipes with the appropriate With the increase in insulation, thickness panels
of the ridge and verge. tape. Externally with aluminium roof sheets, the are being made shorter in length so they can be
junctions with penetrations should be site welded or handled into position. This means that there are
With standing seam roofs, a rigid mineral slab weathered using GRP in-situ weathering. more end laps to be checked.
insulation should be placed at eaves, ridge and
around all penetrations and walkways to support Roof lights Standard manufacturer’s details are to be adhered
the vulnerable areas of the roof, which will give a With standing seam roof sheets, these are usually to, but the following need to be checked.
7.12.3.2 Workmanship and installation On roof lights, mastic tape is visible; check its location air seal at the junction of the two. Gutter joints are
and that its size complies with the manufacturer’s not always level; any gaps are to be filled. This will
Fixings requirements and that there are the correct number not only prevent wind driven rain from entering the
There may be a requirement for stainless steel of rows. Tape should not be twisted by the fixings. building but will also maintain an air seal.
fixings to be used. Check by inspecting boxes and
use a magnet; drill points will be magnetic only. Air tightness Check that roof sheets are over sailing into gutter
There must be a supply of gun foam, fire rated, correctly.
Check fixings are suitable for the purlin type - steel, at roof level for filling in voids before flashings are
fixed. If there isn’t one on-site, air tightness and Roof penetrations
light gauge cold rolled, heavy gauge or timber.
maintaining the insulation cannot be fully achieved. Penetrations such as flues, vents, up stand type roof
All fixings are different.
lights and sun tubes need to be sealed internally;
The use of foam needs to be inspected during the insulation being maintained with site applied
Check bearing area of the purlin; if the building is
the course of construction. Internal tapes to foam. Externally, upstands must be weathered
not square, the sheets will run out and the end lap
eaves and ridge purlins need to be inspected for correctly. With steel composite sheets, this is best
detail will not be supported. This can be overcome
size and position. At the ridge, the gap between achieved using GRP in-situ weathering.
by using a galvanised support which is fixed to the
purlin and will support the end lap. panels needs to be filled with foam to maintain the
General
insulation and prevent condensation forming. There
Check surface finish for cuts and abrasions.
Check that the right number of fixings have been also needs to be an inner ridge suitably sealed.
used for the panel and the frequency of side lap
Check that the roof has not been used as a cutting
stitchers - ensure that they are side lap stitchers and Verge details are difficult and it may be necessary
surface for flashings or other metal. Hot swarf from
not main fixings. for an internal verge to be cut and sealed around
angle grinders burns into the plastisol coating and

purlins. Check sealant tapes and the use of gun
rapidly turns to rust.
Sealant tapes foam to maintain insulation. Manufacturer’s details
Check the number of rows required by the may not be achievable, but an alternative must Flashings should have a sufficient overlap and be
manufacturer of the panel for end laps. Tell tales be devised to maintain air tightness. A degree of sealed and supported. Check frequency of fixings
should be visible at side laps of each sheet. Tell tales confidence for this requirement should be shown and that they are of the right type.
are the ends of the mastic tape run that can be on-site as an indication of the importance of air
seen or must be felt for at the side of each sheet. tightness and how this can be achieved. Check for closure from gutters and sheet over sails.
The same applies to side laps; there should be a tell There should be suitable shrouds to prevent birds or
tale at the end of the sheet. Check with the end of Gutter junctions vermin from getting into the building which can be
a hacksaw blade to locate the rows of mastic tape. If parapet or valley gutters are being used, check often overlooked.
APPENDIX A
Inspection checklists for metal roof coverings

Checklist 1: for double skin insulated roof systems in steel or aluminium
Component/inspection Rectification needed Comments

Yes No
Check bearing width of purlin
Check minimum overlap of linear decking sheets:
1. Light gauge steel;
2. Hot rolled steel;
3. Timber - check for minimum penetration.
Check that side laps are stitched at the correct centres
Vapour control checks using the liner:
1. Check tape to side laps, minimum width 50mm air and moisture barrier tape;
2. Check tape to end laps;
3. Check inner fillers to ridge, eaves and verge;
4. Check for sealing around the perimeter with fire resisting foam.
Vapour control checks using a separate vapour control layer:
1. Check the minimum overlap is correct;
2. Check for the correct sealant tape;
3. Check for the correct number of rows of sealant tape;
4, Check junctions between vapour control layer and building elements, e.g., upstands, eaves, verge, etc;
5. Check for puncture and repair where necessary.
Spacer systems:
1. Check for correct height of bracket or halter;

2. Correct number of fixings per bracket or halter; Use a magnet
3. Check for stainless steel if specified;
4. Check for gauging of halters for standing seam and secret fix roof sheets.
Insulation:
1. Check that the correct thickness is being used;
2. Check that insulation is the correct type and has the same properties as specified;
3. Check for compression;
4. Check that insulation joints are staggered;
5. Ensure that insulation designed to support load has been correctly installed to eaves, ridge, penetrations and walkways;
6. Ensure all packaging and debris is removed prior to fitting of the roof sheets.
Breather membranes:
1. Ensure the membrane is laid in the correct direction and in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
Component/inspection Rectification needed Comments
Yes No
Roof sheets- standing seam and secret fixed:

1. Check that sheets are long enough so that water effectively drains into the gutter;
2. Check the direction of lay of sheets in relation to the direction of prevailing wind;
3. Check eaves detail, in accordance with manufacturer’s details including eaves drips and fixing;
4. Check ridge detail including turn up fillers and ridge dams, in accordance with manufacturers details;
5. Check verge detail and adequacy of support for cut sheets;
6. Check flashing supports, sheet/verge flashing seals and frequency of fixings.
Roof sheets - pierced fixed:

1. Check overlap dimension;
2. Check end lap tape and correct number of rows of tape;
3. Check for side lap tape;
4. Check quantity of fixings per sheet per purlin;
5. Check washer size of main fixings and side lap stitchers;
6. Check frequency of side lap stitchers;
7. Inspect for correct tightening of main fixings and side lap stitchers.
Penetrations for vents, sun pipes, etc.

A - Aluminium sheets:
1. Check sheets are site welded and area post coated where colour sheets are used;
2. Check that vapour control layer and breather membrane is maintained around the welded area;
3. Check upstands to be at least 150mm.
B - Steel sheets:
Ideally use GRP in-situ weathering flashings; however, if folded flashings are used, check:
1. Overlap;
2. Sealing and fixing of overlaps;
3. If a flat sheet back to the ridge is used, check for insulation under the sheet;
4. Check frequency of fixings;
5. Check sealing of overlapping sheets.
Flashings:
1. Check end overlap;
2. Check frequency of fixings;
3. Check correct type of fixing is used.
Generally:
1. Check roof surface for cuts and abrasions;
2. Check for hot swarf damage.
Checklist 2: for composite panel roofing works
Component/inspection Rectification Comments Component/inspection Rectification Comments

needed needed
Yes No
Yes No
Panel laps to be tight when viewed from inside the building.
Is the roof adequately air tight (visual inspection and air
Constant straight line on side laps to be achieved. tightness test where necessary)?
Fasteners correct for the purlin:

1. Light gauge steel; Provision of fire retardant gun foam:
2. Heavy gauge steel; 1. Eaves level;
3. Timber. 2. Verges;
3. Gutters;
4. Internal verge positions;
Fastener material: Check
5. Foam insulation at ridge.
1. Coated carbon steel; with a
2. Stainless steel. magnet
Gutter Junctions:
Fastener frequency main roof: 1. Adequacy of seals at gutter junctions;
1. Main fixings; 2. Correct provision of weir overflows to gutter runs;
2. Side lap stichers. 3. Correct junction detail between gutters and verge
flashings;
Fastener frequency roof lights: 4. Gaps sealed to prevent vermin infestation;
1. Main fixings; 5. Correct discharge of water from roof sheets into gutter.
2. Side lap stichers.
Roof penetrations:
Bearing area of purlin at end lap is a supporting bearing Is the
1. Check seals around cut foam insulation internally;
plate required. building
2. Check internal flashing closures;
square?
3. Check weather penetrations externally.
End laps:
1. Correct number of rows of joining tape; Flashings:
2. Correct size of end lap tape; 1. Check end overlaps;
3. Correct position of end lap tape in relation to fixing. 2. Check frequency of fixings.
Roof light tape positions:

1. Correct number of rows of joining tape; General:
2. Correct size of end lap tape; 1. Check roof covering for cuts and abrasions;
3. Correct position of end lap tape in relation to fixing. 2. Check for hot swarf damage.
CHAPTER 8: SUPERSTRUCTURE (INTERNAL)
CONTENTS
8.1 INTERNAL WALLS
8.2 UPPER FLOORS
8.3 STAIRS
8.1 INTERNAL WALLS
Workmanship Design
Materials iii. Party walls between dwellings must achieve satisfactory levels of
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which sound insulation meeting the relevant requirements of the
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; building regulations;
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be iv. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with Standards and Euro-Codes.
Individual components and assemblies, not less than 60

8.1.1 Internal masonry walls 8.1.1.3 Lateral restraint

Lateral restraint is to be provided for load bearing
8.1.1.1 Foundations walls and separating walls at each floor level and
Below ground load bearing walls must be the ceiling level below a roof.
supported using a suitable foundation. Where
there are upper floors a suitable beam or lintel is 8.1.1.4 Bonding and tying
required which can adequately transfer the load Where a separating wall abuts an external wall
to a foundation. Structural masonry walls should be they may be tied or bonded together.
provided with foundations.
Tied joints should be formed using expanded metal
8.1.1.2 Compressive strength strip, wall ties or equivalent fixings, at maximum
The varying strengths of bricks and blocks mean 300mm vertical centres.
that they have to be chosen in accordance
with the proposed use of the building. The
recommended strengths of bricks and blocks to be
Figure 2 – Butted and tied walls
used in buildings up to 3 storeys high are shown in
Table 1:
The external wall cavity needs to be closed at the
junction with the separating wall with a flexible
Height of wall Minimum compressive
strength of brick or cavity stop, but not if the cavity is fully filled with
block unit built-in insulation (where permitted).
1 or 2 storeys Blocks - 2.9N / mm2

Bricks - 9.0N / mm2 8.1.1.5 Wall ties for cavity separating walls
Lowest storey of a Blocks - 7.5N / mm2
To provide structural stability normally the two
3 storey wall or
where individual leaves of a masonry cavity separating wall should
storeys exceed 2.7m Bricks - 13.0N / mm2
be tied together. Sound transmission across the
Upper storeys of Blocks - 2.8N / mm2 cavity should be limited by the type of tie
3 storey wall Bricks - 9.0N / mm2
and spacing.
Figure 1 – Bonded walls
Table 1 – Minimum compressive strength of masonry
Ties should be specified in accordance with the

System Designer’s recommendations for timber
framed separating walls. The type of tie and spacing 8.1.2.2 Lintels and studs 8.1.3.1 Materials
should limit sound transmission across the cavity. A lintel and cripple studs are to be provided to any Concrete or steel lintels are appropriate for use in
opening other than where the stud spacing is not masonry walls. Support for masonry should not be
To limit sound transmission, metal tie straps should be: affected. Traditionally, multiple studs will be used to provided by timber lintels.
support multiple joists.
• Not more than 3mm thick; Lintels should extend beyond each end of
• Fixed below ceiling level; Where internal walls are made up of panels, openings in masonry as follows:
• Spaced at least 1.2m apart horizontally. structural continuity is to be maintained, for
example by the use of a continuous top binder. Span (m) Minimum length of bearing (mm)
Thicker ties, fixed at ceiling level or more closely Up to 1.2 100
spaced will increase sound transmission through Framing joints need to be secured with a minimum Over 1.2 150
the cavity. of two nails per joint. Table 2 – Minimum bearing lengths of lintels
8.1.2 Load bearing timber walls and partitions 8.1.3 Beams and lintels Where structurally necessary, provide padstones
Load bearing timber internal walls are to be Beams and lintels shall be satisfactory for their under the bearings of lintels and beams. ‘Steelwork
designed to provide support and transfer loads to purpose. support to upper floors and partitions.’
foundations safely and without undue movement.
Items to be taken into account include: Non-load bearing partitions shall have acceptable
Structural design of load bearing timber walls strength and be adequately supported.
should be in accordance with BS 5268. • Loads and spans are to be either in
accordance with manufacturers’ 8.1.3.2 Partition construction
Structural timber should be specified according to recommendations; The following partition constructions are
the strength classes e.g. C16 or C24. • Wall and cavity thicknesses; satisfactory:
• Bearing capacity of the masonry supporting
8.1.2.1 Structural elements the lintel or beam. • Partitions of brick or block construction;
Typically, individual studs, sills and head plates are • Timber stud partitions using studs, sills and head
to be 38mm x 75mm. Larger timber section sizes plates nominally 63mm x 38mm. Studs should be
are required to achieve satisfactory levels of fire spaced to suit the thickness of plasterboard
resistance. Studs should be spaced at maximum used, as follows:
600mm centres.
i. Maximum 450mm spacing for 9.5mm

boards;
ii. Maximum 600mm spacing for 10mm to
20mm boards.
8.1.4 Non-load bearing timber partitions
• Partitions should be robust and form a smooth,

stable, plane surface to receive decoration;
• Supporting members should be accurately
spaced, aligned and levelled;
• The tolerance of horizontal straightness of a
partition should be +/– 10mm over a 5m length;
• The deviation in vertical alignment of a partition
in any storey height should be +/– 10mm;
• Timbers supporting plasterboard should be
regularised and have a moisture content not
greater than 20% at the time of erection. (Lower
moisture contents can reduce the incidents of Figure 3 – Timber stud partition
nail popping and other effects of shrinkage).

Studs partitions should be not less than 38mm wide Partitions should be located on double joists when
and not less than 63mm thick (up to a maximum parallel to floor joist span and nailed to 50mm
partition height of 2.4m) and 89mm thick (up to a x 50mm noggins fixed between ceiling joists at
maximum partition height of 3m). However, in order 600mm centres when parallel to ceiling joist span.
to accommodate tolerances for plasterboard For short lengths of partitions (1.2m maximum)
fixing, a minimum width of 44mm is recommended. blocking between joists at 600mm centres may be
used. Intersecting head and sole plates should be
skew nailed together.
Timber members should be fixed together with

minimum 2 No. 75mm long x 2.65mm diameter nails.
Figure 5 – Support of heavy fixtures

Proprietary partitions of plasterboard, strawboard
or other material must be detailed and
constructed in accordance with manufacturers’ 8.1.5 Method of supporting partitions
recommendations. Walls and partitions are to be supported by the
structural floor, only if the material is specifically
Where partitions are to support heavy items such as manufactured for that purpose; it is not to be by a
radiators or kitchen cupboards, additional noggins floating floor that incorporates a compressible layer.
should be provided within the stud partition to
accommodate fixings.
Masonry partitions should be supported on:
• Other masonry partitions or walls (wherever

Figure 4 – Typical timber stud plan
conceivable the design of dwellings should be
such that the first floor masonry partitions are an
Head and sole plates should consist of single length extension of those on the ground floor);
members fixed to the building structure at not less • Concrete floors;
than 600mm centres. • Steel or concrete beams.
It may be necessary to use padstones at bearings Installation should always be carried out in
where steel or concrete beams are to be used. accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Plasterboard coverings are screw fixed to the metal
Masonry partitions should not be supported by studs with the perimeter studs/tracks generally
timber joists or beams. Allowance should be given being mechanically fixed to the surrounding walls,
in the design for the relatively flexible nature of the ceilings and floors.
timber and the rigid nature of masonry.
It may be necessary to provide earth-bonding to
Extra noggins or joists should be specified where the metal stud system.
stud partitions or proprietary plasterboard partitions
are supported by a timber floor, unless it can be
shown that the deck can transfer the load without
undue movement.
Allowance for the probable deflection of floors at

the head of partitions is required to prevent the
partition becoming load bearing.
8.1.6 Proprietary systems

Proprietary systems are to be specified in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
8.1.6.1 Metal stud system

There are a number of proprietary systems on the
market.
They traditionally consist of “U” shaped channels

which act as ceiling (head), base plates (tracks) Figure 6 – Metal stud partition
and the vertical studs. The advantages of these
systems are that they are lightweight, versatile and
quick to erect.
8.1.7 Fire resistance Pre-Completion Testing Robust Details Ltd. may undertake monitoring to
Typically in dwellings only a half hour or one hour Pre-Completion Testing (PCT) is required in the check on performance achieved in practice.
fire resistance is required to satisfy the Building following situations:
Regulations, with regard to fire separation between 8.1.9 Internal plastering
dwellings and/or compartments within dwellings. • To all new build domestic properties (including Internal plastering should comply with BS 5492.
rooms for residential purposes), other than Plasterboard should be to BS1230. Plasterboard
Material 1/2 hour FR 1 hour FR when the developer has registered and built in thickness should be:
Brick 90mm thickness 90mm thickness accordance with Robust Standard Details;
Block 90mm thickness 90mm thickness • Where the sound insulation construction is in • 9.5mm for stud spacing up to 450mm;
Plasterboard 12.5mm board Two layers of 12.5mm accordance with the guidance given in • 12.5mm for stud spacing up to 600mm.
on timber on both sides of board on both sides
framing of framing or Approved Document E of the Building
proprietary fire Regulations; Further guidance on plastering can be found in
boards (typically
12.5mm - 15mm) on
• Where the building is not built in accordance Chapter 10 of this Manual.
both sides of framing with the Approved Document E of the Building
Plasterboard 12.5mm Refer to Regulations;
laminated laminated on manufacturers
wall both sides of recommendations
• The requirements of the robust details system
19mm board have not been met.
Table 3 – Minimum periods of fire resistance
Robust details
8.1.8 Sound insulation The use of robust details as a means of providing
Internal walls shall, where necessary, have adequate sound insulation applies only to party
adequate resistance to the transmission of sound. walls and floors between different dwellings or flats.
It is approved by Robust Details Ltd. Figure 7 – Fixing of plasterboard to studs
All separating walls in England and Wales may
be built in accordance with Robust Details Part E The robust design details are available in a
‘Resistance to the passage of sound’. handbook which may be purchased from:
Sound insulation can be complied with by using Robust Details Ltd.

either: PO Box 7289, Milton Keynes, Bucks MK14 6ZQ
Tel 0870 240 8210.
www.robustdetails.com
8.2 INTERNAL FLOORS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Party floors between dwellings must achieve satisfactory levels of
in a workmanlike manner. sound insulation meeting the relevant requirements of the
Building Regulations;
Materials iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Appendix Document
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; provided by a suitably qualified expert;
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be iv. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with Standards and Euro-Codes.
8.2.1 Floor boarding or decking annular ring shank that are at least three times the Joists should have a minimum end bearing of
Suitable floor boards and decking include: depth of the board. 90mm, unless joist hangers are used where a 35mm
bearing is acceptable (subject to manufacturer’s
Tongue and grooved softwood flooring with a A 10mm expansion gap should be provided details). Double joists should be bolted together
minimum moisture content at the time of fixing to around the perimeter of the floor against a wall at 600mm centres using minimum 10mm diameter
be between 16-20% and be in accordance with abutment. bolts with large washers that will prevent the
BS 1297. All boards must be double nailed or secret bolt head and nut from penetrating the joist. It is
nailed to each joist using nails that are at least Thickness Thickness Maximum Typical nail fixing recommended that bolting of double joists is along
three times the depth of the board. Boards are to (mm) (mm) span (mm) centre line of joists. Suitably sized trimmer joists shall
(chipboard) (OSB) (mm)
have a minimum thickness as indicated in Table 4. be provided around floor openings.
18 and 19 15mm 450 60mm annular
ring shank
Finished board Maximum Typical nail fixing 22 18 and 600 65mm annular Trimmed openings may be needed around
thickness (mm) centres of joists (mm) 19mm ring shank
(mm)
staircase openings and chimneys. Solid trimmed
15 Max. 450 45mm lost head nail Table 5 – Particle Floor boarding - minimum thickness and centres joists may be supported using either joist hangers
of support
18 Max. 600 60mm lost head nail or a structurally designed connection; timber
trimmers around openings should be of at least two
Table 4 – Softwood floor boarding - minimum thickness and
centres of support 8.2.2 Floor joists members and designed by a Structural Engineer.
To prevent distortion of finishes, joists should be
8.2.1.1 Particle boarding stopped from twisting over supports and provision
Acceptable particle boards consist of Oriented provided to accommodate up to 10mm drying
Strand Board (OSB) or Chipboard. Chipboard shrinkage in floor joists supported by steel beams.
should be tongue and grooved and all joints glued.

The boards should be laid so that the shortest It is essential that joists are not overloaded during
length is laid parallel to the span. OSB boards construction. Joints in joists, rafters and purlins
should be type 3 or 4 to BS EN 300. OSB boards should only be in place over a load bearing
should be laid with its major axis at right angles to support, or the joint be designed by a qualified
the joists. (The major axis is indicated on the OSB Structural Engineer.
board by a series of arrows).
Joists should be restrained at supports using tightly
Particle boards should be either screwed or nailed fitted strutting.
to the joists at 250mm centres. Nails should be Figure 8 - Typical trimming detail (plan)
8.2.2.1 Notching and drilling of joists controlled factory conditions to low and uniform Un-braced joist layouts are not to be walked on
Joists can be notched providing it is in accordance moisture contents. by workers.
with Figure 9.
8.2.3.1 Engineered I-joists Floors should not become overloaded during
Permanent rows of intermediate strutting are construction.
not required.
Under no circumstances should the flanges of the
It consists of parallel stress graded timber flanges I-joist be cut, notched or drilled.
joined together with V-shaped galvanised steel
webs. The webs are fixed to the flanges via nail 8.2.3.4 Building in of I-joists over internal walls
plates. The open web design gives great flexibility To reduce shrinkage all mortar should be
to run services through. adequately dry and should be solidly packed in
but should not be packed up tight to the underside
8.2.3.2 Storage of I-joists of the top flange. Before the floor decking is fixed
I-joists should be protected from the elements all continuous joists must be packed down to the
supported on suitable bearers over a free-draining intermediate bearing wall.
Figure 9 – Notching of joists

surface. Levels of exposure that is more severe than
those encountered during a normal uninterrupted 8.2.3.5 Precast concrete floor units
build programme should be addressed by the Precast concrete units and infill blocks are to be
8.2.3 I-joists provision of suitable protection. carefully stored and handled on site preventing
I-joists and metal web trimmed joists should be damage occurring before, during and after
supported using joist hangers. If an I-joist is used as 8.2.3.3 Bracing incorporation into the structure. Units should be
a trimmer to support another I-joist, backer blocks Large areas of floor joists can be assembled with lifted as near as possible to their ends.
should be provided on both sides of the web of these products due to their light weight and
the trimmer. availability in long lengths. It is of great importance The bearing surface of walls, beams and other
that adequate safety bracing is provided to supports to receive precast units are to be smooth
Engineered timber I-joists include a timber flange maintain that the joists remain stable through the and level.
(usually solid timber or LVL – laminated veneer construction phase. Joist manufacturers provide
lumber) and a panel product web (usually OSB – simple guide recommendations which allow Infill blocks and slabs should fully bear onto
Oriented Strand Board). They are manufactured in an installer to facilitate this process with ease supporting beams and walls.
an assortment of depths and flange widths under and speed.
8.2.3.6 Precast beam and block floors Beams and blocks are to be grouted together with Beams should bear onto masonry minimum 90mm
Ensure that precast concrete beam and block a 1:6 cement/sand mix in accordance with the and steelwork minimum 70mm.
floors are fully supported by load bearing walls. manufacturer’s instructions.
Provide restraint straps to walls where the beams
Similar beams of the same size may have Load bearing walls are to continue through the run parallel.
differing strength properties because of varying beam and block floor.
reinforcement size, so it is important to check Ensure that the blockwork carrying the beam and
beam reference numbers and their layout. It is also Holes for service pipes are properly filled by laying block flooring has sufficient compressive strength.
sometimes essential to provide two or more beams non-timber formwork between PC joists and filling
adjacent to each other where spans are excessive with good quality concrete (ST2 mix) prior to 8.2.4 Fire resistance
or in heavily loaded areas. Suitable infill bricks or screeding. All floors should have the fire resistance required by
blocks, are to be properly bedded on mortar, and the relevant Building Regulations.
provided between PC beams where bearing onto
supporting walls. I-joists and metal web joists may require a different
specification for the ceiling than that for solid
timber joists to achieve the same fire resistance.
Holes should not be made in the ceilings (e.g. for
down lighters) unless it can be proven that the floor
construction achieves the required fire resistance.
8.2.4.1 Fire stopping

Penetrations in floors between dwellings shall be fire

stopped. There is to be no holes or gaps for smoke
to pass through once the fire stopping has been
fitted. Where down lighters are incorporated in a
ceiling they should be fitted in accordance with
the manufacturer’s instructions.
Figure 10 – Lateral restraint to walls at floors and roofs (beam and block)
8.3 STAIRS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Stairs and landings must have appropriate guarding meeting the
in a workmanlike manner. relevant Building Regulations;
iii. Structural elements outside the parameters of Approved Document
Materials A (England and Wales) must be supported by structural calculations
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which provided by a suitably qualified expert;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; iv. The material, design and construction must meet the relevant
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; Standards and Euro-Codes.
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with the
warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years.
8.3.1 Stairways Type of stairs Maximum rise Minimum going

Staircases, newels, balustrades and handrails are to (mm) (mm)
be adequately fixed to avoid excessive deflection. Private stairs 220 220
Strings are required on staircases to securely fix to Common stairs 190 250
Access stairs 190 250
an adjacent wall. The wall should be of masonry or
timber stud construction. The top tread should not Table 6 - Minimum rise and going of stairs
be solely relied upon for fixing. It is recommended

that stair strings should have fixings at 900mm At its narrowest point the minimum width of a
centres. The fixings should be at least 6mm winder tread should be no less than 50mm.
diameter screws which penetrate into the masonry
wall or timber stud by at least 60mm. The minimum headroom over the flight and landing
should be 2m.
Unless it is for a means of entrance/exit within
a communal type building there is no longer Handrails and guarding over the flight and landing
guidance given for a minimum width of a staircase. should be established at a height of between
In these circumstances the width and pitch etc. 900mm and 1000mm. It should be non-climbable
will be determined by the use of the building. and any gap within a riser or guarding should not
exceed 100mm.
Where a staircase serves an individual property,
the need is that a safe means of access between Handrail design should ensure:
different levels is given.
• A firm handhold;
All staircases within domestic units are to have a • Trapping or injuring the hand is prevented;
maximum rise of 220mm with a minimum going • A minimum 25mm clearance at the back of the
Figure 11 – Staircase
of 220mm, although the stair pitch which is a line handrail;
connecting all nosings should not exceed 42°. • Secure fixing.
Where the staircase is greater than or equal to
The dimensions for maximum rise and minimum 1000mm a handrail should be provided to both
going should be: sides of the staircase.
8.3.2 Location and fixing 8.3.2.6 Pitch

The maximum angle of pitch of a stairway should
8.3.2.1 Headroom not exceed:
The overall floor opening is to be checked for
size to accept the stairs and to allow for sufficient • 42° for private stairs;
headroom. • 38° for common or access stairs.
The minimum headroom above the stairs is to be 8.3.2.7 Lighting

measured vertically from the pitch line. The clear Artificial light sources should be provided to all
headroom should be 2m over the entire length and staircases and landings. Within dwelling, lighting to
width of a stairway, including landings. stairs should be controlled by two way switching.
8.3.2.2 Overall vertical rise Automatic light sensitive controls may be used
Staircases are traditionally manufactured off-site in common areas, provided lights can also be
so the floor-to-floor dimensions should be extremely switched two way manually.
accurate. Although an allowance should be made
for floor finishes to structural floors or staircase treads. Where staircases are lit by glazing, any glass which
immediately adjacent to the stair should be:
8.3.2.3 Pitch
Staircases should be accurately located and fixed • Protected by a balustrade or railing; or;
with the string at the correct angle so all treads • Glass (toughened or laminated); or;
are horizontal. • Constructed of glass blocks.
8.3.2.4 Landings
Landings are to be properly framed to provide full
support to and secure fixings for flights, nosings,
newels, apron linings, etc.
8.3.2.5 Floor finishes

Allowance should be made for stair and floor
finishes ensuring that all risers are equal.
CHAPTER 9: BUILDING SERVICES
CONTENTS
9.1 DRAINAGE (BELOW GROUND)
9.2 DRAINAGE (ABOVE GROUND)
9.3 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
9.4 HEATING AND MECHANICAL SERVICES

9.1 DRAINAGE (BELOW GROUND)
Workmanship Introduction
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as defined This chapter provides direction on achieving the technical requirements
in Chapter 1 of this Manual; for internal services.
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent
person in a workmanlike manner. General
Internal services shall be designed, constructed and installed so that they:
Materials
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which • Conform to all relevant statutory requirements;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; • Do not adversely affect the structural stability of the Housing Unit;
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be • Prevent the entry of hazardous ground substances, external
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; moisture or vermin;
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with • Are constructed using non-hazardous materials;
the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years. • Are durable and robust;
Individual components and assemblies, not integral to the • Are safe and convenient in use.
Design
i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication
of the design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level
of performance;
ii. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
Standards and Euro-Codes.
9.1.1 Drainage - general The depths of drains and the protection provided 9.1.3 Drainage materials
A trapped gully should be provided where over needs to be adapted to the traffic normal Drain materials should comply with either:
impervious surfaces such as drives, paths and hard- for the location, in accordance with the
standings drain to a rainwater drainage system. recommendations of the relevant Building Control • BS 1194 – Concrete porous pipes;
Impervious surfaces can drain to a permeable Body and the Pipe Manufacturer. Required are • BS 65 or BS 1196 – Clayware pipes;
area within the garden, providing it is free draining. as follows: • BS 4962 – Plastic pipes.
The drainage system, including manholes, gullies, • Pipes should be laid to an even gradient Land drains are to be laid to a uniform
pipe connections, etc. should be protected and significant changes in gradient should be gradient with falls of not less than 1:200 and as
from damage throughout the course of the combined with an access point; recommended by the Pipe Manufacturer.
construction works. • Pipes should be laid in straight lines, but may be
laid to slight curves, providing the length of drain 9.1.4 General backfill
9.1.2 Pipework can be effectively cleaned by the use of rods; In normal circumstances, the excavated material
Where ground movement is likely to occur flexible • Connections should be to inspection chambers from the trench will be appropriate for backfilling
drainage systems should be provided, e.g. filled or manholes, but connections to junctions above the chosen material.
sites, mining areas and sites with shrinkable clay. are acceptable if access is provided to clear
blockages. In all cases, discharge should be in General backfill materials must be free from:
Where possible, avoid passing adjacent to tree the direction of flow;
roots. Adequate precautions should be taken • Bends should be positioned in or adjacent to • Boulders;
where this cannot be avoided, in accordance terminal fittings, inspection chambers or manholes • Building rubble;
with the recommendations of the relevant Building and at the foot of discharge stacks. Bends • Timber;
Control Body and the Pipe Manufacturer. should have as large a radius as practicable; • Vegetable matter.
• The system should be ventilated at or near the
Drainage trench excavations should be taken head of each main drain to allow free passage Backfill needs to be positioned in layers not deeper
down to solid ground but when this is not possible, of air throughout; the maximum length of any than 300mm, and needs to be well compacted.
the drainage system should be designed to branch serving a single appliance being 6m When compacted backfill is at least 450mm above
accommodate any movement and made up and for a group of appliances 12m; the crown of the pipe, mechanical compacting
with a well compacted backfill to the required • Where appliances are not fitted with integral only should be used.
formation levels. traps at the point of discharge, a trap must be
provided using either a trapped gully or low
back trap.
9.1.5 Drain protection adjacent to foundations Walls should accommodate movement where 9.1.7 Foul water drainage system
Drains are to be located so that foundation loads drains pass through substructure by: Foul water drainage systems only take foul waste
are not transmitted to pipes. Where drainage from a property or properties. Foul waste is the
trenches are located near to foundations, • 50mm clearance all round; waste water from sinks, toilets, showers, baths,
foundation depths should be increased or the drain • A sleeve with a 50mm clearance; dishwashers and washing machines. These systems
re-routed further from the foundations. • If built in, a connection on both sides of the wall discharge into local authority sewers, then pass
to pipes with flexible joints located not more through sewage treatment plants. By separating
The trench should be filled with concrete to an than 150mm from the face of the wall. the foul waste and taking it straight through
appropriate level where the bottom of a trench is to treatment plants, you are not treating large
below foundation level. 9.1.6 Combined drainage system volumes of storm water needlessly.
A system that carries both foul and storm water
from a property will usually be found on older 9.1.8 Surface water
properties where a local authority combined Surface water drainage is allowable by the use of
sewage system is the only discharge point. one of the following systems:
It may be required to install surface and foul water • An adequate soak away or some other
drains independently, even where a site is being adequate infiltration system; or where this is
assisted by an existing combined sewer. This needs not realistic;
to be confirmed by the relevant authorities prior to • A watercourse; or where this is not realistic;
design of the drainage. • A sewer.
It is vital that all surface water fittings have an This helps to minimise surface water arriving into the
integral trap so that foul gases do not cause foul water drainage system. This can often overload
problems when a one pipe system is installed. the capacity of the sewer and cause flooding.
A combined drain should be capable of accepting 9.1.9 Provision of gutters and downpipes
peak surface and foul water flows (BS EN 752). It is If the roof area is greater than 6m² it needs to be
also good design practice to guarantee that self- provided with rainwater gutters and downpipes.
cleansing velocity (0.75l/s) is reached when only Thought should also be given to the provision of
Figure 1 – Drainage positions situated within angle of repose and
adjacent to foundation by 1m foul water is entering the drain. rainwater drainage to roof areas less than 6m² such
as dormer roofs.
Discharge of gutters into downpipes can be 9.1.10 Layout of land drains infiltration system is permanently above the
substantially improved by careful location of Drain runs on sloping sites need to be positioned water table;
downpipes such as: perpendicular to the fall of the site. • Be situated far enough away from other
soakaway/infiltration systems to ensure that the
• Locating downpipes at end quarter positions Land drains should be positioned adjacent to capacity of those other systems and the ground
will double the flow capacity if more than one paths, drives and outbuildings. The pipe soffit should itself is not impaired;
downpipe is required; be positioned at least 400mm below the finished • Be situated so that there is no risk of
• The downpipe should be located within 200mm ground level and the backfill consolidated to the contamination from pollutants.
of the change in direction, in order to maintain same degree of compaction as the adjacent soil.
the flow capacity of the gutter where changes
in the line of the gutter occur. 9.1.11 Soakaways
Soakaways are a simple way of dispersing
surface and storm water in circumstances where
Type of surface area Effective design area
connection to the SW system is not feasible or
Paved areas Plan area
unnecessary. A soakaway is basically a system that
Flat roof plan Area of roof
30° roof pitch plan Area x 1.29
loses water rather than collects water. Soakaways
45° roof pitch plan Area x 1.5 are a part of the SuDS (Sustainable Urban Drainage
60° roof pitch plan Area x 1.87 Systems) technologies that handle storm water, at
70° roof pitch plan Area x 0.5 the source rather than leading it into the public
Figure 2 – Chamber type soakaway
sewer systems.
Table 1 – Calculation of roof area
Soakaways can only be considered in permeable

Max effective Gutter RWP outlet Flow
roof area (m²) size (mm size (mm capacity conditions. A suitable site must:
diameter) diameter) (litres/sec)
6
• Be in a location lower than the area being
18 75 50 0.38
drained;
37 100 63 0.78
• Be at least 5m away from any building
53 115 63 1.11
(BS 8301);
65 125 75 1.37
• Be situated so that it will not saturate the
103 150 89 2.16
foundations of any structure;
Table 2 – Gutter sizes and outlet sizes
• Be situated so that the base of any soakaway/ Figure 3 – Typical soakaway design
9.1.12 Septic tank systems/treatment plants/

cesspits
If you are not on main line drainage then you will
have a septic tank, treatment plant or cesspit of
some description; ordinarily the foul waste will run
to one of the above tanks while the rainwater is
usually kept separate to help the bacteria and
enzyme in the tank perform their function. The
out fall from the septic tank would either run to a
soakaway or possibly straight to a river or brook.
You will often find the rainwater system tapped
onto the outlet of a septic tank to help dilute down
any effluent that may pass through the system.
Figure 5 – Typical sewage treatment plant
Figure 4 – Typical package sewerage plant

9.2 DRAINAGE (ABOVE GROUND)
Workmanship
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as defined
in Chapter 1 of this Manual;
person in a workmanlike manner.
Materials
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than
60 years. Individual components and assemblies, not
integral to the structure, may have a lesser durability but
not in any circumstances less than 15 years.
Design
of performance;
ii. The materials, design and construction must meet the
relevant Building Regulations and other statutory
requirements, British Standards and Euro-Codes.
9.2.1 Above ground drainage 9.2.2 Soil and waste systems 9.2.3 Air admittance valves
All above ground plumbing systems need to be The unobstructed flow of waste in all above Air admittance valves provide a means of
designed to allow the unobstructed flow of waste ground plumbing systems will be allowed from ventilation to the drainage system to prevent the
water from an appliance to the underground an appliance to the underground drainage. This loss of water seals in traps.
drainage system. To achieve this, the points below will be achieved by following the notes below at
should be noted at the design and installation design and installation stages: They are suitable for use in domestic buildings,
stages: e.g. bungalows, houses, multi-storey flats and
• Rodding access is to be provided at all they only allow air to enter the drainage system.
• Provide rodding access facilities at all changes direction changes; Their use does not avoid the need to adequately
of direction; • Pipe and gutter sizes are adequate to take the ventilate the drainage system.
• Avoid bends and changes of direction in the expected rate of discharge and are laid at
wet part of the above ground drainage suitable gradients with the minimum of Where air admittance valves are used to terminate
system; direction changes; soil pipes, they should comply with Building
• 75mm deep seal traps should always be used • 75mm deep seal traps should always be used Standards. Valves within the building should be:
except on a WC or where an appliance on except on a WC or where an appliance on the
the ground floor discharges directly into a above ground drainage system; • Positioned in areas which are not liable to
trapped gully; • Pipe sizes should not exceed the dimensions for freezing;
• Pipe sizes should not exceed the dimensions for diameter against pipe length; • Positioned in areas which have adequate
diameter against pipe length; • Pipe sizes should be laid at a gradient of 1/80 ventilation;
• Pipe should be laid at gradient 1/80 or better; or better; • Accessible for maintenance.
• Any admittance valve fitted to the system • Venting to the external wall at the highest point
should be located above the highest flood level of a drainage system (head of run); If the discharge stack provides the only ventilation
of any appliance connected to that stack pipe; • At the head of underground drains ventilation is to septic tanks or cesspits, the connecting drain
• Enclosures to air admittance valves should be to be provided, either by a soil pipe, or a is subject to periodic surcharging or is fitted with
adequately ventilated; separate ventilation pipe; intercepting traps; air admittance valves are not
• The highest point of a drainage system (head of • A soil or ventilation pipe should extend at least suitable ventilation.
run) should always be vented to the external air. 900mm above an opening if it is less than 3m
away from an opening into the building;
• The drains are adequately protected from
ground loads.
9.2.4 Provision of information

Design drawings for internal services will need to
include:
• Location of sanitary fittings;

• Drainage runs;
• Location and size of cold water storage cisterns;
• Location and size of hot water storage cylinder;
• Hot and cold water pipe runs;
• Gas supply pipe runs;
• Electrical outlets, switches and consumer unit.
Figure 7 – Sealing of service entry points
Figure 6 – Single stack system - air admittance valves

9.3 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. The materials, design and installation must meet the relevant
in a workmanlike manner; Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by an Standards and Euro-Codes.
approved installer.
Materials
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than
60 years. Individual components and assemblies, not
integral to the structure, may have a lesser durability but

not in any circumstances less than 15 years.
General 9.3.1 Supplementary earth bonding

A suitable electrical service shall be provided of the For domestic situations supplementary bonding is
appropriate size for normal domestic use. required in areas of increased risk. These are rooms
containing a bath or shower. It is not required within
PVC covered cables should not be in contact with kitchens, utility rooms or wash rooms.
polystyrene insulation.
Supplementary bonding is not required to the pipes
Electrical cables should not be diagonal and their or the metal fitments attached where plastic pipes
locations should be in accordance with Figure 8. are used within a bathroom or shower room.
This also applies where short lengths of metal pipes

connected to bathroom fittings are attached to
plastic pipes.
Supplementary bonding is still required to electrical

equipment such as an electric shower or electric
heater. This type of bonding is also required to be
connected to the protective conductor of all circuits
supplying electrical equipment in the bathroom.
Figure 8 – Location of cables without special protection

Figure 9 – Supplementary bonding in a bathroom, plastic pipe installation Figure 10 – Supplementary bonding in bathroom, metal pipes
9.3.2 Socket outlets Halls, landings and staircases are to be provided to be taken to ensure that no fire risk is caused by
Socket outlets are to be conveniently positioned with lighting outlets and two-way switches. the proximity of other materials.
in close proximity to the TV aerial and telephone
outlets allowing for electrical equipment such as Down lighters and other flush fitting attachments Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors are to be used in
TVs and DVD players. Rooms should be provided should not be installed through a ceiling, if the common and external areas to dwellings.
with the following 13a outlets: ceiling is providing part of the required acoustic
insulation or fire resistance to the property. 9.3.5 Positioning of sockets and switches
• Kitchen/utility – eight outlets; Sockets and switches should be positioned in
• Dining room – four outlets; If down lighters are provided to ceilings below roof accordance with Figure 11.
• Living or family room – eight outlets; voids (excluding thatched roofs), precautions are
• Bedroom (main) – six outlets;
• Bedroom (other) – four outlets;
• Landing – two outlets;
• Hall – two outlets.
9.3.3 Cooking
Cooking appliances which are suitably switched
and terminated with a minimum 30a electricity
supply in all dwellings are to be provided to the
cooker space.
If a cooker panel is provided it needs to be

positioned to the side of the cooker space. A 13a
socket outlet should be positioned at the cooker
space where a gas supply is provided to the
dwelling.
9.3.4 Light fittings

At least one fixed lighting outlet should be provided
to all rooms. Areas greater than 25m² are to be
provided with two fixed lighting outlets. Figure 11 – Heights of wiring accessories
9.4. HEATING AND MECHANICAL SERVICES
Workmanship Design
i. All workmanship must be within defined tolerances as defined i. Design and specifications shall provide a clear indication
in Chaper 1 of this Manual; of the design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent of performance;
person in a workmanlike manner; ii. The materials, design and installation must meet the relevant
iii. Certification is required for any work completed by an Building Regulations and other statutory requirements,
approved installer. British Standards and Euro-Codes.
Materials

9.4.1 Gas service A meter control valve is to be fitted on the supply

Where provided, the gas service shall be of a side of the meter.
suitable scale for normal domestic usage.
External meter boxes should be of a type approved
by the supply authority and located as close as
practical to the main access point to the dwelling.
Domestic meters may be of the following type:
• Built-in to the outer leaf of the wall;

• Surface-mounted: on an external wall;
• Semi-concealed: sunk into the ground adjacent
to the outer wall;
• Individually purpose-made compartments –
in accordance with British Standards.
All water services are to have precautions so that

they are not subject to chemical attack.
Corrosion resistant materials should be used

for pipes and fittings for water services. The
recommendations of the water supplier should be

adhered to.
9.4.2 Cold water services

Figure 12 – Gas service pipes Each dwelling should have an adequate supply of
cold water. The water supply should be fed from
below ground and insulated in accordance with
Figure 13 to prevent freezing.
Cold water systems may have provision for

storage or directly connected to the main supply.
Drinking water needs to be supplied direct from
the supply main.
Cold water pipes and storage cisterns located in

roof spaces and other unheated areas should be
appropriately insulated to the relevant standards.
Cold water storage cisterns will require the

capacity specified in the design. Suitable support
should be given for the cistern filled with water.
To stop the cistern bottom being deformed

permanent support is to be given where necessary.
Adequate materials for support platforms are:
• Softwood boarding;
• Marine plywood;
• Chipboard type P5;
• Oriented Strand Board type OSB3 to British

Standards.
All water tanks should be accessible. Gangway

boarding is required to each cistern opening from
the roof space access. An area of 1m² of boarding
is to be provided next to cisterns to permitting
routine maintenance.
Figure 13 – Insulation of incoming services

Water storage cisterns should be protected from Cisterns, vent pipes and all water services in 9.4.4 Use of materials
contamination by a rigid close fitting cover (which unheated spaces should be insulated against Materials which are safe and minimise the risk of
is not airtight) which excludes light and insects. freezing as specified in the design. Insulation is not corrosion are to be used for pipes and fittings for
to be placed below a cold waste tank where it water services. The recommendations of the water
Holes should be formed with a cutter in the can benefit from heat from beneath. Tanks that supply with materials and fittings should be followed.
positions shown in the design. are raised need to be insulated on all sides in an
unheated roof space. It may be necessary to fit aluminium protector
Overflows in warning pipes should be not less than rods in areas where corrosion of copper cylinders
19mm diameter and situated 25mm from the shut Fully insulated bends and junctions are required occurs. These are to be fitted during manufacture
off water level in the cistern. The pipe may dip especially near openings to the outside air, such in accordance with the relevant British Standards.
below the water level in accordance with water as the eaves. If possible, water pipes should not be
regulations. Alternatively, the pipe should terminate located within the loft space where they could be 9.4.5 Space heating
vertically downwards or a tee should be fitted affected by cold ventilation air. Any whole house heating system should be
horizontally at the discharge end. designed to meet internal temperatures to
9.4.3.1 Provision for expansion the levels set out as per below. The external
9.4.3 Hot water services An expansion pipe is to be provided on vented temperature is to be 3°C.
Hot water systems may have provision for storage or systems for hot water.
Location Temperature Air changes
may be of the instantaneous type, e.g. combi boilers.
Living room 21°C 1 per hour
9.4.3.2 Unvented hot water systems
Dining room 21°C 1 per hour
Vertical installation of cylinders is required with A third party accreditation is required where
Kitchen 18°C 2 per hour
access. Cylinders are to be insulated as specified an unvented hot water system with a storage
Bedrooms 18°C 1 per hour

in the design. capacity greater than 15 litres is required by
Bed-sitting room 21°C 1 per hour
the design. Installation is to be completed by a
Bathrooms 22°C 2 per hour
Where an immersion heater is fitted, it should be: competent person.
Hall and landing 16°C 2 per hour
Separate WC 18°C 2 per hour
• Appropriate for the type of water supplied to 9.4.3.3 Draining down facility
Table 3 – Whole house heating system - temperatures
the dwelling; Hot and cold water installations require the
• Thermostatically controlled; capability to be drained down.
• Located so that it can be withdrawn for
replacement;
• Fitted with an on/off switch.
Controls for wet heating systems are to be provided

as follows:
• Room thermostat controlling the heater unit;

• Time switch allowing at least two heating
periods a day. In the case of electrically heated
storage systems (Electricaire), there will normally
be a further time switch to control the electrical
‘charging’ periods to conform within the
chosen tariff;
• A programmer to select;
i. Hot water;
ii. Space heating;
iii. Hot water and space heating.
A thermostat which is sensitive to the room air

temperature should be provided for independent
heaters.
The boilers chosen for each dwelling should be

Figure 14 – Controls for combined space heating and domestic hot water
based on their efficiency within the PCDF list. The
efficiency of the boiler should be no less than the
table below:
Central heating system fuel PCDF% (2009)

Mains natural gas 88
LPG 88
Oil 88
Table 4 – Minimum efficiencies of heating systems

9.4.6 Ventilation Provide either 15 minutes overrun to the mechanical A concealed co-axial cable should be provided from
extractor unit, in internal rooms. Passive ventilator or the roof void to a terminal outlet within the main living
Room Intermittent extract Continuous
extract an open flue heating appliance may be acceptable; room. Where the co-axial cable is not provided, a
Kitchen 30 l/s adjacent to hob 13 l/s in all cases some form of air inlet is required. conduit and draw wire or an alternative should be
Or 60 l/s elsewhere provided. The provision of an aerial is not required.
Utility (access 30 l/s 8 l/s 9.4.8 Extract ducts
via dwelling)
9.4.9 Whole building ventilation
Bath/shower room 15 l/s 8 l/s
Sanitary 6 l/s 6 l/s The whole building ventilation rate for the supply of
accommodation air to the habitable rooms in a dwelling should be
Table 5 – Extract ventilation rates no less than the rates stated in Table 6 below:
9.4.7 Extractor fans

Ventilation Number of bedrooms in dwelling
Where ductwork from extractor fans goes through 1 2 3 4 5
unheated spaces such as roof voids, action should Whole building 13 17 21 25 29
be taken to minimise the chance of condensation Figure 15 – Extract ducts
ventilation rates (l/s)
forming in the ducting and any consequential Table 6 – Whole building ventilation rates
damage caused to finishes and the fan unit. Adequate support is required for extract ducts
Ensure that: and they also need to have sealed joints where 9.4.10 Passive stack ventilation
required. Insulation needs to be provided where The system is to meet the relevant third party
• Ducting discharges to the outside air; ducts pass through unheated spaces, such as roof accreditation.
• Insulation is provided to the outside of the voids to the outside air or a condensation drain
ductwork and laid to a fall away from the fan; should be provided in accordance with the design. The PSV layout should be designed to:
• The system provides rates in accordance
with Approved Document K. Where ducting is part of a Mechanical Ventilation • Avoid cross flow between the kitchen and
and Heat Recovery System, it should be bathroom/WCs;
All habitable and service rooms within dwellings insulated in accordance with the manufacturer’s • Prevent, as far as possible, air flow in the ducts
should have some form of ventilation as a recommendations. being adversely affected by the prevailing wind
requirement. It may be permanent background speed and direction, or by sudden changes
ventilation, mechanical ventilation or an Where a gas appliance requires an electrical in these;
opening window. supply, a suitably fixed spur or socket outlet should • Minimise resistance to air flow by having ducts
be provided. that are as near vertical as possible.
To ensure good transfer of air throughout the • Where necessary, to prevent damage to Fixings should be installed adequately and spaced
dwelling, there should be an undercut of minimum the service and be sleeved or ducted where to stop sagging but not restrict thermal movement.
area 7600mm² in all internal doors above the floor passing through structural elements (not Where needed, pipes should have adequate falls.
finish (equivalent to an undercut of 10mm for a solidly embedded);
standard 760mm width door). • Not be located in the cavity of an external wall, Sufficient room should be allowed for thermal
except for electricity meter tails; expansion and contraction to avoid damage and
• Only be buried in screeds where permitted by noise from pipe movement.
relevant Codes of Practice.
Holes should be kept apart by at least three times
Where copper pipes are permitted in floor screeds holes diameter.
they should be:
9.4.13 Notches and drillings
• Sleeved or wrapped so that they can move Floor joists should not be excessively notched
freely along the length and at joints and bends; or drilled. Further guidance can be found in
• Jointed with capillary joints. Chapter 8 of this Manual.
A metallic tape should be applied to the pipework 9.4.14 Concealed services

where plastic pipework is in or behind wall surfaces, If the services are hidden in walls or floors they
and would otherwise not be located by a need to be positioned so that any significant
metal detector. cracking of the surface cannot happen.
Figure 16 – Passive stack ventilation
9.4.12 Jointing of pipes and fittings 9.4.15 Wall chasing

Proprietary joints should be made strictly in If chases in walls are necessary, their depth should
9.4.11 Installation of building services accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. not exceed:
All items should be installed to ensure satisfactory
operation. Only fluxes recommended by the Pipe • One-sixth the thickness of the single leaf for
Manufacturer should be used and all traces should horizontal chases;
Items to be taken into account include: be removed immediately after jointing. Fluxes • One third the thickness for vertical chases.
containing lead are not acceptable.
• Location and fitting of pipes and cable Hollow blocks should not be chased unless
service entries through the substructure; Suitable clips or brackets are to be used to secure. specifically permitted by the manufacturer.
Figure 17 – Staggered services on party walls
Figure 18 – Recommended positioning of pipes in screeds
9.4.16 Services within or beneath floors

Protection through wrapping or ducting is The insulating material around the pipework needs
necessary when pipes are situated under floor to be a minimum of 25mm in thickness. The screed
screeds. Thermal expansion allowances are to be thickness should still be at least 25mm where pipes
made especially at changes of direction. cross over.
9.4.17 Fire-stopping
Fire-stopping is required around services that

penetrate fire-resisting floors, walls or partitions.
If proprietary systems are used they should be
installed using manufacturer’s recommendations.
CONTENTS
10.1 PLASTERWORK
10.1 PLASTERWORK
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. Surfaces which will be subjected to water from the use of a
in a workmanlike manner. showerhead over a bath should be tiled or have an appropriate
alternative water resistant finish;
Materials iii. The materials and construction must meet the relevant Building
10.1.1 Introduction 10.1.3 Plaster mixes 10.1.5 Plasterboard and dry lining
This chapter covers all plastered finishes to walls Plaster mix ratios should be in accordance Supports for plasterboard should be designed so
and ceilings. Plastered finishes should be applied to with manufacturers recommendations and be that the following span limits are not exceeded:
a certain standard to receive a suitable decorative appropriate for the intended use.
finish. It should be durable enough to prevent Board Timber Intermediate Perimeter
thickness support noggings noggings
surface cracking and, if applicable as part of the 10.1.4 Minimum plaster thicknesses (mm) centres (mm) required required
whole element, meet the required levels of fire The thickness of plaster will vary depending on the 9.5 400 No Yes
and sound insulation in accordance with current evenness of the substrate. The finished element 450 Yes Yes
12.5 400 No Yes
Building Regulations. must meet the tolerances as identified in Chapter 1
450 No Yes
of this Manual and be of a suitable quality so that 600 Yes Yes
10.1.2 Substrate and background a decorative finish can be applied. Minimum 15 600 No No
Table 2 – Plasterboard joints and fixings
Plasterwork should be applied to suitable thicknesses should be in accordance with Table 1.
substrates. The substrate may also require Fix boards with decorative side out to receive
Element Minimum Typical thickness
additional sealing or bonding agents in number of joint treatment or a skim plaster finish. Lightly butt
accordance with the requirements set out in coats
boards together and never force boards into
BS 5492 Code of Practice for internal plastering. Walls - metal 3 13mm (nominal)
lath position. Install fixings not closer than 13mm from
Blockwork 2 13mm (nominal) cut edges and 10mm from bound edges. Position
Plaster applied to backgrounds that are Brickwork 2 13mm (nominal) cut edges to internal angles whenever possible,
susceptible to thermal movement such as Walls - 1 Skim to provide suitable removing paper burrs with fine sandpaper. Stagger
lightweight concrete or aerated blockwork should plasterboard and durable finish
horizontal and vertical board joints between layers
Walls - concrete 1 Minimum thickness to
be completed in accordance with the block by a minimum of 600mm. Locate boards to the
provide suitable and

manufacturer’s instructions. durable finish centre line of framing where this supports board
Ceiling - 1 Skim to provide suitable
plasterboard and durable finish
edges or ends. Plasterboard should be fixed to
Where the background has a mix of varying timber or metal studs using dry-wall screws. When
Ceiling - 2 10mm maximum
materials e.g. blockwork and brickwork; to concrete dry lining, plasterboard can be fixed to walls by
prevent differential movement in the plaster finish Table 1 – Thicknesses of plaster using adhesive dabs or by screwing to metal or
expanded metal should be provided. timber battens. Alternatively, a proprietary wall
system can be used providing it has third party
certification. Gaps between boards should not
exceed 3mm and consideration should be given to
sealing all gaps to improve dwelling air tightness.
Workmanship
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person
in a workmanlike manner.
Materials
Design
of performance;
ii. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
Building Regulations and other statutory requirements,
British Standards and Euro-Codes.
10.2.1 Ceramic wall tiling 10.2.1.4 Grouting 10.2.1.7 Tiles on wood-based substrate
For shower enclosures where tiling can be The floor must be fit for purpose and should have
10.2.1.1 Introduction saturated, grouting should be cement-based, adequate stiffness to support the tiles and adhesive.
Tiles should be fit for purpose, have a suitable finish, epoxy resin, or a proprietary waterproof product.
and be of an appropriate size and thickness. A sealing method should be specified for the joint For floors supported by joists up to 600mm centres,
between sanitary fittings and adjacent tiling. This is the floor decking should be:
10.2.1.2 Background surfaces particularly important where movement can take
Background surfaces should be adequate to place, e.g. where timber floors are used. • 18mm exterior grade plywood screwed to
support ceramic tiles and as a minimum should: the joists at 300mm centres with all square
Ensure that design and specification information edges supported on joists or noggins. Plywood
• Be even to adequately support the whole tile; is issued to site supervisors and relevant specialist should be laid with a 1.5mm-2mm movement
• Be strong and durable enough to support the tile; subcontractors and/or suppliers. gap between boards and at abutments;
• Have sufficient absorbence to ensure that • Chipboard floor decking overlaid with minimum
adhesives will stick effectively or a suitable 10.2.1.5 Ceramic floor tiling 10mm exterior grade plywood fixed to joists
bonding agent applied; Tile floorings shall provide a suitable surface and be at 300mm centres, or proprietary separating/
• Be of the same construction type, where two fit for purpose. de-coupling layers, tile backer boards or tile
construction types are present eg. blockwork bedding reinforcement sheets used in
and timber stud, light reinforcing should be 10.2.1.6 Background surfaces accordance with the manufacturer’s
provided over the junction between the Background surfaces should be adequate to recommendations;
two types. support ceramic tiles and as a minimum should be: • Tiles should be suitable for laying over a timber
base and deformable (flexible) tile adhesive
10.2.1.3 Fixing • Level and even enough to provide a plane (e.g. C2S1) and grout should be used in
Depending on the background, tiles should be surface. Falls should be specified where required; accordance with the adhesive manufacturer’s
fixed using cement mortar or a suitable adhesive • Resistant to ground moisture, a damp proof recommendations.
purposely designed for ceramic tiling. Tiles to shower membrane (DPM) should be provided to a
enclosures and other areas that will be exposed to ground bearing slab;
water should be fixed with waterproof adhesive. • Adequately dry, i.e. at least six weeks drying out
time for concrete base, three weeks for screed.
10.2.2 Floor finishes Minimum thickness with recommendations of BS 8204. If required,

at any point (mm) surface sealers or hardeners should only be used in
Screeding Laid monolithically with base 12 accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
Screeds should be fit for purpose, have a suitable Laid and bonded to a set and 20
hardened base
finish, and be of an appropriate thickness. 10.2.2.4 Insulation
Laid on a separating membrane 50
(e.g. 1000g polyethylene) Insulation below screeds should have enough
Background surfaces Laid on resilient slabs or quilts 65 compressive strength to support the screed.
Background surfaces where screeds are being (screed reinforced with Damp proof membranes should be installed in
galvanised wire mesh)
supported should meet the following requirements: the correct positions as indicated by the insulation
Table 3 − Screed thickness requirements
manufacturer’s instructions. Sound insulation should
• Bond Where service pipes are bedded in the screed, the be installed in accordance with manufacturer’s
Background surfaces for bonded screeds screed should be deep enough to provide at least instructions.
should provide an adequate mechanical key. 25mm of screed cover over service pipes, insulation
If necessary, cement grouting or a bonding and reinforcing. 10.2.2.5 Building services
agent should be specified to provide Where building services pass through the screed
adequate adhesion; 10.2.2.1 Maximum areas of screed allowance should be made for thermal movement
Screeds should be laid room by room. Unreinforced between the screed and the service and that
• Moisture Protection screeds should have a maximum area of 40m². service pipes can resist chemical attack from
The floor design should ensure that moisture Expansion joints should be provided and consistent the screed.
from the ground does not enter the dwelling; with joints in the floor slab below.
10.2.3 Painting and decorating
• Screed mix 10.2.2.2 Curing

Cement and sand screeds should have a mix Screeds should be cured naturally and should not 10.2.3.1 Timber
ratio of between 1:3 and 1:4½. be covered for at least three weeks. Painting or staining of external timber is required to
provide protection and stability even if the timber
Proprietary additives should have been assessed 10.2.2.3 Finishing of screeds is preservative treated. Timber with moisture
and have third party certification. Screed should provide an even surface as content greater than 18% is not suitable for painting
appropriate as defined in Chapter 1 of this Manual. or staining.
Minimum thickness of screeds are as follows: Concrete floor slabs may be suitably finished to
serve directly as a wearing surface without the Paint and stain systems specified should be
need for an additional topping, in accordance compatible with any timber preservatives and
timber species that have been used. Internal and external steel which has been
galvanized to a rate of at least 450g/m² is
Where windows and doors are to be stained, acceptable without further protection. Steel
proprietary sealants and beads should be used galvanized to a rate of less than 450g/m² should
in glazing rebates in accordance with the be protected with at least two coats of zinc
manufacturer’s instructions as an alternative to phosphate primer and a suitable decorative finish,
linseed oil putty. where required.
Staining Intumescent paint coverings must be applied in

Timber should be stained in accordance with the accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
manufacturer’s recommendations.
10.2.3.4 Plaster and plasterboard
Painting Plaster and plasterboard surfaces should be
Painting to timber should consist of at least one prepared in accordance with manufacturer’s
primer coat, one undercoat and one finish coat or directions ready for decorating.
alternatively in accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions.
10.2.3.2 Masonry and rendering

External brickwork and render should be dry
before paint is applied and paint systems for
external brickwork or render should be applied in

accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
10.2.3.3 Metal
Internal and external structural steel should
be protected with at least two coats of zinc
phosphate primer. A decorative paint finish may
then be applied.
CONTENTS
11.3 OUTBUILDINGS
Workmanship Design
Materials iii. The materials, design and construction must meet the relevant
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; Limitations of Functional Requirements
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise with External pathways and drives Functional Requirements apply only to the
the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 years. drive and pathway leading to principle entrance to the dwelling.
GUIDANCE away from the building. Rainwater should either 11.1.3 Sub-base
discharge into a trapped gulley or drained to A suitable sub-base should be provided which is
11.1.1 Preparation of ground garden land that is well drained. Gullies should capable of supporting the finished surface material.
The area to be surfaced should be prepared by be trapped when discharging to a soakaway or Suitable sub-base material is considered as:
stripping away all vegetation and organic material. combined drainage system (approval may be
Land drainage should be considered for ground required by statutory sewerage undertaker). • Weak mix concrete ST1 (site mixed acceptable);
that is saturated. • Well graded crushed stone or recycled
concrete (minimum aggregate size 75mm).
Excavation trenches (e.g. service trenches) should
be backfilled with granular type material to the The minimum thickness of sub-bases are indicated
required level. The backfill should be compacted in Table 1.
in layers no greater than 300mm, the fill material
should at least have the same bearing capacity as Use of surface Min sub-base Comments
thickness
the adjacent ground.
Pathway 75mm
Driveway 100mm Light domestic traffic
(light duty)
Drive 150mm Suitable for carrying
(medium duty) small lorries e.g.
refuse, vehicles or
fuel delivery
Table 1 – Minimum thickness of sub-base

Crushed stone or recycled aggregate sub-

bases should be well compacted to adequately
support the pathway or drive (see Table 2). Where
Figure 1 – Backfilling of trenches the ground below the sub-base is weak or soft
Figure 2 – Drive and pathway drainage (typically <10% CBR), the sub-base should be
11.1.2 Laying of paths and drives designed by a Structural Engineer.
Paths and driveways should be effectively drained All paving and drives with exception of the principle
to prevent ponding of water adjacent to the level access into the dwelling should be laid at least
building. Paths and drives should be laid to falls 150mm below the damp proof course of the dwelling.
Compactor Compactor size Minimum number Minimum thickness of surfaces

type of passes Minimum thickness of surfaces are indicated in
100mm 150mm Table 3.
sub-base sub-base
Vibrating 1400-1800 kg/m2 8 Unsuitable Surface Material Minimum British
plate 1800-2000 kg/m2 5 8 type specifications thickness (1.) Standard
>2000 kg/m2 3 6
Path Drive
Vibrating 700-1300 kg/m width 16 Unsuitable
roller 1300-1800 kg/m width 6 16 Macadam 40mm coated 75 75 BS 4987
1800-2300 kg/m 4 6 single macadam
width Figure 3 – Typical edging detail course
Engine <65kg 5 8
Rolled Coarse asphalt 60 60 BS 594
driven 65-75kg 3 6 11.1.5 Surfacing of paths and drives asphalt 10mm nominal
vibro- >75kg 2 4
Surface variation should not exceed a difference of size
tamper
+/-10mm from a 2m straight edge with equal offsets. Macadam Nominal 60 60 BS 4987
Table 2 – Suitable compaction of sub-bases
Differences in the surface should not exceed a two course 20mm coated
macadam, 20 20 BS 4987
11.1.4 Edgings difference of +/-10mm from a 2m straight edge with nominal 6mm
Edgings are to be provided to paths and driveways equal offsets. Some fracturing or weathering may wearing course
to prevent movement or displacement of the also appear if the material is natural stone due to Block Clay or 50 50 BS 6677
path or driveway. Edgings are not necessary if the the natural make-up of the material. This tolerance paving calcium silicate
driveway is in-situ concrete or any pathway made applies to principle pathways and driveways to the Block Precast 60 60 BS 6717
paving concrete
of precast concrete paving slabs laid on a dwelling which is required to meet the standards of
mortar bed. Part M (Access to Dwellings). Concrete Designated mix 75 100mm
(2.)
Edgings should be laid to ensure that there are no Suitable surfaces for paths and driveways Precast Dense 50 N/A BS 7263:1
concrete concrete
excessive gaps and laid with smooth alignment Suitable surfaces are considered as: paving
along the top of the edging.
Notes:
• Block paving; 1. Drive minimum thickness assumes standard loadings
for a typical family car, additional thicknesses are
Concrete edgings should be bedded on a 200mm • Precast concrete paving slabs;
required where increased loads are applied
wide x 100mm deep ST1 mix concrete base. The • Timber decking; e.g. LGV vehicles.
concrete should be haunched up the side of the • Cast in-situ concrete; 2. Drives increased to 150mm on poor ground or clay.
edging to give adequate support. • Rolled asphalt; Table 3 – Minimum thickness of surfaces for drives and paths
• Macadam.
11.1.5.1 Paving slabs adjacent structure, the concrete should be isolated Softwoods
Paving slabs should be placed on a 25mm bed of using a flexible jointing material. Where the sub- Only use species/components with natural
sharp sand or a semi dry mortar mix (mix ratio 3:1 base is well drained, it is recommended that the durability or which have been treated in
sand:cement). Joints between slabs should be no concrete is cast onto a damp proof membrane. accordance with BS EN 335 to a Use Class standard
greater than 4mm for straight edge paving slabs. appropriate to their use i.e. Use Class 4 treatment
Joints should be filled with a kiln dried sand. A neat for posts and other structural components in
consistent joint should be provided to rustic slabs. direct ground or freshwater contact. Use Class 3
Slabs should be cut with a diamond blade cutter or treatment for all components out of direct ground
similar to give a neat finish. contact subject to frequent wetting.
11.1.5. 2 Block paving Note:

Block paving should be laid on a minimum of i. Whitewood should not be used for posts
50mm sharp sand, gaps between blocks should embedded in the ground or for other elements
not exceed 5mm. All joints should be filled with kiln (joists) in the ground or other non-permeable
dried sand or similar. Blocks should be cut using a surface, e.g. concrete slab.
Figure 4 – Typical cast in-situ drive or path abutting the dwelling
block splitter. The finished path or driveway should ii. All crosscuts, notches or large boreholes shall
be compacted with a plate vibrator. Care should be treated on-site with a suitable preservative.
be taken to ensure that the surface of the paving is 11.1.5.5 Macadam and asphalt For full guidance on wood preservation
not damaged or scuffed. Ensure that sub-bases are dried and primed and specification contact The Wood Protection
that the surface is appropriately rolled with a Association. Timber Grade (Strength Class):
11.1.5. 3 Porous block paving joints vibratory roller to the required finish. C16 minimum.
Where paving is designed to allow ground water to

drain through the joints, the gaps between blocks 11.1.5.6 Timber decking The grade (strength class) of timber used for
and the material within the joints should meet the Only timber naturally resistant to decay or which structural components such as posts, beams and
initial design specification. The joint material should can be treated by an industrial process to give joists shall be sufficient to cope with the loads
be sufficient enough to prevent blocking and longterm protection from decay shall be used. placed upon it during its service life. Softwood
prevent moss growth. with a strength class rating of C16 is considered
Hardwoods the minimum standard for decks above 600mm in
11.1.5. 4 In-situ concrete Only use species rated as durable or moderately height and is a requirement of building regulations
In-situ concrete should be laid in maximum areas durable. for such raised level structures. The higher strength
of 20m² to allow for movement. Where abutting an classes, typically C18 and C24 should be specified
where smaller component sections, longer content lower than 20%. The stability of all wood Fall
spans or commercial deck performance design used out of doors can be improved by the use of To aid drainage, build a gentle fall of 1:100 into the
considerations are required. water repellent treatments. deck, away from any adjacent property. Grooved
deckboards are designed to assist drainage of
For decks below 600mm in height the use of C16 Board spacing surface water, lay them in the direction of fall.
timber is also recommended. 5mm minimum – 8mm maximum: where board abuts a
post allow 5mm, where board ends meet allow 3mm. 11.1.6 Further specification references
Posts can be made from laminated sections, solid
timber or round poles and should have a load Metal fixings • TDA/TRADA Timber Decking: The Professionals’
bearing capability/size/spacing appropriate to the All metal fixings shall be made from corrosion Manual – second edition November 2006;
scale and end use of the structure. For extended resistant materials such as stainless steel, hot • TDA Technical Bulletin TB02: Statutory requirements;
life surface mounting of posts on precast piers or dipped galvanised or other specialist coating. • TDA Technical Bulletin TB04: Parapet design
metal shoes is recommended. Before use, verify with the manufacturer that the and construction;
fixings you have chosen are suitable for use with • TDA Technical Bulletin TB08: Metal fixings;
Note: treated timber. Aluminium fasteners should not • TDA Code of Practice TDA/RD 08/01:
i. Do not exceed the recommended load and be used with treated wood. Prevent galvanic Raised timber decks on new homes - desired
span for each strength class – refer to corrosion by using the same type of metal for both service life 60 years;
span tables in TDA/TRADA Timber Decking: fixings and connectors. • Wood Protection Association: Timber
The Professionals’ Manual for detailed Preservation Manual.
recommendations; Screws should be at least 2½ times the thickness of
ii. Use ‘noggins’/blocking to strengthen frames the board being fixed. Ideally choose screws that British Standards
where appropriate to prevent flexing. are self-countersinking. Pre-drilling pilot holes will The Standards set out below all have a relevance
Timber moisture content at installation: help prevent splitting. Always drill pilot holes 2mm to the creation of high performance timber decks.
20% maximum. oversize when fixing hardwoods. At all joist crossing
points secure boards with two fixings positioned BS EN 335-1
To minimise the effects of shrinkage e.g. cupping, at the outer ¼ points of the deckboard, i.e. 25% in Use classes of wood and wood-based products
cracking, warping etc. install timber as close as from either edge. On grooved boards fixings should against biological attack – Part 1: Classification of
possible to the equilibrium moisture content of the always be at the bottom of grooves. Take care using Use classes;
site. For outdoor wood, moisture content varies high pressure nail guns as they can damage timber.
from 19% in winter to 13% in summer in the UK. For
best results always install wood with a moisture
BS EN 335-2 BS EN 351-2 BS 6399-1: 1996

Use classes of wood and wood-based products Durability of wood and wood-based products – Loading for buildings. Code of Practice for dead
against biological attack – Part 2: Guide to the Preservative-treated solid wood – Part 2: Guidance and imposed loads;
application of use classes to solid wood; on sampling for the analysis of preservative-
treated wood; BS 7359: 1991
BS EN 335-3 Nomenclature of commercial timbers, including
Durability of wood and wood-based products – BS EN 460 sources of supply;
Definition of hazard classes of biological attack – Durability of wood and wood-based products –
Part 3: Application to wood-based panels; Natural durability of solid wood: Guide to the BS 5268-2: 2002
durability requirements for wood to be used in Structural use of timber. Code of Practice for
BS EN 350-1 hazard classes; permissible stress design, materials and workmanship;
Durability of wood and wood-based products –
Natural durability of solid wood – Part 1: Guide to BS EN 599-1 BS 6180: 1999
the principles of testing and classification of the Durability of wood and wood-based products – Barriers in and about buildings – Code of Practice;
natural durability of wood; Performance of wood preservatives as determined
by biological tests – Part 1: Specification according BS 6399-1: 1996
BS EN 350-2 to hazard class; Loading for buildings. Code of Practice for dead
Durability of wood and wood-based products – and imposed loads.
Natural durability of solid wood – Part 2: Guide to BS 8417
natural durability and treatability of selected wood Preservation of timber – Recommendations.
species of importance in Europe; Guidance for specifiers on the treatment of timber
drawing on relevant sections of BS EN Standards;

BS EN 351-1
Durability of wood and wood-based products – BS 5756: 1985
Preservative-treated solid wood – Part 1: Classification Specification for visual strength grading of hardwood;
of preservative penetration and retention;
BS 6105: 1981
Specification for corrosion resistant stainless steel
fasteners;
The following diagrams are considered as an

acceptable provision to meet warranty standards:
Figure 5 – Level thresholds and access to dwellings Figure 7 – Level threshold cast in-situ concrete slab with canopy protection
Figure 6 – Typical level threshold cast in-situ concrete slab Figure 8 – Level threshold detail beam and block floor
Workmanship
person in a workmanlike manner.
Materials
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose.
Design
of performance;
ii. Any remedial strategy for flood risk must meet the relevant
Building Regulations and other statutory requirements;
iii. The design and construction must meet the relevant Building
Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
and Euro-Codes.
GUIDANCE approach to determining the suitability of land 11.2.4 Wales

for development in flood risk areas must be Technical Advice Note 15 (TAN15): Development
11.2.1 Introduction undertaken. Preference should be given to and Flood Risk was published by the Welsh Assembly
This section of the Manual has been prepared locating new development in areas at the lowest Government in July 2004 and provides guidance
to provide supplementary guidance for use probability of flooding. for assessing and managing the consequences
by developers, Site Audit Surveyors and others of flood risk to a level which is acceptable for the
involved with new development in areas of high In exceptional cases, development may be nature and type of development, including its
flood risk, in support of the Government’s planning permitted in areas at risk of flooding. In order to effects on the surrounding areas.
guidance on development and flood risk. ensure that any flood risk at the site is appropriately
managed, and that the development does not A precautionary framework is set out in order to
11.2.2 Planning guidance exacerbate flood risk in the surrounding areas, ensure that development is directed to areas at
Flooding can be caused by rivers and the sea, flood mitigation measures should be incorporated lowest risk of flooding. However, TAN15 notes that
directly from rainfall on the ground surface into the design of the development. These some flexibility is necessary to enable the risks of
(overland flows), rising groundwater levels, may include raising finished floor levels and flooding to be addressed whilst recognising the
overwhelmed sewers and drainage systems, and the incorporation of flood resilient and resistant negative economic and social consequences
from reservoirs, canals and other artificial sources. construction techniques and should make an if policy were to preclude development. It is the
allowance for the impacts of climate change. responsibility of the local planning authority to
11.2.3 England determine whether development can be justified
Planning Policy Statement 25 (PPS25): Development PPS25 recommends that surface water flows in areas at risk of flooding. If development is
and Flood Risk, which applies only to England, was arising from the redeveloped site should, so far permitted in an area at risk of flooding appropriate
published by Communities and Local Government as is practicable, be managed in a sustainable flood mitigation measures should be incorporated
in December 2006 and was subsequently revised manner through the use of Sustainable Drainage into the design in order to ensure that the
in March 2010. It guides all parties involved in the Systems (SuDS). Typical SuDS components include development remains safe over its lifetime, without
planning and development process. soakaways, ponds, green roofs, and rainwater increasing flood risk elsewhere.
harvesting systems.
The aim of PPS25 is to ensure that flood risk is taken TAN15 also champions the use of SuDS in the
into account at all stages in the planning and The developer must demonstrate to LABC management of surface water runoff arising from
development process to avoid inappropriate Warranty’s Site Audit Surveyor that the proposed the developed site.
development in areas at risk of flooding and development fulfils the above requirements.
to direct development away from areas at
highest risk. Under PPS25 a sequential risk-based
11.2.5 General principles of flood resistance these questions then implementing flood resistance 11.2.7 Conclusion
design for new properties measures will be a requirement for cover under the All properties constructed in an identified flood risk
Where a new development is proposed within LABC Warranty policy to be provided. area must be built fully in accordance with Building
areas of flood risk, measures are required to Control and the Environment Agency (EA) and
reduce the impact of flooding at both the site and 11.2.6 The technical audit Environment Agency Wales (EAW), best practice
surrounding areas. Such development can include In order to ensure the above is achieved it will be guidelines. Site Audit Surveyors will be required to
new buildings and extensions to existing properties. necessary for the plan appraisal process to include make (and document) specific enquiries on flood
an assessment of the potential risk of flooding risks for all properties; to liaise with Building Control,
If a property is at low risk of flooding then steps to (by consideration of the questions identified in the EA and EAW and to monitor compliance
improve flood resistance are clearly unnecessary. Chapter 11.2.5 above). Should a flood risk be with PPS25, TAN15, SPP and EA and EAW best
The following list of general questions, which will be identified on any particular site it will be necessary practice advice.
raised during the technical audit process, can help to include the following information in the audit
to assess whether flood protection measures are process: This process must continue throughout the
worth considering for a particular property: construction process, and any failure by developers
• A location plan at an appropriate scale that to comply with all requirements/recommendations
• Has the property or surrounding land and includes geographical features, street names will be notified to the scheme administrator.
gardens ever flooded in the past?; and identifies all watercourses or other bodies of
• Have neighbouring properties ever flooded?; water in the vicinity; Site Audit Surveyors will monitor all issues regarding
• Is the property in a flood plain?; • A plan showing site levels related to ordinance flood aspects and specifically identify those
• Has the property been issued with a flood datum, both current and following development; properties encountered which are susceptible
warning?; • An assessment of the cause of potential to any of the factors identified in Chapter 11.2.5
• Is the property close to a surface water flooding – rivers, tidal, coastal, ground water, above and record details of remedial measures
drainage ditch or stream that could overflow?; surface flow or any combination of these; taken and lessons to be learnt for the future.
• Is the property in a hollow or low-lying area?; • A more detailed indication, if appropriate,
• Is the property protected by river or coastal of flood alleviation measures already in place,
defences? detailing their state of maintenance and
their performance.
If “No” is the answer to all of these questions the risk
of flooding affecting a property is small and flood
resistance measures are unlikely to be necessary.
Conversely, if “Yes” is the answer to one or more of
11.3 OUTBUILDINGS
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent ii. Outbuildings should be constructed to adequately resist lateral
person in a workmanlike manner. and vertical loads;
iii. Foundations should be designed constructed to suit local ground
Materials conditions and adequacy support the weight of the structure and
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which imposed loads;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; iv. The materials and construction must meet the relevant Building
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be Regulations and other statutory requirements, British Standards
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; and Euro-Codes.
GUIDANCE • They are resistant to moisture and do not allow 11.3.3 Foundations
the passage of moisture to parts of the building Foundations should be constructed so that loads
11.3.1 Limitations of requirements which would be adversely affected by moisture; are adequately transferred, further guidance can
This section does not apply to outbuildings where: • They encourage the rapid discharge of moisture be found in Chapter 5 of this Manual.
due to rain or snow from their surfaces to
• The building is heated or protected against suitable gutters and down pipes, or to some 11.3.4 Floors
frost damage; other form of collection and discharge, which Floors should have a minimum concrete thickness
• Is used as a habitable space including prevents moisture from re-entering the building of 100mm and bear onto a suitable sub-base. The
home offices; where it might have adverse effects; concrete should be float finished and to at least
• It is essential that the walls will resist wind • In the event of fire, they resist fire spread to the a GEN3 grade. Further guidance can be found in
driven rain. housing unit and to adjacent buildings; Chapter 6 of this Manual.
• They are provided with sufficient locks or other
11.3.2 Introduction devices to resist unauthorized entry; 11.3.5 Walls
In order to achieve a satisfactory standard of • Where additional services installations are 100mm single leaf walls are considered acceptable
performance, garages, conservatories, small provided (such as central heating boilers or providing that the following provisions are met:
outbuildings and extensions should be designed electrical or plumbing installations) these
and constructed so that: comply with Chapter 7 of this Manual; • The height of wall does not exceed 2400mm
• The risk of injury from accidental breakage of from ground level;
• They are able to sustain and transmit all normal the glazing (where fitted) is reduced to a • Intermediate piers are provided in accordance
loads to the ground, without affecting their own minimum. with Figure 9;
stability or that of the housing unit (or any • The wall is adequately restrained at ceiling and
adjacent buildings) by excessive deflection A satisfactory performance for the design and verge level;
or deformation, which would adversely affect construction of garages, conservatories, small • The walls are capable of adequately
the appearance, value and serviceability of the outbuildings and extensions may be achieved transferring the roof loadings to the foundation;
building or the housing unit; by meeting the relevant parts of the Approved • Walls are pointed both internally and externally;
• They provide an acceptable and durable Documents. • Walls should be provided with a suitable damp
external surface and are not adversely affected proof course located at least 150mm above
by harmful or toxic materials in the atmosphere ground level;
or from the ground; • Proprietary lintels should be provided over
window/door openings.
11.3.7 Walls between outbuildings

Where walls separate outbuildings between two
different ownerships or tenancies, the separating
wall should be taken up to the underside of the
roof and fire stopped.
Figure 9 – Small detached buildings
11.3.6 Roofs
Roofs should be weather tight and provided with a
minimum fall of 1:40. Tiled roofs should be installed
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
including pitch, fixing and lap.
Roof structures should be durable enough to

adequately support roof loadings. Timber trusses
should be adequately braced and traditional cut
roofs should have timber elements that meet relevant

Building Regulations and supporting documents.
Further guidance can be found in Chapter 7 of

this Manual.
CONTENTS
12.2 NEW ELEMENTS CONNECTING TO EXISTING STRUCTURES
Workmanship Design
in Chapter 1 of this Manual; design intent and demonstrate a satisfactory level of performance
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person with regards to the retention of existing components and the
in a workmanlike manner. interaction of new elements;
ii. Existing elements that are to be retained must meet a
Materials satisfactory level of performance;
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which iii. The materials used for construction must meet the relevant
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; Building Regulations and other statutory requirements, British
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be Standards and Euro-Codes. Any components or elements that
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; are to be retained as part of the scheme must meet the requirements
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise of the Technical Manual which may exceed those required by other
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 bodies including the Building Control Body and Planning Authority.
INTRODUCTION Depending on the condition of the original It is not possible to cover every building type within
building, an expert survey may be required for this chapter and therefore the guidance is general
The following guidance has been formulated to the elements below. If the survey concludes that and certainly will not apply in every scenario. It is
assist both Site Audit Surveyors and Developers any of these elements are unable to meet the strongly recommended that early discussions are
on projects involving either the conversion or life expectancy of 60 years for structure and 15 undertaken to determine exact requirements and
refurbishment of existing buildings. years for non-structural elements, they should be to enable a full review of the proposed strategy
systematically replaced or repaired. and development.
Conversions and refurbishments are projects that
involve work to existing buildings or parts of existing Existing buildings and structures can present Where new work is proposed, the new work should
buildings. This could include the conversion of particular problems both initially and on an follow the guidance for those elements in this
industrial or commercial buildings into housing; the ongoing basis. Therefore, it is essential that Technical Manual. Where new work is applied
conversion of an existing residential building into thorough and comprehensive survey work is to, or meets existing elements, consideration on
flats; the addition of an additional storey to an undertaken prior to new works commencing to how these areas will interact must be made. An
existing building; the refurbishment of an existing understand both the current condition of any example being, new cavity masonry abutting
residential building or a façade retention project. structure and the impact any proposed works may existing solid wall construction.
have. Although, initially this may be considered
The warranty includes cover for the retained an unnecessary early expense, the savings in Please note that the requirements of the Technical
structural elements and waterproof envelope reconstruction costs can greatly outweigh the cost Audit are quite different from those undertaken for
of any existing building for the duration of the of the preparatory work. the purposes of compliance with Building Control
policy. The Warranty Site Audit Surveyor will and Planning Legislation. If any such bodies
always undertake an initial assessment of the Elements of the retained structure and proposed have imposed restrictions on the areas above,
existing fabric to ascertain in general terms if the works should not be considered in isolation, as we suggest that you contact the LABC Warranty
proposal is capable of representing a standard a solution for one problem may cause issues Technical Services Department before undertaking
risk to the Underwriter. If deemed acceptable, the elsewhere. Past performance is no guarantee of any works.
development is then subject to a Technical Audit ongoing adequate performance because different
process during construction and the following expectations and changing living conditions can
guidance is intended to assist all parties in ensuring all impact on both the actual and perceived
the relevant requirements are met, as well as performance of a converted/refurbished structure.
providing an element of consistency in approach.
12.1 Retained elements, foundations and load Timber treatment against insect and fungal attack External doors and windows
bearing structures; including floors, walls All retained timbers will need to be assessed, A condition survey should be provided by an
and roof logged and remedial treatment noted. Timbers independent, competent and appropriately
Any areas of cracking or suspected movement are which are embedded should be exposed or qualified Surveyor or Specialist to confirm life
to be assessed and remedial measures provided removed and replaced with masonry. Where expectancy of 15 years. Consideration must be
by an appropriately qualified and experienced this is not possible, core samples should be taken given to improving the thermal characteristics.
Engineer. Any additional loads must be catered for. to assess the moisture content and remedial External and internal services: Any services to be
Consideration of the impact of any landscaping works considered. Any remedial treatment must retained should be suitably tested and reported by
and drainage works need to be made. Spalling be provided with a 10 year insurance backed a Specialist.
masonry can be locally repaired, with units cut out guarantee and undertaken by a member of the
and replaced, or re-used with sound face showing. Property Care Association, where guarantees must Drainage
Larger areas will require a schedule of repair to be cover workmanship and materials. A CCTV survey should be undertaken to ensure the
submitted and agreed. integrity and design of any retained system. Where
Roof coverings the lengths of existing retained drainage do not
Damp proof courses (DPC) and damp proof Coverings and support systems should be replaced have rodding access in accordance with current
membranes (DPM) unless a specialist report, which is compiled by requirements, additional access points should be
All walls, floors and basements should include a an independent, competent and appropriately provided. Inspection chambers and manholes
DPC. Ground levels and ventilation should be qualified Surveyor, concludes that the system located within habitable parts of the building will
checked before any remedial DPC treatments can provide a life span of at least 15 years. This not normally be acceptable. Existing interceptors
are considered. However, where remedial should include the covering, battens, felt, flat roof should be removed and any proposal to retain
DPC treatments are required these need to decking, fascias, soffits, flashings, nails and clips etc. existing septic tanks/cesspools will normally
be appropriate to the type of construction, be rejected.

independently tested/approved and provided with Weather resistance of walls including claddings,
a 10 year insurance backed guarantee. Installed render, re-pointing etc. Where some of the elements are new and
by a member of the Property Care Association, The remedial works for the external walls must have replaced as part of the conversion/refurbishment
the guarantees must cover workmanship and regard for the exposure rating provided in BS 5628. no report is necessary.
materials. The construction of any existing ground Any retained cladding system must be surveyed
floor will need to be assessed and details provided to determine a minimum 15 year life expectancy.
to the Site Audit Surveyor for consideration. Provision of additional thermal insulation must also
be considered.
12.1.1 Substructure Proposals for underpinning should be prepared by 12.1.1.2 Tanking of basements
an expert and be in accordance with BS 8004. Where it is intended that any accommodation
12.1.1.1 Foundations below ground level is to be habitable, then the
An appraisal of the existing building and its design should be such that adequate resistance
foundations should be carried out by a Structural to the passage of water/moisture to the inside is
Engineer. achieved, following the guidance in BS 8102 (2009).
This appraisal should address: Relevant matters include:
• Settlement; • Determine the position of water table;

• Heave; • Assess the drainage characteristics of soil;
• Foundation depth and type; • Products which are used should have
• Soil type; independent third party certificates and be
• Basement walls and floors; installed by an approved installer;
• Trees adjacent to buildings. • Increasing the height of the retaining walls;
• Reducing the ability of the floor above to
When carrying out the appraisal, the person should provide lateral support to the walls;
Figure 1 – Typical traditional underpinning detail
take into account any proposed increased loading • Lowering floor levels to increase ceiling heights;
on the structure and foundations, alterations to • Alterations to the existing applied loadings;
existing load paths and any alterations to the • Additional loading from adjacent structures.
existing stability of the building.
Existing basement floors may be suitable if it can be

Where the existing foundations are inadequate shown that the slab is in the region of 100mm thick
and the building has moved/cracked and/or and is bearing on to a suitable inert hardcore. The
the proposals are to increase the load on proposals to tank the basement should address
the foundations, a Structural Engineer should both the walls and the floor, in order to ensure the
design a suitable solution, which should then be integrity of the basement area.
discussed with the Site Audit Surveyors prior to
implementation. It should not be assumed that a wall, which is dry at
the time of the survey, would not cause a problem
Figure 2 – “Hit and miss” underpinning sequence
at a future date. Existing basements should be
provided with a new structural waterproofing Where the basement area is to be non-habitable, placed at least 150mm above external ground
(tanking) system designed by a suitably qualified such as storage, it should be designed to ensure level to ensure that ground moisture does not enter
and experienced specialist. The work should be that the area is reasonably dry and well ventilated. the inside of the building. Consideration to the
carried out by a competent Specialist Contractor This is of particular importance where timber is height of the ground floor must be made.
who has been approved by the Site Audit Surveyor present in order to prevent the outbreak of wet/
and a member of the Structural Waterproofing dry rot in the building. The measures to ensure that Some types of wall are not suitable for treatment
Group, a division of the Property Care Association. the storage areas are reasonably dry are not as by a remedial damp proof course system.
onerous as when designing a habitable basement. These include:
Land drainage to the external perimeter of the
basement must be considered in order to reduce In accordance with BS 8102 (2009), adequate • Walls of exceptional thickness, i.e. greater
hydrostatic pressure to acceptable levels. provision should be made to prevent surface and than 600mm;
interstitial condensation within the basement. • Rubble filled walls;
Internal walls will also require tanking if either they • Random flint/granite walls or other similar
do not have an effective DPC located at the same Consideration must be given to: impermeable materials;
level as the floor tanking membrane, or if they link • Mud walls (cob), wattle and daub;
with an external wall which is in contact with the • Appropriate ventilation; • Rat trap bond.
adjacent ground. • Adequate heating;
• Appropriate insulation; Advice should be sought from the Property Care
Built-in structural timbers such as timber lintels shall • Avoiding cold bridging; Association Member as to the suitability of their
be replaced, e.g. with concrete lintels if they are • Treatment of hygroscopic salts contained in proposed products/system. Products used in
sealed by tanking. walls and floors; chemically injected systems should always hold
• Removal of water vapour from kitchens current independent third party certificates.
It should be ensured that continuity of tanking is and bathrooms.
maintained around chimney breasts. To simplify
the problem, consideration should be given to the 12.1.1.3 Damp proofing
removal of the chimney breast in the basement Where an existing DPC can not be identified or
and providing adequate support at ground level to is found to be defective, then a remedial DPC
the retained chimney. should be provided which should be backed by
an insurance backed guarantee, and installed by
a Property Care Association Member. A suitable
DPC should be provided to existing walls, and be
An alternative method of detecting any dry rot is • Rain penetration;

by seeking the expertise of: • Condensation;
• Hygroscopic salts;
Hutton + Rostron: • Defective rainwater goods and roofs;
Tel No. 01483 203221, Fax No. 01483 202911, • Bridging of existing DPCs, or no DPC;
www.handr.co.uk, or; • Defective renders;
• Direct penetration of rainwater through solid
Ridout Associates: walls, particularly those facing prevailing winds;
Tel No. 01562 885135, Fax No. 01562 885312, • Leaking drains and internal plumbing;
www.ridoutassociates.co.uk • Incorrect external levels.
Fungal attack covers wet rot and dry rot. Wood Fungal attack is controlled by two sets of measures,
Figure 3 – Typical chemical injected DPC rotting fungi can be divided into two categories primary and secondary.
according to their effects on the wood. These are:
Areas which have not been inspected should
12.1.1.4 Treatment of timbers – rot/insects • Brown rot – causes the wood to become darker be clearly identified to enable a subsequent
Any remedial treatment shall be carried out by in colour and crack along and across the grain inspection to be carried out when the structure has
registered members of the British Wood Preserving when dry. Badly decayed wood will crumble been fully exposed; this could include rafter feet
and Damp Proofing Association in accordance to dust, and the majority of wet rot and dry rot and wall plates which are particularly prone to rot.
with their Code of Practice for Remedial Treatment instances fall within this group;
and associated technical leaflets. A 10-year • White rot – the wood becomes lighter in colour, Primary measures consist of locating and
insurance backed warranty shall also be provided. and cracks along the grain. All white rots are eliminating sources of dampness and promoting
wet rot. the rapid drying out of the structure. Where the
In order to obtain insurance, it is necessary to timber becomes wet and remains wet, e.g. the
undertake detailed investigation of all timber The root cause of fungal attack is dampness. moisture content exceeds 20%, then it is likely to
members to identify the presence of any insect For example, dampness may be caused by decay, and by eliminating the source of dampness
or fungal decay and treat the affected areas as the following: and drying of timbers below 20%, the fungus will
appropriate. It is essential that the type of fungal normally stop growing and will eventually die.
attack is correctly identified as treatment methods
vary for dry rot and wet rot.
Secondary measures consist of determining the full 12.1.1.5 Existing concrete floors • Where it can be shown that the existing
extent of the outbreak and a combination of: Where there is an existing concrete ground floor and ground floor is structurally adequate but does
this is to remain, the following should be identified: not incorporate a DPM, a DPM may be laid
• Removing all decayed timbers; over the existing slab e.g. 2/3 coat bitumen
• Treating of walls to contain fungi within the wall • The thickness and condition of the existing paint or 1200 gauge polythene over which a
(only applicable to dry rot); slab. A minimum of 100mm concrete is normally minimum 50mm, 1:3 screed should be laid. The
• Treating of sound timbers with preservative on a expected. Slabs less than 100mm are more likely DPM should lap with the DPC.
localised basis where required; to be vulnerable to rising damp, especially if the
• Using preservative-treated replacement timbers concrete is of poor quality; 12.1.1.6 Existing suspended timber floors
(pre-treated); • If there are proposals to increase the load Where it is proposed to keep the existing ground
• Introducing support measures such as isolating on the existing slab, such as building a masonry floor, the existing floorboards/finish should be lifted
timbers from walls and provision of ventilation wall, then the new wall should be built on an to ascertain the condition of the timber joists/wall
between timbers and the walls. adequate foundation or the existing slab plates and a report carried out by a Structural
proved for adequacy by calculation; Engineer as well as a specialist relating to insect
Dry rot commonly occurs when timber is in contact • Are there any gaps between the skirting and infestation and fungal attack.
with damp brickwork and where ventilation and floor suggesting settlement of the slab? Is the fill
heating are inadequate. Therefore, particular beneath the slab over 600mm?; When deciding if an existing ground floor is
attention should be paid to cellars, basements and • Are there any cracks in the floor slab due to adequate, there are a number of areas which
sub-floors and also behind paneling. settlement? If the slab has settled it may be should be addressed, these include:
practical to re-level the floor with a new screed
or self-leveling compound. Before undertaking • An adequate DPC to walls/sleeper walls;
any works to a slab which has settled, it must be • Are all timbers free from rot and insect
ascertained whether the settlement has stopped; infestation?;
• Has the slab heaved? Clay heave can be • Adequate ventilation to the sub-floor.
attributed to the swelling of the clay subsoil Note: Many sub-floor voids will require cleaning
when there is a recovery of the desiccated out to achieve ventilation and reduce
zone following the removal of a tree. Where a dampness;
slab has heaved, further investigation is • Adequate foundations supporting sleeper walls;
necessary to determine the reason for this and • Joists are of sufficient size and span;
appropriate measures taken to rectify the • Are any load bearing internal walls built off
Figure 4 – Typical example of repairs to floor joists cause and damage; floor joists?;
• Have joists been weakened by excessive 12.1.2 Superstructure

notching or drilling?;
• Adequate trimming to hearth; 12.1.2.1 Structural repairs
• Adequate strutting of joist. Prior to undertaking structural repairs, it is essential
that the root cause of the structural defect has
been remedied by underpinning, addition of
adequate lateral restraint, buttressing, etc.
Strengthening works to the structure may also
be necessary to accommodate increased or
modified loads.
12.1.2.2 Masonry walls

To provide an acceptable level of protection
Figure 6 – Typical independent internal lining
against ingress of rainwater, any retained solid
masonry external walls should either:
Figure 5 – Strengthening excessively notched joist • Be fully lined internally with an independent Where damage has occurred to walls, the cause
timber or metal stud wall; needs to be investigated.
12.1.1.7 Drainage • Be clad externally with a rain screen or other
Where it is intended to use the existing below protective measure; Likely reasons for the damage include:
ground foul drainage system, a CCTV survey should • Comply with the requirements of BS 5628 (as
be carried out to ascertain the condition of the outlined below). • Ground movement – foundation failure,
drains and manholes. The survey should cover size, settlement, subsidence, chemical attack;
type of drain, falls and its adequacy to take the • Thermal movement – thermal expansion of wall
proposed discharge. An air or water test could also due to temperature changes;
be carried out. • Roof spread – pitched roofs not properly tied,
spreading at eaves;
The use of existing surface water drainage may be • External and internal walls not bonded together;
acceptable, providing that it can be shown to be • Wall tie corrosion;
carrying the water away from the building. • Lintels inadequate over openings;
• Sulphate attack – water soluble sulphates Where it is intended to provide buttressing walls to Different bricks and bricklayers were often used,
attack cement based mortar, normally in a wet support out of plumb and/or bulging walls, they with the poorer quality materials and labour being
environment, i.e. below ground level and should be designed by an Engineer. used on the party walls. This junction should be
parapet walls; exposed when undertaking a conversion and if
• Frost attack; In raised tie roofs (where no ceiling ties are the bond is inadequate, a suitable stitching detail
• Bonding timbers present and subject to rot provided at eaves level), lateral spread of the incorporated. Design by a Chartered Structural
and shrinkage; brickwork just below eaves level may have Engineer may be required.
• Ineffective or no lateral support at floor and occurred because the roof has deflected. In such
roof level; cases, it is necessary to prop the roof and to rebuild
• Moisture ingress. the affected part of the wall.
Cracking in masonry walls Bonding timbers

Minor cracking can be defined as cracking These are common in Georgian buildings and were
which occurs in the mortar joints and which does laid in the internal skin of the wall to reinforce it and
Figure 7 – Typical examples of rectifying unbounded walls
not extend through the masonry components. to provide fixings for paneling, etc. With the low
Providing that the crack is no wider than 4mm and compressive strength of lime mortar and general
there has been no lateral displacement of the wall, timber decay, the bond timber compresses Arches and lintels
the wall can be re-pointed. under load. As the timber is on the inner skin, the The existing timber lintels can be retained if they
compression causes bulging outwards which may support the structural walls and it can be shown
Major cracking affects the structural integrity of the be apparent on the external face. Normally, bond that the lintel is adequate for its purpose, i.e. there
wall and investigation should be undertaken to find timbers should be exposed during the conversion is no sign of any structural movement, loads will not
the cause of the problem. and removed in short lengths and replaced with be increased and the timbers are free from rot and
bonded masonry. insect infestation; therefore the lintel can be retained.
Walls out of plumb/bulging
Where walls are more than 25mm out of plumb External and internal walls not bonded together In order to ensure that a lintel is free from rot, a
or bulge more than 10mm within a storey height, A common defect in properties up to the 1920’s percentage of all lintels should be exposed at
a Structural Engineer should comment on the is the lack of bonding/tie of party walls to the both ends and on the outer face for openings in
stability. The wall may need to be rebuilt or external wall. external walls.
strengthening works undertaken.
Where movement has occurred and the timber Where there is wall tie corrosion or inadequate the foundations.
lintel is inadequate, the lintel should be replaced ties, a specialist company should be employed
with either a concrete or steel lintel. to provide a report which includes measures to If a timber partition is load bearing, providing it is
overcome these defects. adequate and the loads are not being increased
Where cracking has occurred in masonry and the timber is free from rot and insect infestation,
arches, it will be necessary to rebuild the arched Where wall ties have corroded to an extent that it is the partition can remain. Where there are defects,
construction. In cases where failure has occurred serious enough to threaten the stability of the wall or i.e. the floor sags on the line of the partition and
due to the low pitch of the arch, it may be building, a Structural Engineer should be appointed there is distortion of door heads, then additional
necessary to incorporate a lintel. to determine the necessary remedial works. strengthening works should be undertaken.
Wall tie corrosion 12.1.2.3 Internal Walls New door openings cut into an existing trussed
Cavity walls have been constructed since partition should be overseen by a qualified
1850, but it was not until 1920 that this form of Existing masonry Structural Engineer, as it can adversely affect the
construction was widely adopted. It is important Where a wall is adequately founded or supported triangulation of the truss.
when undertaking a conversion to confirm the on a beam which shows no signs of distress, it can
construction of the external wall. In cases where remain providing there is no increase in load onto 12.1.2.4 Timber floors above ground level
headers are incorporated into the bond of the wall. Any increase in load should be justified Existing timber floor joists can be retained within
the external brickwork, the Site Audit Surveyor by calculation. However, masonry supported on the building, providing that they are adequate
should investigate the wall construction, as many timber beams should be avoided. for their purpose.
properties in the Victorian period were built with
either a 215mm outer leaf and cavity behind, or a In older properties, it is possible that flitch beams and The following points should be considered:
215mm inner leaf, cavity and a half brick outer leaf bessemer’s may be supporting masonry walls and
with snapped headers. these should be examined by an appropriate expert • Joists are of sufficient size for the span;
to ascertain their capability to carry the load. • Load on the floor is not being increased;
Initial evidence of cavity wall failure can include • Have joists been weakened by excessive
cracking of bed joints in mortar (typically every sixth Existing studwork notching and/or drilling?;
course). This is due to the expansion of the wall tie Many properties before 1880 have trussed internal • Are the ends of joists free from rot?;
as it corrodes. partitions, usually located approximately halfway • All timbers to be treated for insect infestation
back in the depth of the property. Often, these and wood rot;
Bulging of the external leaf could also indicate that walls are load bearing and continue up through • No masonry walls are built off timber joists;
the ties have failed. the building and carry floor and roof loads on to • Appropriate strutting is provided.
Alterations to existing openings An appraisal of the existing building should be and foundations.
Where existing openings are to be filled with carried out by an experienced and qualified
masonry, the new work should be adequately Structural Engineer taking into account the Concrete framed buildings
bonded to the existing and weather resistance of proposals for the change of use. Where the building is of concrete construction,
the wall maintained. However, If it is a party wall, additional reports are needed for:
then it should comply with the requirements for This will include:
sound insulation. • Carbonation;
• Condition of the structural frame including joints; • Chlorination.
12.1.2.5 Walls of special construction • Proposals to increase loadings on the structure
If it is intended to retain walls of special and foundations; The two major causes of corrosion in concrete are
construction such as wattle and daub, tudor, mud • Alterations to existing load paths; carbonation in association with inadequate depth
walls (cob) etc. they should be altered so as • Alterations to stability systems; of cover to reinforcement and chlorine penetration,
to form a non-structural element, e.g. by the • Changes in environmental exposure; due to de-icing salts and admixtures used to
incorporation of an additional load bearing wall • Recommendations to cover additional reports accelerate the setting and hardening of concrete
or framing which provides lateral support to the and testing by specialists. in temperatures at or below freezing point.
wall and supports all structural loads previously
supported by the wall. It will also be necessary to The floor loads on the building may decrease as Carbonation involves a reaction of carbon dioxide
ensure that the wall provides an adequate barrier they will now be for domestic use only, where in the air with the free lime present in the concrete.
to the passage of rainwater into the fabric or the previously they were, for example, offices. Over a period of time this reduces the pH level of
inside of the building. the concrete.
A statement from a qualified Structural Engineer
Unfortunately, due to the inherent risks and confirming, where appropriate, that the existing With a reduction in the alkalinity, and the presence
planning conditions on these type of developments, foundation design is acceptable for the new loads of both water and oxygen, corrosion of the
it must be noted that it may not be possible for subject to the building showing no signs of distress embedded steel will occur.
LABC Warranty to provide warranty. i.e. movement, cracking etc, will be acceptable in
such circumstances. Visual surveys on concrete structures are a starting
12.1.2.6 Concrete/steel framed structures point to gather information. However, care should
Where the scheme involves converting a concrete Where the intention is to increase the load on the be taken as the concrete structure may not show
or steel framed building into dwellings, the following existing structure, e.g. by the introduction of an any obvious signs of corrosion and yet corrosion of
guidance is given. additional floor, then structural calculations should the reinforcement may be occurring.
be provided to prove the adequacy of the building
It is important that a second stage survey Alkali silica reaction (ASR) Defects in structures attributable to performance
incorporates the following: ASR occurs when the strongly alkaline cement of concrete are relatively rare in the UK. Increased
begins to dissolve susceptible sand and aggregate awareness of ASR and the publication of guidance
• Chemical tests on the concrete structure to within the concrete itself. The chemical reaction on avoidance have reduced the risk of problems in
ascertain if corrosion of the steelwork is or is likely creates a gel material which absorbs water, new buildings to very small proportions.
to occur; expands, and in turn creates tremendous
• Depth of carbonation can be assessed either pressures in the pores of the concrete surface and Consequently, on any refurbishment project where
on-site or in the laboratory and the depth of the subsequent cracking. For a damaging reaction the existing structure is concrete frame, the Site
reinforcement measured. This allows those areas to occur, the following need to be present in Audit Surveyor will request copies of the following
of risk to be identified; sufficient quantities: to identify the presence or otherwise of ASR:
• Chloride ion content can be taken by analysis
of a drilled dust sample from the concrete. • High alkali cement or a high cement content - • Desk studies undertaken to identify materials
may also arise from salt contamination during used in original construction;
Where concrete repairs are necessary, they should batching/mixing; • Core sampling and detailed chemical testing.
be carried out by a Specialist Contractor. • Reactive aggregate - siliceous materials such
as flint and quartz as well as recycled If ASR is identified, the following possible remedial
High alumina cement concrete (HACC) aggregates; works will need to be assessed by the project’s
Where HACC has been used in a building and • Moisture - exposure to rain or condensation. Design Engineer and details put to Site Audit
the intentions are to keep the existing structure Surveyors for consideration:
consideration should be given to: If any one of these factors is absent then the ASR
cannot take place. Once cracking occurs the • Critical examination of the robustness of the
• The structure being free from obvious signs structure can deteriorate further, as water entering reinforcement;
of deterioration; the cracks generates reinforcement corrosion and • Measures to the amount of water available to
• The building being weather tight; this, in conjunction with the freeze/thaw cycle, can the structure - any weatherproofing or cladding
• Structural calculations being provided to show result in additional cracking and so on. should not impair the ability of the structure to
that the floors and roof can solely carry the dry naturally;
loads imposed on them. Affected concrete often exhibits surface cracking • Limited strengthening of the structure;
in the pattern of a star and heavily loaded sections • Partial or full demolition followed by re-building.
may exhibit cracks along the line of the main
reinforcement.
Furthermore, any alterations to the weatherproof Interior steelwork - normally corrosion of Cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel structures
envelope will need to be considered to ensure unprotected steelwork within the interior of a Many older buildings which are converted into
that the concrete elements are not exposed to building is low with only superficial rusting. dwellings, e.g. warehouses, cotton mills etc. were
additional sources of moisture. built using cast iron, wrought iron or mild steel.
Providing that a visual inspection confirms this, and
Steel framed buildings the environment intends to remain dry no further When the intention is to keep the existing structural
In addition to any structural reports, a visual treatment of the steel will be required. elements, an appraisal of the existing building
inspection of the steel frame should be carried is necessary.
out to assess the extent of any corrosion of the Where the proposals involve the steelwork in
framework. a “wet” environment such as kitchens and In addition to this, the engineer should comment
bathrooms, it should be adequately protected. on the following:
Where corrosion is present, accurate measurements
can be made using an ultrasonic gauge. Data Bimetallic corrosion • Determine age of the building and materials
collected can then compare the thickness of steel This should be considered in the existing and used;
sections against the original steelwork drawings, proposed structure. • Assess how its construction has faired;
British Standards and Historical Structural Steelwork • Justify the loadings by calculation;
Handbook to ascertain if the structural frame is Bimetallic corrosion occurs where two different • Identify areas where additional testing and/or
adequate for the proposed loads. metals are in electrical contact and are bridged by opening up is necessary.
water or water containing other chemicals to form
Exterior steelwork should be inspected. Where an electrolyte. A current passes through the solution If the proposed loads remain unchanged or are
corrosion is visible, the steel can be grit blasted, from the base metal to the noble metal and as a reduced, as will probably be the case, and it
cleaned and recoated. consequence, the noble metal remains protected can be shown that the existing structure has not
and the base metal suffers increased corrosion. suffered any deterioration due to corrosion or
Perimeter steelwork in direct contact with the outer deflection of structural members, etc. the building
leaf of the building can be prone to corrosion, Where there is a possibility of this occurring or if it may only require localised structural alterations.
particularly in older properties. A sign indicating has already occurred, advice should be taken from
that this has happened is the displacement of a specialist on how to deal with it. Where the intention is to increase loads, carry out
the external masonry due to the expansion of major structural alterations, or the existing building
the steelwork caused by corrosion. During the is under designed, a Structural Engineer should
conversion process, the appropriate repairs/ comment on this and provide calculations to justify
replacement should be carried out. the proposals.
12.1.2.7 Filler joist floors 12.1.2.8 Timber roofs shown that the existing roof covering is adequate.
Many buildings of late Victorian and Edwardian
period were built with floors constructed of Surveying roof timbers Fixing of slates, tiles and the condition of existing
clinker concrete supported by embedded iron All roof timbers should be surveyed by a specialist fixings, e.g. nails and clips should be examined if
or steel joists. The concrete produced with clinker and any necessary treatment carried out. the intention is to keep the roof covering.
aggregate was porous and therefore provided Particular attention should be given to rafter feet,
poor corrosive protection to the metal. wall plates and valley timbers as these often show A Specialist Report will be required to confirm the
signs of rot. adequacy of the existing roof covering and to
The clinker also contains particles of un-burnt determine whether timber treatment is required.
or partially burnt coke or coal which contain Roof structure Adequate ventilation should be provided as
substantial proportions of sulphur. As the concrete It is essential that the roof structure has adequate appropriate.
is porous, the sulphur oxidises to form Sulphur strength, stiffness and dimensional accuracy
Dioxide (SO2) and if moisture is present, this then appropriate for the new roof covering. All Where it is intended to re-use existing roofing tiles or
forms Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4). Where floors have strengthening work should be designed by a slates, they should have a life span of at least
been subject to the weather for any length of time, Structural Engineer. 15 years.
severe corrosion of the embedded iron or steelwork
is likely to have occurred. Common problems encountered include: In the case of replacement roof coverings where
no extra load is incurred, it may still be necessary
When considering a conversion in a building • Excessive spans of rafters, purlins, binder and to strengthen the roof structure if the roof has
which has filler joist floors, it is important to firstly ceiling joists; deflected.
investigate if the floors have been subject to damp • Inadequate ties between rafters and ceiling ties;
conditions and whether any significant corrosion • Insufficient number of collar ties at purlin level; 12.1.2.9 Claddings
has taken place. • Decay of rafter feet and valley beams;
• Settlement of purlin supports; Weather resistance of walls and cladding
Particular attention should also be made during the • Lateral spread of raised-tie roofs. Existing solid brick or stone walls are unlikely to
conversion to ensure that the floor remains dry and be acceptable as weather resisting, although
this could include providing a temporary covering Roof coverings consideration of the exposure category of the
if removal of the existing roof is necessary. Systematic replacement of all roof coverings, building and porosity of the masonry will be given,
including associated support systems such as i.e. do existing non-Gypsum based internal linings
battens, felt, flat roof decking, fascias, soffits and allow for greater insulation and evaporation than
flashings should be carried out, unless it can be Gypsum Plasters alone. It is anticipated that in all
buildings, at least one of the additional treatments Systems are available that are installed on • Surface condensation caused by improvements
noted below, will be required and this must include the inside of existing walls to prevent moisture to draught proofing of the building;
appropriate insulation. penetration reaching the internal accommodation. • Interstitial condensation caused by moisture
These include: laden air passing from the dwelling to within the
However, all solid masonry wall situations will require fabric of the structure and condensing on
a Specialist’s Report to identify the extent of any • Independent metal or timber framed systems – cooler surfaces;
necessary remedial treatment. these should not be fixed to the existing • Increased risk of damp penetration caused by
masonry walls, but fixed at the “head and filling of cavities with insulation;
External treatments base” to avoid direct contact. Ventilation • Maintaining the robustness of the external and
Existing claddings can be retained if it can be should be provided to avoid build up of internal wall surfaces by the provision of
shown that: condensation between the masonry and the adequate mechanical protection over
inner lining system; insulation materials, e.g. externally applied
• The system is maintaining the integrity of the • New Internal Walls – these would normally be insulation systems with render coat mechanical
building; formed in blockwork and must be adequately protection;
• It is adequately fixed and the expected life founded and where necessary tied to the • Avoidance of cold bridges around openings
span of the fixings where appropriate is in retained and new elements of structure. and where structural elements extend through
excess of 15 years; thickness of the building envelope;
• The cladding material is free from any defects; Control of damp penetration • Repeating thermal bridging must be
• Adequate provision for movement has Measures should be taken to ensure that thermal considered, e.g. internal metal framed walls
been allowed. insulation in cavities does not encourage the should be used in conjunction with thermally
passage of damp from the ground or from the insulated plaster board.
If the above situations cannot be satisfied, then a exterior of the building to the inside of the building.
new external cladding or render system will need 12.1.2.10 Render application finishes
to be installed. Thermal insulation of walls and claddings
Various methods exist to upgrade the thermal Plaster for conversions/refurbishment
Internal treatments insulation of existing walls and floors. Regardless Where the condition and bond of the existing
An alternative to preventing moisture penetration of the methods adopted, it is essential that risks plaster can be shown to be adequate, it can
by using externally applied claddings and renders associated with increased thermal insulation are remain with the exception of the following:
are internally applied methods. minimised, including:
• Where rising damp is present; be used in conjunction with chemically injected

• Where a chemical damp proof course is damp proof courses.
installed;
• At the junction of external walls and party walls The plaster should not bridge the damp proof
to see if they are properly bonded; course or be in contact with the ground floor slab.
• Above openings to examine the make up and
condition of lintels; Final redecoration should not be carried out until
• Where there is a possibility of bond timbers residual moisture has disappeared. Matt emulsion
which may have decayed; paint is recommended for use during this period.
• Where the wall is solid and the plaster is
Gypsum based. Internally drilled holes which are concealed by
skirting boards, etc. should not be plugged. Other
Where a chemically injected damp proof course visible holes and external holes should be plugged.
is installed, it is necessary to remove the plaster
one meter above the DPC level or 600mm above Rendering for conversion/refurbishment
any apparent salt line/dampness, whichever is Where the condition and bond of the existing
the higher. render can be shown to be adequate, it can
remain subject to the following exceptions:
Re-plastering work should be delayed as long as
possible in order to encourage rapid evaporation • If the render bridges the DPC;
of residual moisture and the building should be well • Above door and window openings where it is
ventilated during the drying period. necessary to examine the type and condition of
the lintels;
Plastering work must comply with independent • Where there are signs of structural movement in
third party and the chemical damp proof course the building and further investigation is required.
manufacturer’s recommendations. Recommended
plasters usually incorporate adhesives to increase
resistance to the passage of hygroscopic salts from
the wall into the plaster. They should not, however,
act as a vapour barrier. Gypsum plaster should not
12.2 NEW ELEMENTS CONNECTING TO EXISTING STRUCTURES
Workmanship Design
ii. All work to be carried out by a technically competent person ii. There should be a Party Wall Agreement in accordance with the
in a workmanlike manner. Party Wall Act (Please note that this requirement will be relevant
where the applicant is not the owner of the adjoining property);
Materials iii. The separating wall between the new and existing building must
i. All materials should be stored correctly in a manner which meet relevant requirements of the Building Regulations;
will not cause damage or deterioration of the product; iv. The existing foundations and wall structure must be suitable to
ii. All materials, products and building systems shall be support any proposed increased loading resulting from the
appropriate and suitable for their intended purpose; construction of the new dwelling;
iii. The structure shall, unless specifically agreed otherwise v. The junction of the new walls to the existing walls must ensure that
with the warranty provider, have a life of not less than 60 dampness cannot track back into the new home or the existing home;
years. Individual components and assemblies, not integral vi. An effective damp proof course should be present in the existing wall,
to the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in any linked to the new damp proof course and damp proof membrane of
circumstances less than 15 years. the new home;
vii. At the junction of the existing and new structures, detailing should
allow for differential movement without cracking. Any settlement
should be limited to 2mm-3mm, which would not normally adversely
affect the roof covering;
viii. The materials used for construction must meet the relevant
Standards and Euro-Codes.
12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.3 The separating wall between the new and 12.2.5 The junction of the new walls to the existing
A number of residential developments are existing building must meet relevant walls must ensure that dampness cannot
attached to existing buildings. The existing elements requirements of the Building Regulations track back into the new home or the
that form part of the new structure must meet Confirmation should be provided where the existing home
the functional requirements of the warranty. The existing wall is to be upgraded to meet current The detailing of this junction is critical to ensure
details below give some guidance on the minimum Building Regulations, in particular, meeting the that moisture ingress does not occur between the
information and standards required to meet the relevant sound insulation and fire separation new walls and existing walls. Typical details that are
functional requirements. requirements. The structural integrity of the existing acceptable are indicated in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
wall and its resistance to ground moisture should
12.2.2 There should be a Party Wall Agreement also meet current standards.
in accordance with the Party Wall Act
(Please note that this requirement will be 12.2.4 The existing foundations and wall structure
relevant where the applicant is not the must be suitable to support any proposed
owner of the adjoining property) increased loading resulting from the
It is highly likely that improvements to an existing construction of the new dwelling
wall are required to meet the requirements of the Foundations to the existing wall should be exposed
warranty. This may include underpinning, injected and assessed for suitability to support additional
damp proof courses and internal linings. A signed loadings. It is important to protect existing
Party Wall Agreement provides evidence that foundations at all times and care must be taken
the adjacent building owner consents to any not to “undermine” existing foundations when
potential alterations. clearing the site or reducing levels.
Further guidance on the Party Wall Act can Where existing foundations require underpinning a
be found on the Planning Portal website design by a Chartered Structural Engineer should
www.planningportal.gov.uk be provided and approved by the Site Audit
Surveyor prior to work commencing on site.
A Party Wall Act agreement is not required if the
developer owns the adjacent building which will The existing wall should also be appraised to
be connected to the new development. determine that it is structurally stable and suitable
to support additional loadings.
Figure 8 – Bonding new walls to existing solid masonry wall
12.2.6 An effective damp proof course should be different, e.g. new dwelling pile and beam/existing
present in the existing wall, linked to dwelling, traditional strip foundation, the new
the new damp proof course and damp dwelling should be completely independent to
proof membrane of the new home the existing dwelling.
Acceptable existing DPC’s are considered as:
• A continuous felt or proprietary damp proof

course material;
• A chemical injected DPC supported by an
insurance back guarantee;
• A slate DPC is considered as acceptable if the
existing wall incorporates an independent
wall lining system to the inner face of the
new dwelling.
The new DPC should lap the existing DPC by at

least 100mm.
Figure 9 – Bonding new walls to existing cavity masonry wall

12.2.7 At the junction of the existing and new
structures, detailing should allow for
differential movement without cracking.
Any settlement should be limited to

2mm-3mm, which would not normally
adversely affect the roof covering
Typical details of bonding new walls to existing are
indicated in Figures 8 and 9.
In order to prevent excessive differential

movement, the new dwelling should have the
same foundation type as the existing dwelling
foundation type. Where the foundation types are
CONTENTS
13.1 THE CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES
13.2 LOW CARBON/LOW ENERGY HOMES
13.3 AIR TIGHTNESS AND ROBUSTNESS
13.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
This chapter of the Technical Manual is provided to give guidance in

relation to sustainability and is not intended as a prescriptive section.
13.1 THE CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES Relationship between total percentage points score Category Credits Average Achievable
and Code level available weighting points
factor
The Code for Sustainable Homes (CfSH) is the Total percentage points score Code levels
(equal to or greater than) Energy 31 1.17 36.4
model within England and Wales that is used to
improve the sustainability of new homes through 36 points Level 1 Water 6 1.50 9.0
reducing carbon emissions, by developing 48 points Level 2 Materials 24 0.30 7.2
sustainable methods of construction. It is part of the 57 points Level 3 Surface water 4 0.55 2.2
run-off
Government’s continued commitment to address 68 points Level 4
Waste 8 0.80 6.4
climate change. 84 points Level 5
Pollution 4 0.70 2.8
90 points Level 6
Health and 12 1.17 14.0
The Code measures the sustainability of a home Table 1 – Relationship between total points score and Code level wellbeing
against nine different design categories. There are Management 9 1.11 10.0
mandatory and tradable categories within these Ecology 9 1.33 12.0
that allow the client to come up with the best The CfSH will assess the property against nine
Total: 100
possible solution to suit the property in question. different categories. Each category is allocated
Table 2 – Category credit weightings
a number of credits and a weighting factor which
The CfSH has six different levels which can be met. then determines how many points are scored. The
The levels range from Level 1 which is the lowest average weighting factors are shown in Table 2
through to Level 6 (zero carbon) which is the top and the various sub-categories are analysed in
level achievable. There are a minimum of points Table 3.
to be achieved for each level as shown in
Table 1. There is not a specific requirement to Various sub-categories within each category
achieve a level and a ‘nil-rating’ certificate can are mandatory (as highlighted in Table 3) and
be issued if a Code assessment is not carried out; have to be achieved as a minimum. The optional
however, specific Code ratings can be required for categories are then used in a trade-off basis to
social housing schemes and also public housing in pick up the necessary points required for the Code
certain areas of the country. level in question.
Summary of environmental categories and issues The Code for Sustainable Homes assessment process:
• Pre assessment (optional) is a basic report that
Categories Issue
can be used as evidence by the Developer for
Energy and CO2 emissions Dwelling emission rate (M)
planning consent;
Fabric energy efficiency (M)
Energy display devices • Site registration (required) is the version of the
Drying space Code in use at the point of registration and will
Energy labelled white goods
External lighting remain the version that the site is assessed under;
Low or zero carbon (LZC) technologies • Design stage assessment (optional) is a process
Cycle storage
Home office where the CfSH is based upon the design
drawings, specification and commitments
Water Indoor water use (M)
External water use of the Developer. This will result in an ‘interim’
Materials Environmental impact of materials (M)

certificate; (Developers new to the CfSH may
Responsible sourcing of materials – basic building elements struggle to achieve the desired Code level if
Responsible sourcing of materials – finishing elements
they do not carry out this process);
Surface water run-off Management of surface water run-off from developments (M) • Post construction stage (required) process based
Flood risk
on the confirmation through site records and/or
Waste Storage of non-recyclable waste and recyclable household waste (M) visual inspection resulting in the ‘final’ Code for
Construction waste management (M)
Composting Sustainable Homes Certificate of Compliance.
Pollution Global warming potential (GWP) of insulants

All Code for Sustainable Homes Assessors must be
Health and wellbeing Daylighting
accredited to an approved accreditation scheme.
Sound insulation
Private space These accreditation schemes undertake quality
Lifetime homes (M)
assurance on behalf of DCLG.
Management Home user guide
Considerate constructor’s scheme
Construction site impacts Further information and online Code calculator
Security For further information on The Code for Sustainable
Ecology Ecological value of site Homes and an online Code calculator, we refer
Ecological enhancement you to the following site:
Protection of ecological features
Change in ecological value of site http://www.labcwarranty.co.uk/codecalculator
Building footprint
Table 3 – Summary of environmental categories and issues (M denotes mandatory element)

13.2 LOW CARBON/LOW ENERGY HOMES method of assessing the energy performance of Energy Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD).
any new property. A SAP Calculation measures
What is zero carbon? the CO² emissions and energy efficiency of a Energy efficient dwellings
There is currently much debate as to the true residential unit. The results are used to produce an Energy saving within a house can be designed
definition of zero carbon, but at present, a zero Energy Performance Certificate (EPC). SAP 2009 specifically to meet the type of house lived in (such
carbon home is defined as meeting a dwelling calculates the typical annual energy costs for as a two bed terrace or a five bed detached), so
emission rate to Level 5 of The Code for Sustainable space and water heating, and the SAP 2005 model that the people living within that house can get the
Homes. A Code Level 5 property will have a also takes into account lighting. greatest benefits from the energy saved. Various
100% improvement over a Building Regulations types of systems can be applied to the dwelling
compliant property. SAP Calculations and EPCs are mandatory in question to help reduce the energy CO²
requirements on a new residential development living costs.
True zero carbon is a home that meets the emission and must be included on any Building Regulations
rates to Level 6 of The Code for Sustainable Homes. submissions to comply with Part L. EPCs are Typical SAP standards to meet compliance
Code Level 6 properties have ‘Zero net CO² calculated from the SAP Calculations produced Table 4 shows the minimum allowable standards
emissions’ which means that all energy consumed at as-built stage. The calculations also state how for U-Values within the different elements of the
in the dwellings including cooking, and appliances much carbon dioxide the dwelling emits and is building shown in the SAP Calculation. The air
is provided or offset by a sustainable or renewable called the dwelling emission rate. The dwelling permeability testing can be given a default reading
source. emission rate must be below the target emission of 15m3/h/m² if the air permeability test is not carried
rate (TER) for the dwelling. out. Otherwise, the reading of 10m3/h/m2 must be
To achieve Level 6 of the Code for Sustainable met at the as-built stage when the air permeability
Homes, the house will need to contain a significant EPCs show how energy efficient a home is on test is completed. (See Chapter 13.3 - Air Tightness
amount of the latest energy saving technologies a scale of A-G. The most efficient homes which and Robustness for definition of air permeability).
such as PV, solar and hydro power. These will have the lowest fuel bills are in band A. The
technologies will need to be fitted alongside the Certificate also shows on a scale of A-G the impact These are minimum standards as defined in Part
other various energy features such as roof, floor the home has on the environment. Better-rated L1a 2010 of the Building Regulations; however for
and wall structures that have very low U-Values, to homes should have less impact through carbon the dwelling to meet the required DER (Dwelling
name just a few. dioxide (CO²) emissions. The Certificate includes CO² Emissions Rate), improvements to the dwelling
recommendations on ways to improve the home’s over and above these standards may be required.
SAP calculations and EPC energy efficiency to save you money and help Typical examples of compliant dwellings can be
Standard Assessment Procedure, or SAP as it the environment. All newly constructed dwellings found in Tables 5-9.
is usually called, is the Government approved must have an EPC to meet the requirements of the
**U-Value Element Limiting U-Value Improved U-Value specification

The U-Value is the measurement of heat Walls 0.30W/m2k Mid floor flat U-Value Area
transmission through a material or assembly of Floors 0.25W/m k 2
External wall 0.18W/m K 2
60m2
materials. The U-Value of a material is a gauge on Roof 0.20W/m k 2
Sheltered wall to corridor 0.17W/m K 2
17m2
how well heat passes through the material and the Party walls Solid, unfilled no Party wall Fully filled 12m2
edging, unfilled
lower the U-Value; the greater the resistance to Thermal bridging** y Value = 0.08
edging, fully filled
heat, which therefore has a better insulating value. External door 1.40W/m2K 2m2
Windows, doors and roof lights 2.00W/m2k
Windows 1.20W/m2K 8m2
Air permeability 10m3/h/m2
**Thermal bridging Air permeability** 7m /h/m
3 2
Table 4 – Limiting standards

Thermal bridging and compliance with Building Heating 90% Efficient gas combi,
with delayed Start
Regulations require that thermal bridging be taken thermostat & weather
into account in SAP and SBEM calculations. The Mid-floor flat compensator
junctions that need to be accounted for include The tables below show a typical SAP compliance Low energy lighting 100%
wall-floor junctions, wall-roof junctions, lintels, pass for standard typical dwellings. The typical Result Pass
jambs, sills, intermediate floors, balconies, corners, U-Values and limiting factors have been lowered Table 5 – Mid-floor flat: example of compliance Part L England
and Wales 2010
party walls and other significant junctions. Their than in Table 4, in order that the dwelling meets the
effects are expressed in terms of Ψ-values, or linear required carbon emission standards.
thermal transmittance values, and, unless they Improved U-Value specification
are recognised accredited construction details, Semi-detached house U-Value Area
they should be evaluated using thermal simulation Ground floor 0.15W/m K 2
48m2
software, following agreed conventions and External wall 0.18W/m K 2
102.5m2
standards. A standard default value of Ψ-Value Ceiling level insulation 0.10W/m2K 48m2
0.15 can be entered into the SAP, although if Party wall Fully filled 53.5m2
accredited construction details are confirmed, the Thermal bridging** y Value = 0.08
Ψ-value can be entered manually. External door 1.80W/m2K 1.89m2

Windows 1.40W/m K 2
10.5m2
Air permeability** 8m3/h/m2
Heating 90% Efficient gas combi
Low energy lighting 100%
Result Pass
Table 6 – Semi-detached: example of compliance Part L England
and Wales 2010
Improved U-Value specification Improved U-Value specification Renewable energy reports

Detached house U-Value Area Mid-terrace house U-Value Area Local Planning Authorities may require
Ground floor 0.15W/m K 2
48m 2
Ground floor 0.15W/m K 2
48m 2 developments to obtain a percentage of energy
102.5m 2
51m 2 from renewable sources which can be shown via
Ceiling level insulation 0.10W/m2K 48m2 Ceiling level insulation 0.10W/m2K 48m2 a renewable energy report. In preparing energy
Party wall Fully filled 53.5m 2
Party wall Fully filled 90m 2
statements, the following steps are involved:
Thermal bridging** y Value = 0.08 Thermal bridging** y Value = 0.08
External door 1.80W/m2K 1.89m2 External door 1.80W/m2K 1.89m2 • Determine the target energy performance of
Windows 1.40W/m K 2
10.5m 2
Windows 1.40W/m K 2
14.5m2 the building compared to Building Regulations;
Air permeability** 8m3/h/m2 Air permeability** 7m3/h/m2 • Identify the energy saving measures that will be
Heating 90% Efficient gas combi Heating 90% Efficent gas combi, employed to achieve the target;
Low energy lighting 100% with a delayed start • Estimate the likely carbon emissions from the
thermostat
Result Pass building;
Table 7 – Detached: example of compliance Part L England and • Consider the implementation of low or zero
Result Pass
Wales 2010 carbon technologies.
Table 9 – Mid-terrace: example of compliance Part L England and
Wales 2010
Improved U-Value specification

End-terrace house U-Value Area
Ground floor 0.15W/m2K 75m2
External wall 0.20W/m2K 220m2
Ceiling level insulation 0.10W/m K 2

75m2
Thermal bridging** y Value = 0.08
External door 1.80W/m2K 1.89m2
Windows 1.40W/m K 2
30m2
Air permeability** 6m3/h/m2
Heating 90% Efficient gas combi,
with time & temperature
zone control
Result Pass
Table 8 – End-terrace: example of compliance Part L England and
Wales 2010
13.3 AIR TIGHTNESS AND ROBUSTNESS An assumed air leakage rate of 15 m3/(m2.hr) approach to design, construction and testing for
@50Pa can be used if the development consists of new homes.
The requirements of Part L within the Building two units or less.
Regulations means that new build houses within The details contain checklists which should be used
England have to be tested for air tightness. The Developer can build to accredited by the Designer, Constructor and Building Control
construction details which then reduces the Body to demonstrate compliance with Part L.
What is air leakage? number of air pressure tests that will be required.
Air leakage is the uncontrolled flow of air through If accredited construction details are not used,
gaps and cracks in the fabric of a building. Too then the number of tests required on a new build
much air leakage will lead to preventable heat development is as per below:
loss and discomfort to the occupants from cold
draughts. With the increasing need for energy • Four or less dwelling types – one of each to
efficient buildings and also the requirements of be tested;
Building Regulations, air tightness within a building • Between five and 40 types – test two of each;
has become much more of an issue. • Above 40 types – test 5% of each.
Air testing requirements Houses with low air pressure testing results <5 m3/
Air pressure testing is a requirement of Part L of (m2.hr) @50Pa will benefit the homeowner with:
the Building Regulations. Testing is carried out
when the properties are finished but unfurnished. • Lower fuel bills;
The windows must be fitted along with the skirting • Better living conditions;
boards, kitchen and bathroom. • Environmentally friendly homes.
The design air permeability for each dwelling Accredited construction details
type within a development will be determined by Accredited construction details have been
Designers as part of the overall DER calculation developed to assist the construction industry in
produced by the SAP Calculations. The maximum achieving the performance standard requirements
design air permeability allowable is 10 m /(m .hr)
3 2
to comply with Part L of the Building Regulations.
@50Pa. If the test result does not meet the
requirement, then further testing and remedial They focus on issues such as insulation and air
works will be required. tightness and help to encourage a common
13.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES Advantages: 13.4.4 Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity systems use running water to
13.4.1 Solar • It has a good pay-back period and reduced generate electricity, whether it’s a small stream or
Solar water heating systems use heat from the sun installation costs. a larger river. Small or micro hydroelectricity systems,
to warm domestic hot water. A conventional boiler also called hydropower systems or just hydro
or immersion heater can be used to make the Disadvantages: systems, can produce enough electricity for lighting
water hotter, or to provide hot water when solar and electrical appliances in an average home.
energy is unavailable. • The pay-back is reliant on renewable heat
incentives from Local Authorities, etc. which Advantages:
Advantages: may be reduced or withdrawn;
• Installation outlay is still expensive. • The source is a constant flow of energy.
• It is a cheap source of water heating in
comparison to other renewables. 13.4.3 Wind turbines Disadvantages:
Wind turbines harness the power of the wind and use
Disadvantages: it to generate electricity. 40% of all the wind energy in • Reliant on nearby flowing water and is therefore
Europe blows over the UK, making it an ideal country rarely used.
• Reliant on a south unshaded orientation for for domestic turbines (known as ‘micro-wind’ or
optimum results; ‘small-wind’ turbines). A typical system on a site within 13.4.5 Heat pumps
• Large cylinder capacities are required. an exposed area could easily generate power for Ground source heat pumps use the natural
your lights and electrical appliances. energy stored in the earth to heat your home.
13.4.2 Solar/Photovoltaic
Solar panel electricity systems, also known as solar Advantages: Air to water heat pumps are intended to be the
photovoltaic (PV), capture the sun’s energy using sole source of heating and hot water production
photovoltaic cells. These cells do not need direct • Ideal for exposed areas of land. for the home. Air to water heat pumps use the
sunlight to work as they can still generate some constant energy available in the air with a
electricity on a cloudy day. The cells convert the Disadvantages: refrigerant circuit, which allows the temperature
sunlight into electricity, which can be used to run to be improved to a suitable level for heating or
household appliances and lighting. • Not suitable for urban locations. hot water for the home.
Air to air heat pumps provide heating and

cooling for the home. The heat pump includes an
outdoor and an indoor unit, which convert latent

energy in the air into heat for your home. The
outdoor unit extracts the energy in air outside the
property. This heat, absorbed by refrigerant
solution within the unit, is turned into hot air by
the indoor unit and circulated within the property.
Advantages:
• Claimed high levels of energy efficiency;

• Can be used to heat and cool a building.
Disadvantages:
• Does not generate the same heat output as

traditional boilers;
• Building fabric requires high levels of insulation
and air tightness for optimum results.
TECHNICAL MANUAL: REGISTRATION FORM
CONTACT DETAILS
Contact name
Company name
Address
Postcode
Email address
Telephone number
Surveyor / sales person Technical Manual number
Technical Manual 2012 – TS-011-9.00-010412

T 0845 054 0505 F 0845 054 0501 E enquiries@labcwarranty.co.uk
MD Insurance Services Ltd. is the scheme administrator for LABC Warranty and is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority. Registered in England No: 3642459.

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Version 5

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 4: SITE INVESTIGATION REPORTS, GEOLOGY CHAPTER 7: SUPERSTRUCTURE

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION 5.5 RAFT FOUNDATIONS CHAPTER 9: BUILDING SERVICES

CHAPTER 10: FINISHES

CHAPTER 11: EXTERNAL WORKS

CHAPTER 12: CONVERSION AND REFURBISHMENT

CHAPTER 13: SUSTAINABILITY

This chapter provides guidance on the required standard of finishes

Figure 2 – Level of bed joints

1.1.3 Thickness of bed joint

joints by more than 5mm.

1.1.4 Perpendicular alignment

1.1.9 Fair-faced brickwork and blockwork

should be to have one finished side only. A neat

1.1.10 Tile hanging

1.2 INTERNAL WALLS AND CEILINGS 1.3 JUNCTIONS

The level of floors can be a maximum of 4mm out

Figure 7 – Level of floor

Figure 6 – Maximum deviation in walls and ceilings

1.5 DOORS AND WINDOWS

1.5.1 Doors and windows

The maximum out of level tolerance is 5mm for

Figure 8 – Gaps and distortion in doors

Where it is intended for the reveals to be square,

Figure 9 – Distortion in windows/reveals

1.5.2 Glazing 1.6 SKIRTINGS 1.8 EXTERNAL WORKS

GUIDANCE 2.1.2 Timber durability

Figure 1 – Storage of timber on-site

Fir Douglas (North America) C16-C24 Wych N/A

2.1.4 Timber treatment 2.1.5 Metal fixings

Figure 2 – Pre-treated timber exposing un-treated end grain

GUIDANCE 2.2.2 Ready mixed concrete

snow and ice.

Figure 3 – Cold weather working

Reinforcing bars and mesh should be placed in

Figure 6 – Ready mixed concrete

Site mixed concrete

Figure 8 – Position of bars on reinforced concrete slab

Reinforcing cover 2.2.8 Admixtures Admixtures in cold weather

2.2.11 Curing of concrete

The speed at which concrete mixes cure depend

To prevent concrete cutting too rapidly then after

in hot or adverse weather conditions.

Standards referred to:

• BS 8110 Structural Use of Concrete;

2.3 OTHER COMPONENTS

GUIDANCE Finishes including rendering, plastering and screeds

Bricks should be of an appropriate durability to

Figure 11 – Protection of masonry walls

Use Brick type Notes on mortar

Standards referred to:

A. Use below or near

C. External walls with high

Table 6 – Suitability of mortar

CHAPTER 3: MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION (MMC)

3.1 MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

to the structure, may have a lesser durability but not in

Volumetric Closed panels Note: