Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review on Integrated Renewable Energy System based power

generation for stand-alone applications: Configurations, storage
options, sizing methodologies and control
Anurag Chauhan n, R.P. Saini
Alternate Hydro Energy Center, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Uneconomical extension of the grid has led to generation of electric power at the end user facility and
Received 3 March 2014 has been proved to be cost effective and to an extent efficient. With augmented significance on eco-
Received in revised form friendly technologies the use of renewable energy sources such as micro-hydro, wind, solar, biomass and
9 May 2014
biogas is being explored. This paper presents an extensive review on various issues related to Integrated
Accepted 21 May 2014
Available online 14 June 2014
Renewable Energy System (IRES) based power generation. Issues related to integration configurations,
storage options, sizing methodologies and system control for energy flow management are discussed in
Keywords: detail. For stand-alone applications integration of renewable energy sources, performed through DC
Renewable energy coupled, AC coupled or hybrid DC–AC coupled configurations, are studied in detail. Based on the
Integrated system
requirement of storage duration in isolated areas, storage technology options can be selected for
Load
integrated systems. Uncertainties involved in designing an effective IRES based power generation system
Demand
Stand-alone applications for isolated areas is accounted due to highly dynamic nature of availability of sources and the demand at
site. Different methodologies adopted and reported in literature for sizing of the system components are
presented. Distributed control, centralized and hybrid control schemes for energy flow management in
IRES have also been discussed.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2. Integration configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.1. DC coupled configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.2. AC coupled configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.3. Hybrid DC–AC coupled configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3. Options for storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1. Battery storage system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3. Super capacitors energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.4. Flywheel energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.5. Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.7. Hydrogen storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4. Mathematical model for renewable energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1. Mathematical model for wind energy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2. Mathematical model for Micro Hydro Power system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3. Mathematical model for solar photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4. Mathematical model for biomass gasifier system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5. Mathematical model for biogas system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 8171015620.
E-mail address: anurag.chauhan36@gmail.com (A. Chauhan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.079
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
100 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

5. Unit sizing and cost optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.1. Criteria for unit sizing and cost optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.1.1. Economic criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.1.2. Power reliability analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2. Sizing methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2.1. Artificial intelligence (AI) approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2.2. Multi objective design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.3. Iterative approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.4. Analytical method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2.5. Probabilistic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.6. Graphical construction method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.7. Commercial available computer tools for unit sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6. System control for energy flow management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.1. Centralized control arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2. Distributed control arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3. Hybrid centralized and distributed control arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7. Discussions and findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8. Challenges and future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

1. Introduction technology, renewable energy sources like solar, wind, Micro

Requirement of energy in its most suitable form is the need of
millions of people throughout the globe. It can be fuel, used in
transportation, electrical energy for lighting loads, etc. With the
beginning of 21st century, industrialization has raised many folds
compared to 18th century; this has resulted in a massive scale
extraction of fossil fuels at an alarming pace globally. The global
climate change has added to the problem of scarcity of fossil
fuels. Now it is time to look into the solution of energy crisis,
created by the reduction of fossil fuels without altering the
climate behavior. In stand-alone mode, transportation of conven-
tional energy sources (like coal, oil, and natural gas) is quite
difficult and grid extension is also not cost effective due to
remoteness and difficult terrain. Renewable energy is the most
appropriate solution to supply energy in isolated areas. Utiliza-
tion of locally available resources is the best possible option to
meet the energy requirement. Depending on the site conditions,
single technology or aggregated technology would be selected in
stand-alone mode.
Single technology based system (solar photovoltaic/wind/
small hydro) is a viable option to supply energy in isolated areas.
Un-electrified rural areas like village hamlets or small villages
that are far away from the utility grid can be electrified by single
technology. In plane remote areas, possible schemes are solar
photovoltaic based system, wind energy system etc. Biomass
gasifier/biogas based system are suitable for forest remote areas
and Micro Hydro Power (MHP) based scheme is appropriate for
remote hilly regions. Presently, rooftop solar photovoltaic sys-
tems are popular in urban areas to meet out energy demand of a
building. Renewable energy resources are highly site-specific and
intermittent in nature as some of the energy sources are available
in abundance during winter and others during summer. There-
fore, as demand increases in stand-alone mode, single technology
based system are associated with high system cost and low
reliability. In order to deal with such limitations of single
technology based system, the concept of Integrated Renewable
Energy System (IRES) has been evolved for power generation in
stand-alone applications [1].
Integrated Renewable Energy System (IRES) has been pro-
posed by various researchers to electrify remote areas [2–6]. In
IRES, energy demand of a remote area is met by using energy
potential of locally available renewable energy sources. In this
Hydro Power (MHP), biomass, biogas etc. can be considered for
power generation. IRES have the potential to aggregate benefits
such as energy efficiency and energy conservation, resulting from
the combination of renewable energy sources. Integrated use of
different renewable energy resources minimizes energy storage
requirement, increases reliability of power supply and quality of
power. For stand-alone applications, these systems are always
incorporated with storage devices in order to manage the
stochastic behavior of renewable energy sources like solar and
wind. Wind–solar–MHP based integrated system is shown in
Fig. 1. Control system is the heart of IRES that provides the
information and communication among various components of
system. Control system regulates the output of renewable energy
sources and also, generates the signals for scheduling of storage
subsystem and dump load. It protects the storage system from
overcharging and it help to operate the storage system in
prescribed limit. Whenever surplus energy is available, it is sent
to storage subsystem to store the surplus energy and if storage
system if fully charged, it is wasted in dump load that can be
utilized in cooking, water heating, baking etc. Under condition
when demand exceeds generation, stored energy is used in order
to fulfill deficit load demand.
Some remote places have not sufficient availability of renew-
able energy resources, under such conditions it is required to add
some conventional option like diesel/petrol/gasoline based gen-
erator, along with renewable energy resources to fulfill load
demand. As diesel generator based integrated system pollutes
the environment, it is therefore analysis of green house gas
emission level must be carried out. This scheme is not appro-
priate for hilly terrain and remote areas as problems associated
with transportation of fuel.
This paper presents an extensive review on various issues
related to IRES in stand-alone mode, like integration configura-
tions, storage options, sizing methodologies and system control of
IRES. Various integration configurations for integrating renewable
energy sources are given in Section 2. Section 3 deals with the
storage technology options for integrated system. Mathematical
model for energy conversion of renewable energy sources is given
in Section 4. Criteria for sizing of system components and various
sizing methodologies are discussed in detail in Section 5. System
control schemes of IRES for energy flow management are given in
Section 6. Discussions and findings of review work of IRES is
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 101

Fig. 1. Schematic of wind–solar–MHP based integrated system.

Small Hydro DC Bus

AC / DC
Converter DC Loads

Wind

AC/DC or
DC / AC
DC/DC Converter AC Loads
Converter

Solar

DC /DC Bidirectional Storage

Converter Converter system

Fig. 2. DC coupled configuration of small hydro–wind–solar based integrated system.

presented in Section 7. Finally, challenges and future scope in the
design and development of IRES based power generation for
stand-alone applications are discussed in Section 8.
2. Integration configurations
All renewable energy sources have their own different operat-
ing characteristics, it is necessary to make a standard procedure
for integrating renewable energy sources in integrated system.
Generally, there are three possible configurations to integrate
different renewable energy sources viz: DC coupled configuration,
AC coupled configuration, Hybrid coupled configuration [7,8].
2.1. DC coupled configuration
This configuration has only one DC bus and all renewable
energy sources are connected to the bus by proper power electro-
nics interfacing circuits. Energy sources producing DC power are
directly connected to DC bus. DC loads are served from DC bus
through DC/DC converters to maintain constant DC voltage level at
the user end. This configuration can also supply power to AC loads
through an inverter. DC coupled scheme is simple as synchroniza-
tion is not required to integrate various energy sources. In this
scheme, under the condition when inverter fails then whole
system will unable to supply energy to AC load. This problem
might be eliminated by using several small rating synchronized
102 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

PFAC Bus

Wind
AC Loads
DC/AC or
AC/AC
Converter

Solar AC/DC
DC Loads
Converter

DC/AC
Converter

Bidirectional Storage
Converter system

Fig. 3. AC coupled configuration of wind–solar based integrated system.

DC Bus AC Bus
Solar
Wind

DC/DC
Converter

Small Hydro
Storage Bidirectional DC/AC
system Converter

DC/DC
DC Loads
Converter
AC Loads

Fig. 4. Hybrid coupled configuration of small hydro–wind–solar based integrated system.

inverters, connected in parallel to supply AC power [9]. A DC coupled
configuration of small hydro–wind–solar based integrated system is
given in Fig. 2.
2.2. AC coupled configuration
This integration configuration can be categorized into two
configurations as power frequency AC coupled (PFAC) and high
frequency AC (HFAC) coupled. Schematic of PFAC coupled config-
uration of wind–solar based integrated system is shown in Fig. 3.
In this configuration, different energy sources are connected to
power frequency AC bus through appropriate power electronics
circuits. Storage system is connected to bus through bidirectional
converter. AC loads are directly connected to bus and DC loads are
connected to PFAC bus through AC/DC converter. Synchronization
among various system components is not required in PFAC based
coupled system. In high frequency AC (HFAC) coupled configura-
tion, different sources are coupled to HFAC bus. This configuration
is extensively used in high frequency loads like airplanes, sub-
marines and space station applications [10].
2.3. Hybrid DC–AC coupled configuration
Hybrid scheme has both DC and PFAC bus. In this scheme, all
DC energy sources (solar) are coupled to DC bus by proper
interfacing circuits. DC loads are directly served through DC bus
by using DC/DC converter (if required). AC loads receives energy
from PFAC bus (50–60 Hz). In this control scheme, PFAC energy
sources can be directly connected without any interfacing circuits.
This eliminates the use of converters and hence reduces conver-
sion losses in the configuration. As a result, hybrid DC–AC coupled
configuration has lower cost and higher energy efficiency as
compared to DC coupled and AC coupled schemes. But hybrid
scheme has relatively complex control and energy management.
Hybrid coupled configuration of small hydro–wind–solar based
integrated energy system is presented in Fig. 4.
3. Options for storage technologies
Energy storage systems (ESS) is one of the important component
of integrated systems in order to offset the unpredictable variation of
the energy supplied by intermittent renewable energy sources like
solar, wind etc. Energy storage levels the mismatch between renew-
able power generation and demand which is important for both
economical and technical reasons. Almost all isolated generating
schemes have some kind of storage systems which are connected to
renewable sources using proper power electronics circuits that
controls the flow of energy in the storage system and the rate flow
of power into and out of the storage system. Energy storage systems
help in peak shaving, smoothing out load fluctuations, making up for
intermittent variation in renewable energy sources so as to make an
efficient energy management in integrated systems [11]. Load profile
of an isolated area is sharp peaked during evening time. Various
generator sizes have to be increased in integrated system in order to
meet evening peak load, and this raises the system cost. In integrated
system, energy storage system helps in reducing peak power
demand. During peak power demand, deficit energy (energy above
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 103

Discharging
Response period
time

Peaks
Without storage
With storage
Storage period

Electricity demand
Mid merit

Charging period
Base load

6 am Mid day 6 pm Midnight

Fig. 5. Energy generation management using energy storage [12].

Table 1
Modes of energy storage systems.

Sl. no. Modes of energy Summary

storage systems

1. Charging In this mode, energy generation at particular instant is more than demand at that instant. Energy storage systems
store the excess amount of energy and maintain energy balance to assure good power quality.
2. Storage In this mode, energy generation is nearly equal to demand and energy storage systems store the energy.
3. Discharging In discharging mode, generation is deficit and not able to meet load demand. Deficit amount of energy is supplied by storage systems.

Table 2
Classification of ESS based on time frame [13].

Sl. no. Duration Storage technologies

1. Short term Capacitors, super-capacitors, flywheel, super conducting magnetic storage (SMES)
2. Medium term Fuel cells, compressed air energy storage (CAES), batteries
3. Long term Pumped storage

Table 3
Classification of ESS based on the form of energy storage [14].

Sl. no. Form of energy storage Storage technologies

1. Mechanical energy storage Pumped hydro storage, compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheels
2. Chemical energy storage Battery energy storage (lead–acid, Ni–Cd, Na–S, Li-ion, metal–air batteries),
flow batteries (vanadium redox battery, polysulphide bromide battery,
zinc–bromine battery), fuel cells and hydrogen storage
3. Electrical energy storage Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), super capacitor

the base generation) is supplied by the storage systems. A simplified
generation profile (with and without storage system) is given in
Fig. 5.
Based on a typical load profile, storage systems work in three
modes i.e. charging, storage, discharging. Summary of different
modes of energy storage systems is given in Table 1.
In general, storage technologies are classified on the basis of
time frame or form of storage. Based on the storage duration,
energy storage systems are classified as short term, medium term
and long term ESS. List of storage technologies based on time
frame is given in Table 2. Based on the form of storage, ESS
classified as mechanical energy storage, chemical energy storage
and electrical energy storage. Storage technologies based on form
of storage is given in Table 3.
Currently, a wide range of energy storage technologies are
available with each occupying a particular area of application.
These technologies are discussed in the following sections.
3.1. Battery storage system
Rechargeable batteries are one of the oldest electricity storage
systems that store electrical energy in the form of chemical
energy. Among various storage technologies, battery storage
system is the most flexible, reliable and responsive for stand-
alone generating systems. Batteries are modular and non-pollut-
ing, can be placed near load centers or installed with renewable
energy sources.
104 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120
Batteries respond in about 20 ms to compensate resource and
load transients. The round trip efficiency (AC/DC and DC/AC) of
battery storage system varies in the range from 60% to 90%.
Various types of battery storage applications include lead–acid,
nickel–cadmium, sodium–sulfur, vanadium redox batteries etc.
Lead–acid battery consists of lead dioxide as positive electrode
and a negative electrode with a separator to isolate both electro-
des. Sulfuric acid is used as electrolyte to provide the sulfate ions
for the discharge reactions. It is popular storage system for power
quality, uninterruptible power supply (UPS) and intermittent
renewable energy sources. However, low energy density (30–
50 Wh/kg), short cycle life (500–1000 cycles), failure of deep
discharge and processing of lead are the some issues with the
use of lead–acid battery. Nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries consist
of a nickel hydroxide as positive electrode, a cadmium hydroxide
as negative electrode, an alkaline electrolyte and a separator. This
storage system is reliable, requires low maintenance and having
comparatively high energy density (50–75 Wh/kg). Disposing of
cadmium is one of the environmental issues with NiCd batteries as
cadmium is a toxic heavy metal. Also, NiCd batteries have
relatively high cost and low cycle life of 2000–2500 [14–16].
Sodium–sulfur (NaS) battery consists of liquid sodium at the
negative electrode, liquid sulfur at positive electrode and these are
separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. Positive
sodium ions enter in the electrolyte and combine with the sulfur
to produce sodium poly sulfide. The temperature of the cell is
required to be 300–350 1C in order to favor the conduction of
sodium ions. To acquire this high temperature, NaS battery takes
heat energy from own stored energy. NaS battery storage system
has no self discharge, high efficiency of 90% including heat losses
and high capital cost. Vanadium redox flow battery comprised of
electrodes, electrolytes and membranes. This storage system has
positive and negative half cells which are isolated by a membrane.
Vanadium redox batteries have low energy density of about
25 Wh/kg of electrolyte [17,18]. Other flow batteries include zinc
bromide battery (ZnBr) and Polysulphide bromide battery (PSB).
Cycle life, reliability, depth of discharge and cost are some of the
major issues with the use of batteries as storage system for IRES in
stand-alone applications.
3.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) system
SMES system has three parts: superconducting magnetic coil;
power conditioning equipment and refrigeration system. SMES
system stores energy in the magnetic field, created by the flow of
DC current in the superconducting coil. The coil of SMES is kept at
superconductive temperature to meet the superconducting prop-
erties of magnetic coil. This storage system has high efficiency in
storing DC electric energy. Excess off-peak AC power is converted
into direct current and supplied into a superconducting magnetic
coil. This storage system switches within 17 ms between charging
and discharging at high efficiency of 98%. Coil with 1000 m
diameter is suitable for 1000 MW–5 h SMES plant and coil with
1 m diameter for 1 MW–1 s module. High system cost and
environmental issues (strong magnetic field) are the major pro-
blem for the wide deployment of SMES as storage for IRES [17,19].
3.3. Super capacitors energy storage
Super capacitors have higher energy density as compared to
common capacitors and batteries. Super capacitor uses two layer
plates for the effective separation of charges. Therefore, this
storage has very long cyclic life and ideal suited for high power,
short-discharge applications. In present time, each super capacitor
cell operates in the range of 2-V. Therefore, these cells are series
packed in a module with parallel connected adjacent modules.
The voltage of module is currently limited in the range of 200–
400 V for safety and reliability issues [19].
3.4. Flywheel energy storage
Flywheel energy storage is suitable for regenerative breaking,
voltage support, transportation, power quality and UPS applica-
tions. In this storage scheme, kinetic energy is stored by spinning a
disk or rotor about its axis. Amount of energy stored in disk or
rotor is directly proportional to the square of the wheel speed and
rotor's mass moment of inertia. Whenever power is required,
flywheel uses the rotor inertia and converts stored kinetic energy
into electricity [17]. In the present scenario, flywheels of 1 kW
power storage capacity for 3 h and 100 kW for 30 s have been
successfully developed. Design of Larger wheel to store 250 kW
power for 10–15 min is under progress. Depending on winding
losses, bearing losses and cycling process, the round trip efficiency
of flywheel modules varies from 80% to 85% [19].
3.5. Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS)
Pumped hydroelectric storage is a mature technology with high
efficiency and large storage period. Conventional pumped hydro
plant has two vertically separated reservoirs. During low power
demand period, water is pumped from the lower reservoir to upper
reservoir. Whenever electricity is required during peak hours, the
water discharge is flowed into lower reservoir and the potential
energy of water is used to rotate hydro turbine that drives the
coupled generator. Pumped hydro storage requires a significant area
for upper and lower reservoirs. Amount of energy storage depends on
the available water discharge in upper reservoir and the height
difference between two reservoirs. Depending on penstock size,
hydro turbines and generator used, the round trip efficiency of
pumped hydro plant varies in the range of 60–80% [19]. PHS systems
need specific site for upper and lower reservoir.
3.6. Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
Besides pumped hydro storage, CAES is the only capable
storage technology having very large storage capacity of above
50 MW. The typical rating of CAES storage system is in the range of
50–300 MW. Storage period can be a one year with very small
losses. In CAES, off-peak electrical energy is used to compress air
into an underground surface vessel or tank. When electricity is
required, air is used in heating and combustion of fuels in order to
run turbine for driving generator. The compressed air is stored in
different types of underground medium like porous rock forma-
tion, salt or rock formation and natural gas fields. The AC–AC
roundtrip efficiency of CAES varies in the range of 85–90%.
A 290 MW, 4 h CAES storage plant has been developed in Huntorf,
West in Germany [19]. Second CAES plant of capacity 110 MW,
26 h is in operation in McIntosh, Alabama, USA [14]. Like pumped
hydro, CAES also requires specific geographical location like salt
caverns, rock mines, aquifers or depleted gas fields.
3.7. Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen is generated by electrolysis process of water by
utilizing off-peak electrical power from renewable energy sources.
At present, hydrogen is generated at low pressure of 30–300 psia
and then compressed and stored at high pressure of 3000 psia in
tanks. The hydrogen storage has the AC–AC round trip efficiency of
40–60% [19]. To develop a reliable, safe and low cost hydrogen
storage system is the major challenge in the present scenario. Fuel
cells hydrogen storage technology includes hydrogen fuel cell,
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 105

direct methanol fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell, solid oxide Annual energy generated from a MHP system can be calculated as
fuel cell, metal–air battery. EMHPS ¼ P MHPS ð365  24  capacity factorÞ:

4.3. Mathematical model for solar photovoltaic system

4. Mathematical model for renewable energy sources
The input to solar photovoltaic (SPV) system is solar radiation.
4.1. Mathematical model for wind energy system SPV panels are inclined at an angle equal to the latitude of the
considered area to increase the amount of solar radiation received
Wind speed continuously varies at a particular site. It depends on SPV surface. The electrical power output of inclined SPV system
on local land terrain, weather system and height above the mainly depends on amount of beam radiation and diffuse radia-
ground. Therefore it is necessary to capture wind speed variation tion, fallen on SPV surface. Total hourly solar radiation on a fixed
in a model to forecast the energy production. Weibull probability inclined surface (HT) can be calculated as [23]
density function best describes the wind speed variation. The
H T ¼ H b Rb þ H d Rd þðH b þ H d ÞRr
Weibull probability density function of wind speed (V) is expressed
as [20] where HT is in kWh/m2, Hb is the beam part of solar radiation


k  1 "
 # (kWh/m2), Hd is diffused part of solar radiation (kWh/m2), Rb is tilt
k V V k factors for beam radiation, Rd is tilt factors for diffused radiation
f ðV; k; cÞ ¼ exp 
c c c and Rr is the tilt factor for reflected part of solar radiations. Hourly
power output of SPV system (PSPVS) is calculated as
where f(V,k,c) is the probability of wind speed (V), c is the scale
parameter, k is the shape parameter and VZ0, k41, c40. P SPVS ¼ η H T A
The output of wind energy system depends on its rated power where η is the conversion efficiency of SPV system, A is the surface
(Pr) of wind turbine, cut-in speed, cut-out speed and rated speed. areas of SPV system.
Mathematically, electrical power output of wind turbine (PWT) is Annual energy output of SPV system is estimated as
calculated as [21] 8760
8 ESPV S ¼ ∑ P SPVS ðiÞ:
< 0;
> for 0 r V oV cut  in and V 4 V cut  out i¼1
3
P WT ¼ aV þ bP r ; for V cut  in r V o V rated
>
:P ; 4.4. Mathematical model for biomass gasifier system
r for V rV rV rated cut  out

where Vcut-in is cut in speed, Vcut-out is cut out speed, Vrated is rated Presently, biomass gasifier based power generation system is a
speed of wind turbine. Constats a and b are function of rated speed mature technology for electrification of isolated areas. In biomass
and cut in speed of wind turbine and calculated as gasification, producer gas is generated when biomass is burned
Pr with insufficient oxygen. The generated producer gas is mixed
a¼ with diesel in certain ration and used in diesel engine that run
V 3rated  V 3cut  in
coupled generator to produce electricity.
V 3cut  in The hourly electrical power output of biomass gasifier system
b¼ depends on biomass availability and generator operating hours per
V rated V 3cut  in
3
day. Mathematical model of biomass gasifier System is repre-
Annual energy production (EWES) from a wind turbine at a sented as follows [24]:
specific site can be estimated as total biomss available ðtons=yearÞ  CV BM  ηBMG  1000

V  P BMGS ¼
cut  out 365  860  ðoperaing hours per dayÞ
EWES ¼ 365  24 ∑ P WT  f ðV; k; cÞ
V ¼0 where PBMGS is hourly output of biomass gasifier system, CVBM is
calorific value of biomass (4015 kcal), ηBMG is the overall conver-
At a given hub height, wind speed can be calculated by using
sion efficiency of the biomass gasifier system from biomass (fuel
following power-law relation:
wood) to electricity production (21%).


n
V h Annual energy production of a biomass gasifier based system
¼ can be estimated as
Vr hr
where V and Vr are the wind speed at hub height ‘h’ and reference EBMGS ¼ P BMGS ð365  24  capacity factorÞ:
height ‘hr’, n is the power-law exponent (1/7).
4.5. Mathematical model for biogas system

4.2. Mathematical model for Micro Hydro Power system
In hydro power generation, kinetic energy of water is used to
rotate hydro turbine, which in turn rotate the coupled shaft and
generator and this produce electricity. The power output of Micro
Hydro Power (MHP) system depends on water discharge and net
head available at particular site. The theoretical electrical power
generated by the MHP system (PMHPS) in watt is given by [22]
P MHPS ¼ 9:81 Q H net η0 ρW
where Q is the discharge (m3/s), Hnet is the net head (m), ρW is the
water density (kg/m3), η0 is the overall efficiency of MHP system
including the efficiency of hydro turbine, generator and brush gear.
Biogas is produced from animal manure and human sewage.
In stand-alone mode, biogas and diesel are mixed in the ratio of
80:20 to run the diesel engine that in turn rotates the coupled
alternator. In remote areas, biogas is mostly used to fulfill the
cooking energy needs of villages household and thereafter, if any
surplus biogas is available that can be used for electricity genera-
tion. The hourly power output of biogas based system depends on
biogas generation per day and operating hours of alternator in a
day. The mathematical model for biogas based power generation
system is represented as follows [24]:
total biogas generated ðm3 =dayÞ  CV BG  ηBGGS
P BGGS ¼
860  ðoperating hours=dayÞ
106 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120
where CVBG is calorific value of biogas (4700 kcal), ηBGGS is the
overall conversion efficiency of biogas system from biogas to
electricity production (27%).
Annual energy production of a biomass gasifier based system
can be estimated as
EBGGS ¼ P BGGS ð365  24  capacity factorÞ:
5. Unit sizing and cost optimization
Optimum unit sizing is essential for efficient and economic
utilization of the renewable energy sources in integrated system.
Optimum sizing assures the lowest net present cost with system
reliability requirement so that the system can operate at the
optimum conditions. Optimal resource-need matching in an inte-
grated system is necessary to have acceptable system cost and
reliability. These planning issues are generally contradictory with
each other and therefore, a reasonable trade-off between them is
enviable. Over sizing the system components will enhance the
system cost while under sizing leads to failure of power supply.
5.1. Criteria for unit sizing and cost optimization
For unit sizing and cost optimization of IRES, it is required to
evaluate the system in terms of economics and power reliability.
In economic criteria, parameters like net present cost (NPC), levelised
cost of energy (LCE), annualized cost of system (ACS), payback
period (PBP), internal rate of return (IRR) etc. are considered by
the various authors. Since solar and wind energy systems are
highly intermittent in nature, therefore it is necessary to evaluate
system reliability. System reliability assessment provides the
useful inform regarding generation whether it is able to balance
the load demand or not for the considered period of time.
In power reliability criteria, most of the researchers consider
parameter like loss of power supply probability (LPSP), expected
energy not supplied (EENS), energy index ratio (EIR), level of
autonomy (LA) etc.
5.1.1. Economic criteria
5.1.1.1. Levelised cost of energy (LCE). LCE is an economic evaluation
tool for the energy production in integrated system which includes
all recurring and non recurring costs over project lifetime. It is
defined as the ratio of the total annualized cost of system (ACS) to
the annual electricity production (ETotal) by the system.
Mathematically, it can be estimated by the following formula [25]:
ACS
LCE ¼
ETotal
LCE can also be calculated in terms of average generation cost (Cav)
and given by [23]
½CRF þ m∑N i ¼ 1 P i Ri
C av ¼
87:6∑Ni ¼ 1 Ri K i
Artificial Multi-objective
Intelligence design approach
Fig. 6. Sizing methodologies for unit sizing and cost optimization.
where Cav is the average generation cost ($/kWh), Ki is the load
factor for ith generator, m is the operation and maintenance (O &
M) cost ($/kWh), n is the payback period (in years), Pi is ith
generator capital cost ($/kW), Ri is the ith generator rating in kW.
Capital recovery factor (CRF) can be evaluated in terms of discount
rate (r) and project lifetime ‘n’ (in years) as
rð1 þ rÞn
CRF ¼ :
ð1 þ rÞn  1
5.1.1.2. Annualized cost of system (ACS). The annualized cost of
system is the sum of the annualized capital cost (Cannz_cap), the
annualized replacement cost (Cannz_rep), and the annualized
maintenance cost (Cannz_main) of all components of system [25]
ACS ¼ C annz_cap þ C annz_rep þ C annz_main :
5.1.1.3. Net present cost (NPC). Net present cost represents life cycle
cost of IRES. The total NPC comprise of all outlay and incomes that
take place in the plant life, with future cash flows discounted back
to the present. The total NPC comprises capital cost of the system
components, replacement cost of component that occurs in
operation period of plant, the cost of maintenance and fuel. The
NPC also considers any salvage costs of components, which is the
worth remained in the system components after the operation
period of system. If TAC is total annualized cost and CRF is capital
recover factor, NPC is calculated as [26]
TAC
NPC ¼
CRF
NPC can also be calculated as follows:
TCOð1 þ iÞN
NPC ¼
1 þ ROI
where TCO is total capital outlay which is the sum of capital cost,
operation and maintenance cost and replacement cost, ‘i’ is the
annual inflation rate, N is the cumulative number of years, ROI is
rate of return of the investment or market discount rate (MDR).
MDR is adjusted according to the inflation rate so that all future
costs are being discounted to represent the real discount rate. Net
present value (NPV) of the system is opposite in sign of NPC.
5.1.1.4. Internal rate-of-return (IRR). The internal rate-of-return
(IRR) is the true interest yield offered by the system during its
operational period. It is also referred to as the return on invest-
ment (ROI) or the time-adjusted rate-of-return. It is evaluated by
calculating the discount rate that results the net present value
(NPV) of the project to be equal to zero [27].
5.1.1.5. Payback period (PBP). Payback period is the time in which
the initial cash outflow of an investment is expected to be
recovered from the cash inflows generated by the investment [27].
Sizing Methodologies
Graphical Available
Analytical Probabilitstic
Iterative Method Construction computer
Method approach
method tools
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 107

It can be calculated as where L is the average annual demand (kW), D is the duration
(h) in which load is not meet out.
initial investment
PBP ¼ :
Cash inflow per period
5.1.2.3. Level of autonomy (LA). Level of autonomy represents the
5.1.2. Power reliability analysis fraction of time for which the specified load can be met. It depends
5.1.2.1. Loss of power supply probability (LPSP). ‘LPSP’ is defined as on number of hours in which loss of load occurs (HLOL) and total
being the fraction of the deficiency energy and that required by number of hours of operation (HTotal). Mathematically, LA is
the load. LPSP can be estimated as [28] calculated as [30]

∑Tt ¼ 1 LPSðtÞ H LOL

LPSP ¼ LA ¼ 1  :
∑Tt ¼ 1 P Load ðtÞΔt H Total

where LPS(t) is loss of power supply at hour t, PLoad(t) ¼load

demand at hour t.
In solar–wind–battery based integrated system, LPS(t) at hour
‘t’ can be calculated as
LPSðtÞ ¼ ðP Load ðtÞ  P Wind ðtÞÞ  Δt  ðP SPV ðtÞ
Δt þSOCðt  1Þ  SOCmin Þ  ηINV
Where, PWind(t) is wind power output, PSPV(t) is PV array output
and SOC (t  1) is previous state of charge of battery, SOCmin is
minimum state of charge, ηINV is the inverter efficiency.

5.1.2.2. Expected energy not supplied (EENS). Expected energy not

supplied is the expected energy that is not supplied to the load
under the condition when load exceeds generation. EENS in kWh
is calculated as [29]
8760
EENS ¼ ∑ L:D
k¼1 Fig. 7. Pareto front of a MOEA.

Table 4
Summary of studies based on artificial intelligence approaches.

Authors Energy sources Objective Design constraints Algorithm used Outcome

considered function

Paliwal Photovoltaic LCE Number of generators, battery PSO Formulated a techno-socio-economic criterion for the
et al. [31] (PV), wind, diesel SOC, system health state optimum mix of sources. Also analyzed the relationship
and battery among size of storage units, number of cycles and
replacements over project life time.
Askarzadeh PV, wind battery Total annual Number of PV panels, number HS, SA Developed a novel discrete chaotic harmony search-based
[32] cost wind turbine, number of simulated annealing algorithm for optimal sizing of
batteries, battery SOC integrated system. Also compared the results with
discrete HS and discrete HSSA.
Merei et al. PV, wind, diesel NPV Sources capacities, tilt angle, GA Optimized hybrid system with the combination of
[33] hub height, SOC, part load three battery technologies (lead–acid, lithium ion,
vanadium redox flow battery).
Kumar et al. Wind, PV, battery NPV, COE Energy balance, SOC, number of BBO Proposed BBO algorithm that converges to global
[34] generators, battery capacity optimum solution with relative computational simplicity
as compared to other optimization algorithms.
Arabali SPV, wind, Cost, Energy balance GA, fuzzy C-means Minimized cost and increased efficiency of an integrated
et al. [35] battery efficiency (FCM) clustering system by evaluating maximum capacity of the storage
system and excess energy (EE) for different load
shifting (LS) percentages.
Kaviani Wind, PV, and Annualized Equivalent loss factor (ELF) Particle swarm Discussed the impact of component outages on
et al. [36] fuel cell (FC) cost optimization (PSO) the reliability and system cost by yearly simulation
of 1 h time step.
Hakimi Wind, FC Net present Generation demand balance PSO Excess power was delivered to the electrolyzer and
et al. [37] cost deficit power is fulfilled by fuel cell when generation
was not able to meet load demand.
Yang et al. Solar, wind, and Annualized LPSP GA Found that integrated system with 3–5 days' battery storage
[38] battery cost of was found to be appropriate for the required LPSP of 1% and
system (ACS) 2% for the considered case.
Ekren and PV, wind, and Hybrid LLP Response surface Optimized hybrid system with battery storage using
Ekren battery system cost methodology (RSM), Box-Behnken design and RSM based on an hourly
[39] Box-Behnken design operating cost.
Xu et al. Wind, PV, and Total capital LPSP GA Reliability constraint LPSP was calculated by
[40] battery cost simulations for 8760 h.
Mellit et al. Solar, batteries PV generator LPSP Artificial neural Developed a method for optimal sizing of system
[41] banks area network (ANN) components from a minimum of input data compared.
108 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

5.2. Sizing methodologies Paliwal et al. [31] optimized photovoltaic–wind–diesel based

In the field of IRES based power generation, various sizing
methodologies have been reported in literature such as artificial
intelligence, multi objective design, analytical approach, iterative
technique, probabilistic approach, graphical construction method,
commercially available computer tools. Available sizing methodol-
ogies for unit sizing of integrated system are given in Fig. 6.
5.2.1. Artificial intelligence (AI) approach
Artificial intelligence approaches need no availability of
weather data for sizing of integrated energy systems in remote
sites. Number of AI approaches are reported in literature such as
genetic algorithms (GA), artificial neural networks (ANN), particle
swarm optimization (PSO), biogeography based optimization
(BBO), harmony search (HS), ant colony optimization (ACO),
simulated annealing (SA), fuzzy logic (FL), or a hybrid of such
techniques. These algorithms can handle the non-linear variation
of system components of IRES or intermittent nature of solar and
wind energy sources.
integrated system to fulfill techno-socio-economic criterion.
They also developed the relationship among size of storage
units, number of cycles and replacements over project life time.
Askarzadeh [32] developed a novel discrete chaotic harmony search-
based simulated annealing (DHSSA) algorithm for optimal sizing of
PV–wind–battery based integrated system and compared the obtained
annual cost with discrete harmony search (HS) and discrete harmony
search simulated annealing (HSSA) algorithms. Merei et al. [33] carried
out analysis for optimal solution in PV–wind–diesel based hybrid
system with the combination of three battery technologies (lead–acid,
lithium ion, vanadium redox flow battery). Kumar et al. [34] proposed
a BBO algorithm for PV–wind based system that converges to global
optimum solution with relative computational simplicity. They also
compared the results with other optimization algorithms such as GA,
PSO and HOMER. Arabali et al. [35] minimized cost and increased
efficiency of an integrated SPV-wind system with battery storage using
genetic algorithm (GA) and two-point estimate method. They
also calculated maximum capacity of the storage system and excess
energy (EE) for different load shifting (LS) percentages. Kaviani et al.
[36] found that yearly simulation with 1 h time step offered high
accuracy with approximate evaluations of reliability indices in solar–

Table 5
Summary of multi-objective design.

Author Energy sources Objectives Design constraints Outcome

considered

Maheri et al. [43] Wind, PV, diesel Unmet load for Specified LCE and reliability Proposed two algorithms and in one scenario, most reliable
reliability, LCE for cost system was created under cost constraint and in second scenario
the most cost-effective system was obtained under reliability
constraint.
Ippolito et al. [44] Solar, battery Total generation cost, Active power limit, Considered three scenarios and found that improvement of
energy losses, green reactive power limit, power voltage profile was the most suitable for the intermediate values
house gas emission transfer limit, voltage limit of objective functions.
Sharafi et al. [45] PV, wind, diesel, Total system cost, CO2 Hydrogen storage Reduced system cost at the same fuel emission and LLP suing PSO
battery, fuel cell emissions, loss of load simulation based approach.
probability (LLP)
Abbes et al. [46] PV, wind, battery LCC, system embodied Number of generator, SOC Developed 120 Pareto optimal set and choose a configuration that
energy, LPSP fulfills 95% of residential electricity needed.
Tant et al. [47] SPV, battery bank Voltage regulation, Peak Total annual cost limit Presented the isocost trade-off curves between the objectives of
power reduction, annual peak shaving and voltage control for public low-voltage
cost distribution grid.
Arnette et al. [48] Solar, wind, NPC, pollutant emission Biomass transport limit, Analyzed cost and emission under different scenarios like
biomass, coal plant generation limit, capital minimize cost, minimize emission, minimax-equal weight,
investment limit minimax-cost weighted, minimax-emissions weighted.
Abedi et al. [49] Wind, PV, FC NPC, fuel emission, loss Storage energy level, Minimized the overall system cost, unmet load, and fuel emission
battery bank, and of load probability PV panel tilt angle by using fuzzy technique and mixed-integer nonlinear
diesel generators programming. Also modeled uncertainties of energy sources
based on Weibull and Beta probability distribution functions
(PDF).
Moura et al. [50] Wind, solar, hydro Renewable system share Energy consumption share, Optimized the mix of the renewable system and maximized its
to the peak load maximum potential, contribution to the peak load, while minimizing the combined
actual installed power, intermittence, at a minimum cost. Large-scale demand-side
yearly growth to the management (DSM) and demand response (DR) technologies
installed power for each were also considered.
renewable technology
Ould et al. [51] Solar, wind, and ACS, LPSP – Based on Pareto optimal, found that cost of the optimal
battery configuration was highly influenced by load profiles.
Katsigiannis et al. PV, wind COE, GHG emission Initial cost, unmet load, Set of non-dominated solutions called Pareto-set were developed
[52] capacity shortage, capacity by using non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II).
shortage, minimum renewable Calculated GHG emissions based on life cycle analysis (LCA) of
fraction, components' size each system's component.
Dufo-López et al. PV, wind, diesel, NPC, Pollutant – Simultaneously optimized three conflicting objectives by
[53] hydrogen, battery emissions, Unmet load presenting 2D and 3D Pareto front.
Diaf et al. [54] PV, wind, battery LCE, LPSP – Presented technical sub models based on LPSP and economic sub
model based on LCE. Also, presented trade-off curves between
wind power and solar power, trade-off curves between LCE and
battery storage.
Bernal-Agustín PV, wind, diesel NPC, Pollutant emissions – Multi-objective design was applied in the design of hybrid
et al. [55] systems using Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm (SPEA).
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 109

wind–fuel cell based system and discussed the impact of component
outages on the reliability and system cost. Hakimi et al. [37] used
excess power of wind–fuel cell based system in electrolyzer and deficit
power was fulfilled by fuel cell when generation was not able to meet
load demand. They used particle swarm optimization for simulation.
Using genetic algorithm, Yang et al. [38] proposed power reliability
model based on LPSP and economic model based on annualized
system cost. They also suggested that the solar–wind–battery based
integrated system with 3–5 days' battery storage was found to be
appropriate for the required LPSP of 1% and 2% for the studied case.
Mellit et al. [41] developed a method for optimal sizing of components
of solar–battery based system. Various studies based on artificial
intelligence approaches available in literature are given in Table 4.
method in SPV with battery energy storage systems and applied
the proposed system in the public low-voltage distribution grid.
They also presented the isocost trade-off curves between the
objectives of peak shaving and voltage control. Moura et al. [50]
optimized the mix of the renewable energy system among wind,
solar, hydro and maximized its contribution to the peak load,
while minimizing the combined intermittence at a minimum cost.
They also considered large-scale demand-side management (DSM)
and demand response (DR) technologies. Bernal-Agustín et al. [55]
applied Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm (SPEA) to the
multi-objective design of PV–wind–diesel based hybrid system
for electrical energy generation. Various studies on multi-objective
design are reported in literature and summarized in Table 5.

5.2.2. Multi objective design 5.2.3. Iterative approach

There are two common approaches of multi-objective design. First
general approach is to merge all the individual objective functions into
a single composite and in second approach, an entire Pareto optimal
solution set is to be determined. Obtained solution is said to be Pareto
optimal if it is dominant among various solutions in the solution space.
A Pareto optimal solution cannot be improved with regard to any
objective without deteriorating at least one objective, since reducing
system costs implies a rising of pollutant emissions and vice versa. The
main objective of a multi-objective optimization algorithm is to know
solutions in the Pareto optimal set [42]. Fig. 7 shows Pareto front,
dominated solution and non-dominated solutions for multi objective
design.
Maheri et al. [43] proposed two algorithms for multi objective
optimization in wind-PV-diesel generator based system. In one
scenario, most reliable system was created under cost constraint
and in second scenario, the most cost-effective system was
obtained under reliability constraint. Abbes et al. [46] developed
120 Pareto optimal set for PV–wind based integrated system and
choose a configuration that fulfills 95% of residential electricity
needed. Tant et al. [47] proposed a multi-objective optimization
Performance evaluation of integrated energy system in iterative
approach is achieved using a recursive program which ends when
the optimum system design is attained. In iterative approach,
optimization model generally considers the LPSP model for power
reliability and net present value (NPV), and/or levelised cost of
energy (LCE) model for system cost respectively. Most of the
authors considered parameters i.e. the capacity of PV panels, rated
power of wind system, and battery bank storage capacity. For the
desired reliability level, the optimum configuration is one which
having the lowest LCE/NPV from all the possible sets of config-
urations. In this method, system cost is minimized either by
linearly changing the values of the parameters or by linear
programming techniques. Furthermore, iterative technique does
not optimize the PV area, PV module slope angle, wind turbine
swept area, wind turbine installation heights as these parameters
enormously influenced system costs (LCE and/or NPV).
Many papers are available in literature in which integrated
system sizing is done using iterative technique. Zhang et al. [56]
proposed an algorithm for component sizing in PV-diesel gen-
erator based integrated system based on the optimization of the

Table 6
Summary of iterative approach.

Author Energy sources considered Indicator Design constraints Outcome

optimized

Zhang et al. [56] PV, diesel generator, battery COE Generator output power, Proposed an algorithm for component sizing using
battery SOC linear programming.
Gupta et al. [57] Solar photovoltaic (SPV), Total cost Unit generation limits, Developed a mixed integer linear mathematical programming
micro-hydro, biogas individual capacity limit model (time-series) to determine optimal resource allocation in
biomass battery storage limits such a way that resources with lesser unit cost would share the
greater of the total energy demand.
Ekren, and Ekren PV, wind, battery Hybrid system Loss of load probability Optimized the sizing of PV area, battery capacity and wind
[58] cost (LLP), autonomy, turbine rotor swept area using the OptQuest tool in ARENA software.
auxiliary
energy unit cost
Yang et al. [59] Solar, wind, and battery Annualized LPSP During cost optimization process, five decision variables were
bank system cost considered: PV module number, PV module slope angle,
wind turbine number, wind turbine installation height and
battery capacity.
Li et al. [60] PV, battery, FC System cost, – Presented an algorithm to decide the minimal system
system configuration based on energy balance.
efficiency
Yang et al. [61] Solar, wind, and battery LCE LPSP Optimal configuration was selected based on the lowest LCE.
bank
Prasad et al. [62] PV, wind, battery LUC, REPG, – Optimally designed integrated system based on the calculated
DPSP, UEP value of life cycle unit cost (LUC) of power generation or relative
excess power generated (REPG) or unutilized energy probability (UEP)
for a specified deficiency of power supply probability (DPSP).
Kellogg et al. [63] Wind, PV Total cost Price per kWh, break Justified the installation of stand-alone hybrid system by comparison with
even distance the line extension, supplying the load with conventional utility power.
Ashok et al. [64] Solar, wind, and Total capital Resource availability Developed a decision support system for the hardware design
micro-hydro cost and equipment of integrated energy system.
110 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

power dispatch simulations. During optimization, they minimized
the cost of energy (COE) including capital depreciation cost, fuel
cost, maintenance cost and emissions damage cost. Gupta et al.
[57] developed a mixed integer linear mathematical programming
model (time-series) to determine the optimal operation, optimal
configuration, optimum control algorithm for hybrid energy sys-
tems. They optimized cost in such a way that resources with lesser
unit cost would share the greater of the total energy demand. Li
et al. [60] presented an algorithm to decide the minimal system
configuration based on energy balance. Yang et al. [61] optimized
the sizing of solar–wind–battery based integrated system using
LPSP for system reliability assessment and the LCE for cost analysis
and selected optimal configuration based on the lowest LCE.
Summary of iterative approach is given in Table 6.
5.2.4. Analytical method
In this approach, components of integrated energy systems are
characterized by computational models to find the feasibility of
the system. Therefore, system's performance can be evaluated
for a set of feasible system configurations for a specific size of
components. Best configuration of an integrated energy system is
evaluated by comparing single or a multiple performance index of
the different configurations. Khatod et al. [65] considered uncer-
tainties related with solar irradiance and wind speed, Beta and
Weibull distributions to model solar radiation and wind speed.
They found that proposed method was computationally very
efficient and requires less time and much less amount of meteoro-
logical data than Monte Carlo simulation method. Kaldellis et al. [66]
found that the share of the battery component exceeds 27% of the

Table 7
Studies based on analytical approach available in literature.

Author Energy Indicator Design constraints Outcome

sources optimized
considered

Khatod et al. [65]
Kaldellis et al. [66]
Dufo-Lo´pez et al. [67]
Solar, wind, Production Individual unit power limit, Beta and Weibull distributions have been developed for the modeling
and battery cost wind power generation to load ratio, of solar radiation and wind speed to consider intermittency. Proposed
bank generation-demand balance analytical method was computationally efficient as compared with
Monte Carlo simulation method.
PV, lead–acid Energy Energy generation-demand balance, Found that the share of the battery component exceeds 27% of the
battery payback available power individual capacity system life cycle energy demand in sand-alone mode and compared
period with grid-connected configurations.
Wind, solar, Net present Initial investment cost and land Proposed a suitable integrated system for places with a high wind
and H2 value (NPV) mass required for the planned speed rate. Excess of electrical energy has been used for hydrogen
system production.

Table 8
Summary of probabilistic approach.

Author Energy sources Indicator Design constraints Outcome

considered optimized

Lujano-Rojas Solar, wind, diesel NPC – Proposed a model based on ANN to consider uncertainty related to
et al. [68] generator, battery solar radiation, wind speed, fuel prices and battery bank lifetime.
Also estimated EENS and NPC of the model under various
operating conditions.
Tina and Solar and wind Annual total cost Expected energy not Worked out the design of a pre-processing stage for the input
Gagliano [69] supplied (EENS), internal of an algorithm that probabilistically optimized the design
rate of return of hybrid system.
Tina et al. [70] PV, wind Annual total cost Energy index of reliability Presented a convolution technique to assess the long-term
(EIR), EENS performance of a considered system. Analytical expressions were
also developed to find power generated by convolution of wind
and solar output power.
Yang et al. [71] Wind, PV, and LPSP State of charge (SOC) LPSP of 1% can be achieved by battery bank with an energy storage
battery banks capacity of three days and battery bank of five days storage capacity
was appropriate for a LPSP of 0%.
Karaki et al. [72] Wind, solar, Production cost Expected energy Developed a model to consider outages due to the primary energy
battery storage supplied (EES) fluctuations and hardware failure. Also presented a methodology to
determine an upper limit on the size of the battery storage required
to satisfy a given load profile.
Bagul et al. [73] PV, battery System cost Loss of power probability Developed a technique based on three event probability density for
sizing of PV-array and battery storage. New technique was more
accurate, consume less computation time and more closely characterized
the actual distribution of the daily excess energy than two events.

Table 9
Summary of graphical construction method.

Author Energy sources Indicator Design Outcome

considered optimized constraints

Borowy et al. Wind, PV, Capital cost LPSP Developed a methodology for optimum sizing based on the use of long
[74] and battery term data for both irradiance and wind speed. The minimum cost was obtained
at the point of tangency of the curve and also it represented the correlation
between the number of PV modules and the number of batteries.
Markvart [75] Solar, wind Hybrid Demand Optimally designed an integrated solar–wind system on the basis of demand
generator cost supply criteria by taking into consideration of monthly-average solar and wind
data.
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 111

system life cycle energy demand, showing the difference between
grid-connected and stand-alone configurations in PV-battery based
system. Summary of analytical approach is given in Table 7.
5.2.5. Probabilistic approach
Probabilistic approaches for sizing of integrated system con-
siders the effect of the insolation and changes in wind speed for
system design. In this approach, appropriate models for resource
generation and/or demand are developed and finally a risk model
is created by a combination of these models. However, this
optimization technique cannot characterize the dynamic changing
performance of the integrated/hybrid system. Lujano-Rojas et al.
[68] developed hybrid algorithm (Monte Carlo and ANN) for to
consider uncertainty related to solar radiation, wind speed, fuel
prices and battery bank lifetime in solar–wind–DG based hybrid
system. Tina et al. [69] evaluated impact of a tracking system on
the probability density function (PDF) of PV output through the
first four moments (mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis) in
solar–wind based integrated system. They also analyzed improve-
ment in the EIR using the two-axis tracker instead of one-axis
(polar) tracker. Tina et al. [70] presented a probabilistic approach
based on the convolution technique to assess the long-term
performance of a considered system and developed analytical
expressions to find power generated by convolution of wind
generator and PV output power. Yang et al. [71] found that battery
bank with an energy storage capacity of 3 days was suitable for
ensuring the desired LPSP of 1% in solar–wind based integrated
system, and a LPSP of 0% can be achieved with a battery bank
of 5 days storage capacity. Probabilistic approaches applied for
different energy sources and available in literature are as given
Table 8.
5.2.6. Graphical construction method
In this method, only two decision variables were considered in
the optimization i.e. either SPV and battery, or SPV and wind
turbine. Some significant factors such as the numbers of SPV
modules, SPV area, SPV slope angle, windswept area and the wind
turbine installation height were completely ignored. Borowy et al. [74]
developed correlation between number of PV modules and number of
batteries. Markvart [75] optimally designed an solar–wind based
integrated system on the basis of demand supply criteria. Graphical
construction methods reviewed in literature are as given in Table 9.
5.2.7. Commercial available computer tools for unit sizing
Presently, various computer tools are available for optimal
sizing of integrated system. Optimum configuration can be found
among different system configurations on the basis of net present
cost and performance. Among various computer tools, Hybrid
Optimization Model for Electric Renewables (HOMER) is one of
the most popular tool for sizing of integrated system. HOMER is
capable to model a power system's physical behavior based on its
life cycle cost, which is the sum of installation and maintenance
cost of system components over system life time. HOMER allows
the programmer to compare many various design configurations
on the basis of their technical and economic merits [76]. Many
papers are available in the literature dealing with optimum sizing
and designing of integrated systems using HOMER are referred in
[77–100].
HYBRID2 is simulation software for a very high accuracy, as it
can define time intervals from 10 min to 1 h. NREL suggests that
first optimize the integrated system with HOMER and then,
improve the optimized system using HYBRID2 [101]. In Hybrid
Optimization by Genetic Algorithm (HOGA), single objective or

Table 10
Summary of commercial available computer tools for unit sizing.

Computer Developer Input Output Summary

tools

HOMER National Renewable Energy Laboratory Load demand, resource Net present cost, cost of energy, Capable to model an integrated system's physical
(NREL) USA data, component cost, capital cost, unmet load, excess behavior and its life cycle cost. It compares
constraint, system energy, fuel consumption, various design configurations on the basis of
control, emission data renewable energy fraction their technical and economic merits [76].
However, HOMER Not allows the user to select
appropriate system components.
HYBRID2 Renewable Energy Research Load demand, resource data, Technical analysis, sizing High accurate computer tool with simulation
Laboratory (RERL) of the University power system component optimization, financial evaluation time step varies from 10 min to 1 h. It requires
of Massachusetts data, financial data long term data for economic analysis of
integrated system [101].
HOGA Electric Engineering Department Constraints resource, data Multi objective optimization, Life Single objective or multi objective optimization
of the University of Zaragoza (Spain). component data, economic cycle emission, probability problem and control strategies are solved by
data analysis, buy–sell energy supply using genetic algorithms. All the parameters
analysis remained constant during simulation of 1 h
interval [102].
HYBRIDS Solaris Homes Daily average load data Ii is a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet based
application tool for renewable energy
assessment and it requires daily average load
and environmental data for each month of the
year. It simulates one configuration at a time but
wide ranging in terms of renewable energy
system variables [102].
TRNSYS University of Wisconsin –Solar Meteorological data, models Dynamic simulation, behavior of TRNSYS uses a programmer defined time step
Energy Laboratory, Centre from own library thermal and electrical energy that varies from 0.01 s to 1 h for simulation. This
Scientifique et Technique du system tool is extensively used to simulate solar energy
Batiment, TRANSSOLAR applications, conventional buildings, and
Energietechnik biological processes [102].
RETScreen Ministry of Natural Resources, Climate database, project Technical, financial and It is a Microsoft Excel based energy project
Canada database, product database, environmental analysis, sensitivity analysis computer tool that determines the
hydrology database and risk analysis, energy efficiency, technical and financial viability of integrated
cogeneration system. This tool does not consider the
temperature effect for SPV performance analysis
[103].
112 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

Generation Energy Storage Systems Loads

Renewable Deferrable
Coventional Batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheels, Primary loads
energy loads
power source pumped-hydro (AC+DC)
sources

Optimized storage
Op erat

scheduling
Gene ast

gen

an d
tim ion

demimize
forec

forec d
ize

ast
an
ratio

t
d

Op

Dem
n
Control Structure

Best scheduling of
Energatic, Ecological and
Economical Constraints

Fig. 8. Intelligent energy flow management in IRES [113].

multi objective optimization problem and control strategies are

solved by using genetic algorithms. All the parameters remained
constant during simulation of 1 h interval. A HYBRIDS software
tool is Microsoft Excel spreadsheet based application tool for
renewable energy assessment and requires daily average load
and environmental data for each month of the year. It simulates
one configuration at a time but wide ranging in terms of renew-
able energy system variables. It is not used for system optimization
and however, it helps to improve the hybrid system design.
TRNSYS uses a programmer defined time step that varies from
0.01 s to 1 h for simulation. This tool is extensively used to
simulate solar energy applications, conventional buildings, and
biological processes. Nuclear, wave, tidal, and hydro power based
system cannot be simulated by this tool. HYDRO GEMS tool is used
for the analysis of hydrogen energy systems in time step of 1 min
[102]. RETScreen is a Microsoft excel based software tool which
can evaluate renewable energy, energy efficiency and cogeneration
projects the technical and financial viability of. This tool is used for
the analysis of energy efficient integrated system covering mainly Fig. 9. Centralized control arrangement.
energy production, life-cycle costs and greenhouse gas emission
reduction [103]. Table 10 presents the summary of commercial Generally, the control structure of IRES for energy flow man-
available computer tools. agement is classified into three categories; centralized control
Many other computer tools are also available for designing of arrangement, distributed control arrangement, and hybrid centra-
hybrid systems [102,103], such as The General Algebraic Modeling lized and distributed control arrangement. In all three categories,
System (GAMS) [104], Opt Quest [105], LINDO [106,107], WDILOG2 each renewable energy resource has its own local controller
[108], Simulation of Photovoltaic Energy Systems (Sim Pho Sys) (slave controller) that determines the optimal operation of the
[109], Grid-connected Renewable Hybrid Systems Optimization unit based on the current information.
(GRHYSO) [110,111], and H2RES [112].

6.1. Centralized control arrangement

6. System control for energy flow management
In IRES, energy flow management is necessary to promise
continuous power supply for the load demand. An optimal energy
management strategy ensures a cost effective and reliable inte-
grated energy system with high efficiency. The dynamic interac-
tion between the renewable energy sources and the load demand
results into serious problems of stability and power quality issues
like frequency and voltage regulation at user end. Therefore,
there is a need to control and supervise renewable energy based
system to overcome the transient response in energy distribution
network. At first stage, all energy sources and demand are
forecasted and at later stage energy sources, demand and schedul-
ing of energy sources and storage devices are optimized to achieve
optimal energy flow in integrated system. An intelligent energy
flow management in IRES is shown in Fig. 8.
In centralized control arrangement, the entire system com-
prised of one master controller (centralized controller) and several
slave controllers for various renewable energy resources and
energy storage system. The master controller operates in close
co-ordination with all energy resources and slave controllers. The
measurement signals of all energy resources in a group are sent to
master controller as shown in Fig. 9. The master controller acts as
an energy supervisor and makes decision on control actions on the
basis of all measured signals and a set of predetermined objectives
and constraints. Depending upon the availability of resource
generation and load demand, it will prioritize and manage energy
flow among the various renewable energy resources in integrated
system [114–117]. The centralized control structure is best suited
for multi-objective energy management in IRES that converges to
global optimum values based on available information. However,
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120
this control structure suffers from heavy computation time and
sometimes may be subjected to single point failures.
6.2. Distributed control arrangement
In distributed control arrangement, each energy source sends
measurement signals to its local controller as shown in Fig. 10.
The local controllers communicate with one another to take
appropriate decision for global optimization. In this scheme, the
computation burden of each local controller is greatly reduced
without any single point failure problems [118,119]. However, this
control structure has the disadvantage of complex communication
system among local controllers. Artificial algorithm like fuzzy
logic, artificial neural networks, genetic algorithm and their hybrid
combination are the possible options for solving such problems of
distributed control scheme. Multi agent system (MAS) is one of the
most promising approaches for distributed control scheme. A MAS
has been extensively used for integration of energy sources,
restoration and reconfiguration and energy management of inte-
grated system.
6.3. Hybrid centralized and distributed control arrangement
Hybrid control arrangement is the combination centralized and
distributed control schemes. In hybrid control scheme, renewable
energy sources are grouped within integrated system [119,120].
Centralized control scheme is applied within each group and dis-
tributed control scheme is used to coordinate each group. In such
hybrid control scheme, local optimization is achieved through cen-
tralized control within group and global optimization among different
groups of energy sources is achieved by distributed control. This offers
less computation burden on master controller and local controllers
that minimizes single point failure problems in integrated energy
system. A hybrid control scheme is shown in Fig. 11.
Many papers are reported in literature which deals with system
control for energy flow management of integrated system. Torre-
glosa et al. [121] developed hierarchical control including a master
Fig.. 10. Distributed control arrangement.
Fig. 11. Hybrid centralized and distributed control arrangement.
113
and slave control strategy for integrated system. At particular
instant, energy source was selected as per the generation cost by
master control strategy. Slave control scheme maintained constant
DC bus voltage under transient conditions by changing the duty
cycle of DC/DC converters. Malla et al. [122] maintained constant
voltage at AC load bus by controlling DC-link voltage with
modulation index of PWM inverter. DC/DC converter was also
used for maximum power point tracker (MPPT) in PV array.
Valenciaga et al. [114] developed supervisor control for PV–
wind–battery integrated system. They satisfied the load demand
as primary objective, and second to maintain the state of charge
(SOC) of the battery bank to prevent blackout and to extend the
life of batteries. Thounthong et al. [124] discussed stabilization
problems in PV–FC–super capacitor based integrated system. They
also implemented a prototype small-scale power plant composed
of a FC system (1.2 kW, 46 A), a PV array (0.8 kW), and an SC
module (100 F, 32 V) and validated the proposed control algorithm
during load cycles. Das et al. [125] used PI/PID controllers to
regulate the output power from the sources in order to eliminate
the mismatch in supply and demand under varying condition of
load and generation and this reduced the frequency deviation (Δf).
They found that GA optimized controllers (PI/PID) was much
better than automatic generation control, in terms of peak tran-
sient deviation and settling time
Jiang et al. [134] designed PV panels that supplied power to the
load and charged the battery bank with the help of a buck
converter, acting as maximum power point tracker. A boost
converter was also used to adapt the low DC voltage from the
fuel cell to the regulated bus voltage. Bus voltage limit (BVL) mode
protected the battery from overcharging and maximum power
point tracker (MPPT) mode helped in drawing maximum power
from the PV module. Onar et al. [135] tested the dynamic behavior
of the PV–wind–UC–FC based integrated system under different
values of wind speed, solar radiation and load demand. Senjyu
et al. [136] presented an optimum configuration and dispatch
strategies to determine the optimum number of PV panels, wind
turbines, and batteries. Chedid et al. [139] designed a controller for
114 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

Table 11
Summary on system control of IRES for energy flow management.

Authors Energy sources Decision variables taken Softwares/ Outcome

considered techniques used

Torreglosa PV, wind, FC, battery Load demand, hydrogen storage MATLAB Simulink Developed hierarchical control including a master and slave control
et al. [121] and level, state of charge (SOC) strategy for integrated system. At particular instant, energy source was
selected as per the generation cost by master control strategy. Slave
control scheme maintained constant DC bus voltage under transient
conditions by changing the duty cycle of DC/DC converters.
Malla et al. Wind, solar, battery, DC link voltage MATLAB Simulink Maintained constant voltage at AC bus by controlling DC-link voltage
[122] FC, battery, UC with modulation index of PWM inverter. DC/DC converter was also
used for maximum power point tracker (MPPT) in PV array.
Bizon et al. Solar, wind, FC, DC bus voltage, SOC, frequency MATLAB Simulink Discussed load following control of FC based on power flow balance.
[123] battery, UC Batteries and UC are used as backup energy storage system to
compensate the system dynamics.
Valenciaga Wind, PV, battery SOC, voltage regulation, power Sliding-mode control The primary objective of control was to meet load demand and
et al. [114] regulation, maximum power secondary was to maintain the state of charge (SOC) of the battery
conversion bank to avoid blackout and to enhance the life of batteries.
Wang and Wind, PV, FC H2 generation and consumption MATLAB/Simulink Excess power was dumped in electrolyzer to produce H2. The FC
Nehrir rate, H2 storage tank pressure offered a backup generation source and supplied power to the load
[115] when there was energy shortage.
Thounthong PV, FC, super Voltage regulation Fuzzy logic controller, Discussed stabilization problems in the integrated system using the
et al. [124] capacitor (SC) experiment intelligent fuzzy logic controller on the basis of flatness property for
DC grid voltage regulation.
Das et al. Solar thermal, DG, Settling time, overshoot and GA, time domain Used PI/PID controllers to regulate the output power from the sources
[125] wind, FC, battery, oscillations analysis and demand under varying condition of load and generation and this
flywheel, UC reduced the frequency deviation (Δf).
Chauhan Micro hydro Load current, load voltage, dump MATLAB Simulink Presented transient analysis of a self-excited induction generator with
et al. [126] load current and Sim Power electronic load controller for sand alone applications. Analysis includes
Systems the effect of switching of loads on dump power, load power and
generated power.
Uzunoglu PV, FC and ultra- UC bank terminal voltage, MATLAB Simulink Additional power generated was used to charge the UC bank. During
et al. [127] capacitor (UC) hydrogen Storage Tank Pressure and Sim Power peak demand, UC bank supplied the surplus power demand and also it
Systems compensated the tracking mismatches and delayed of the FC system
that generally showed reasonably sluggish response time.
Ashari et al. SPV, diesel generator DG and inverter operating power Computer codes Presented dispatch strategies and used optimum values of set points
[128] (DG), battery level, battery terminal voltage for the starting and stopping of the diesel generator to minimize the
overall system cost.
Ipsakis et al. PV, wind, FC, and SOC of accumulator, power level of Experiment Proposed three power management strategies (PMS) and compared on
[129] battery energy sources the basis of sensitivity analysis, considering state of charge of batteries
and output power from FC. Also observed the effect of these PMS on
lifetime of FC and electrolyzer.
Kang and PV, FC, and battery – PSCAD/EMTDC Proposed a strategy that was compared with conventional strategy.
Won [130] Also minimized the number of change over between FC and battery
with the help of measuring and time delay elements.
Hajizadeh Solid oxide fuel cell Battery SOC,FC voltage, hydrogen Neuro fuzzy Utilized SOFC as the main energy source and battery energy storage as
et al. [131] (SOFC), battery flow rate algorithm, MATLAB/ the backup energy source. Lyapunov based neuro fuzzy algorithm was
Simulink used for designing the controllers of fuel cell power plant, DC/DC and
DC/AC converters to control the input fuel flow and to get a desirable
output power demand.
Onar et al. Wind., PV, FC, UC UC bank terminal voltage, power MATLAB Simulink Tested the dynamic behavior of the integrated system under different
[132] output of energy sources. values of wind speed, solar radiation and load demand.
Ko et al. Wind, battery Bus voltage, bus frequency Linear quadratic Used reduced order model, Takagi–Sugeno (TS) fuzzy model and
[133] regulator (LQR), possibility auto-regression model (PARM) for power quality control in
proposed system with dump load. TS fuzzy model decomposed the
nonlinearity of the model into many linear sub models.
Jiang et al. PV, FC, and battery – Numerical Buck converter, acting as maximum power point tracker. A boost
[134] simulation, converter was used to adapt the low DC voltage from the fuel cell to
experiment the regulated bus voltage.
Onar et al. Wind, FC, UC FC internal voltage, H2 delivered to MATLAB/Simulink, First fuel cell system supplied the deficit power to load and later UC
[135] the storage tank, H2 tank pressure, Simpower systems bank satisfied the remaining energy for short duration that cannot be
UC current fulfilled by the FC system.
Senjyu et al. Solar, wind, battery System cost, SOC GA Presented an optimum configuration and dispatch strategies to in
[136] solar–wind based hybrid system.
Park et al. PV, diesel generator, Battery capacity, PV array size, PV Experimental, Based on the battery storage energy, authors proposed six operating
[137] battery energy loss numerical simulation points where the DG was either switched off or on. The control
technique minimized the fuel consumption and storage capacity of the
battery.
El-Shater PV, FC Output voltage, current density of Fuzzy regression FRM is used for maximum power point tracking of PV arrays to extract
et al. [138] PEMFC, PV output power model (FRM) peak available power. H2 generated by electrolyzer was stored in a
tank for lower insolation levels or at night FC operation.
Chedid et al. Wind, solar, battery Cost of electricity, unmet load, Linear programming, Designed a controller that evaluated the power available from each of
[139] spilled energy, battery losses CAD/CAA tool the system components and environmental credit of the system.
Chedid et al. Wind, diesel Frequency, voltage Adaptive fuzzy Frequency error and its integral were the inputs for the governor part
[140] control, automatic of the controller. Voltage and frequency errors were input for the
voltage regulator automatic voltage regulator
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 115

power evaluation from each of the wind–solar–battery based
system and the environmental credit of the system. Chedid et al.
[140] suggested an adaptive network based inference system
(ANFIS) to create fuzzy membership functions and control rules
for the controller in wind–diesel based hybrid system. Frequency
error and its integral were the inputs for the governor part of the
controller. System control of IRES for energy flow management
related work reported in the literature is summarized and given
in Table 11.
7. Discussions and findings
This review article presents comprehensive overview on var-
ious issues related to IRES based power generation for stand-alone
applications. Issues like need of IRES, integration configurations,
storage options, sizing methodologies and control in IRES are
discussed in detail. For stand-alone applications, single technology
based system is suitable for area with limited energy need. But as
demand increases, single technology based system is associated
with high system cost with low reliability. In order to deal with
such limitations of single technology concept of IRES has been
evolved. In IRES, renewable energy sources can be integrated
through three configurations viz: DC coupled or AC coupled or
hybrid DC–AC coupled configurations. In DC coupled configura-
tion, all renewable energy sources are connected to one common
DC bus using proper power electronics interfacing circuits. DC
loads are directly served from DC bus by using DC/DC converters to
maintain a constant DC voltage at user end. However, an inverter
is required in this configuration in order to serve AC loads. Under
the condition of inverter failure, DC coupled configuration will not
be able to supply energy to AC loads. In AC coupled configuration,
all renewable energy sources are connected to a common power
frequency AC (PFAC) bus through appropriate power electronics
circuits. In this configuration, there is a need to synchronize the
incoming generator output with the common PFAC bus. Hybrid
DC–AC coupled configuration has both DC and AC bus. DC energy
sources are directly coupled to DC bus that serves the energy need
of DC loads and vice-versa. This eliminates the use of converters in
the configuration except DC/DC converter that may use to main-
tain constant voltage at user end. Hence, hybrid DC–AC coupled
configuration offers lower cost and higher efficiency as compared
to DC coupled and AC coupled configurations. Merits and demerits
of integration configurations for IRES are summarized in Table 12.
Requirement of energy storage system (ESS) in IRES and avai-
lable energy storage options are also discussed in the paper.
Storage system counterbalances the unpredictable variation of
the energy supplied by intermittent renewable energy sources
like solar, wind etc. ESS also helps in peak shaving and smoothing
out load fluctuations in order to make an efficient energy manage-
ment in IRES. Classification of ESS is also presented in the paper on
the basis of time frame (short, medium and long) or on the form of
storage (electrical, chemical and mechanical). Among various
energy storage technologies, Superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES) is one of the highest energy efficient (98%) storage
options for IRES. However, energy in SMES can be stored only
for short duration. Coil with diameter of 1000 m is suitable for
1000 MW–5 h SMES plant. Also, SMES has low energy density that
increases the cost. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) and
pumped hydro storage are suitable for high energy storage (above
50 MW) but they require specific geographical location. In both
the storage options, energy is stored in mechanical form. However,
CAES offers higher efficiency (85–90%) as compared to pumped
hydro storage (60–80%). Super capacitor storage and flywheel
storage have low energy density and suitable for short storage
duration. Super capacitor storage has the advantage of long life

Table 12
Summary on IRES configurations.

Sl. Configuration Merit Demerit

no. name

1 DC coupled This scheme is simple and no synchronization is needed to integrate the different In the absence of inverter, this configuration is not able to
renewable energy sources. supply power to AC load.
2 AC coupled Best suitable configuration for domestic, industrial applications in present scenario as Need to synchronize the incoming generator output with
most of the AC appliances may directly connected to AC bus. AC bus and also required a converter to supply DC load.
3 Hybrid DC–AC This configuration has higher efficiency and lower system cost. Conversion losses are Control and energy management is complex than DC and
coupled very low as AC and DC loads might be directly connected to their respective buses. AC coupled schemes.

Table 13
Comparative analysis of energy storage systems.

Sl. Energy storage technologies Form of Storage Efficiency Merit Demerit Cost
no. storage duration (%)

1 Compressed air energy storage Mechanical Medium 85 High storage capacity Requirement of specific site and fuel Low
(CAES)
2 Superconducting magnetic Electrical Short 98 High storage capacity Low energy density High
energy storage (SMES)
3 Super capacitors Electrical Short – Long life cycle Low energy density –
4 Pumped hydro storage Mechanical Long 60–80 High storage capacity Requirement of specific site Very
high
5 Flywheel storage Mechanical Short 80–85 High storage capacity Low energy density –
6 Hydrogen storage Chemical Medium 40–60 – Require high pressure for hydrogen storage High
7 Battery storage system
Lead–acid battery Chemical Medium 65 Self discharge is low Limited cycle life under deeply discharge, issue with Low
processing of lead
Nickel–cadmium (NiCd) battery Chemical Medium 60–65 High storage capacity, high Low cycle life, recycle issue of toxic cadmium High
energy density
Sodium–sulfur (NaS) battery Chemical Medium 89 High energy density Requirement of high temperature, complex safety High
design, self discharge is high
Flow batteries (VRB, ZnBr, PSB) Chemical Medium 75–85 High storage capacity Low cycle life, low energy density –
116 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120

cycle over flywheel storage. However, flywheel has the advantage
of high storage capacity over super capacitors. Hydrogen storage
requires high pressure tank for hydrogen storage that raises the
cost. Presently, safety and reliability are some of the issues with
the use of hydrogen storage. The AC–AC round trip efficiency of
hydrogen storage varies in the range of 40–60%. Among various
storage technologies, battery storage is the most flexible, reliable
and responsive for IRES in stand-alone applications. Lead–acid
battery storage has low energy density (30–50 Wh/kg), short cycle
life (500–1000 cycles) and exposed with the problems of lead
processing. Nickel–cadmium battery storage has high energy
density (50–70 Wh/kg) and low cycle life (2000–2500 cycles).
Recycle of cadmium is the main issue as it is a toxic heavy metal. In
the present scenario, sodium–sulfur (NaS) and flow batteries (VRB,
ZnBr, and PSB) are the most promising, efficient and cost effective
storage options for integrated systems. NaS battery storage system
has no issue of self discharge and also, it offers high energy density
and high efficiency of 90% including heat losses. Flow batteries
are best suited for high storage applications with the efficiency of
75–85%. Table 13 presents comparative analysis of energy storage
systems for IRES.
In IRES, optimum sizing of system components is essential for
both economic and technical reasons. In sizing of IRES, most of the
researchers optimized net present cost, annualized cost of system,
cost of energy etc. under design constraints like number of
generators, energy balance, battery SOC and system reliability
(LPSP, LLP, and EENS). For sizing of system components of IRES,
authors consider decision variables like number of PV modules,
number of wind turbines, number of batteries, tilt angle of PV
array, PV surface area, wind turbine hub height, wind turbine
swept area etc. In the present context, artificial intelligence and
multi-objective design are extensively used by the researchers as
they converge to global optimum solution with relative computa-
tional simplicity. Artificial algorithms like GA, PSO, HS, BBO, ACO,
SA and hybrid of such techniques are popular for sizing of IRES.
These algorithms can easily deal with the nonlinear character-
istics of system components of IRES or stochastic nature of solar
and wind energy sources. In multi-objective design, Pareto
optimal solution set is determined and this set cannot be
improved with regard to any one objective without deteriorat-
ing other objectives. In iterative approach of sizing, a recursive
program is made which ends when optimum system design is
attained. However, this technique takes considerable time to
reach optimal solution. In analytical method for sizing of IRES,
system components are characterized by computational mod-
els. Best configuration is evaluated from a set of feasible system
configurations by comparing single or multiple performance
indexes. Probabilistic approach for sizing of IRES eliminates the

Table 14
Merits and demerits of various sizing methodologies of IRES.

Sl. no. Sizing methodologies/ Merit Demerit

computer tools

1 Artificial intelligence Find the global optimum system configuration with –

approach relative computational simplicity.
2 Multi objective design Can optimize simultaneously at least two conflict –
objectives.
3 Iterative technique Easy to code Increased computational efforts and suboptimal
solutions.
4 Probabilistic approach Eliminate the need of time-series data. Cannot represent the dynamic changing performance of
the system.
5 Graphic construction method - Only two parameters can be included in the optimization
process.
6 HOMER User friendly and suitable for prefeasibility, optimization Cannot enable the user to intuitively select appropriate
and sensitivity analysis. system components.
7 HOGA Optimize single or multi objective problem genetic Sensitivity and probability analysis are not included. It
algorithms, option for sensitivity analysis, requires less can simulate within the daily load 10 of kWh.
time.
8 HYBRIDS Comprehensive in terms of optimization variables, and Only simulate one configuration at a time.
require higher level knowledge of system configurations.
9 HYBRID2 User friendly, availability of dispatch option, much electrical Requires long term data for better performance and
load option. economic analysis of hybrid system. This tool has limited
access to parameters and lack of flexibility.
10 TRNSYS Flexible computer tool for simulating transient behavior of Cannot simulate nuclear, wave, tidal, and hydro power.
integrated system.
11 RETscreen Excel based tool, strong meteorological database No data input options, limited options for retrieval, search
and visualization features.

Table 15
Summary on types of control structures in IRES.

Sl. no. Name of control Merit Demerit

topology

1 Centralized control
2 Distributed control
3 Hybrid centralized
and distributed
control
Multi objective energy management system Can achieve global optimization. Heavy computation burden and risk of
single-point failures.
Computation burden of local controller of each source is considerably reduced and Communication system among local
hence low risk for single point failures in the system. controllers is complex.
Local optimization is achieved through centralized control and global optimization is –
attained via distributed control. Low computation burden on local controllers and low
risk for single point failures
 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120 117

Table 16
Comparison of current review paper with related articles on issues related to IRES based power generation.

Authors Integration Energy storage system Mathematical Sizing methodologies Control in IRES
configurations modeling of
Need of Classification components Available sizing Criteria for Objective Design Control Control Software/
ESS of ESS of IRES methodologies unit sizing function con- schemes parameters technique
straints used

Luna-Rubio X X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X
et al. [25]
Fadaee et al. X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X
[42]
Nehrir et al. ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X
[118]
Bajpai et al. X X X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓
[141]
Erdinc et al. X X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X X X
[142]
Current ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
article

need of time series data but it does not represent the dynamics
of intermittent energy sources such as solar and wind. Pre-
sently, various computer tools are available for unit sizing of
IRES. Computer tool like HOMER, HYBRID2, HOGA, HYBRIDS,
TRANSYS, RETscreen etc. are commercially available. Among
them, HOMER is most popular for designing IRES as it models
physical behavior of system based on its life cycle life cost. This
tool also allows user to compare various configurations on the
basis of their technical and economical merits. Table 14 pro-
vides the merits and demerits of different sizing methodologies
of IRES.
The dynamic interaction of intermittent renewable energy
sources and load results into serious problems of stability and
power quality issues like voltage regulation and frequency at user
end. Therefore, system control is necessary in IRES to achieve
optimal energy flow management among various components of
the system. Most of the authors used battery SOC, bus voltage and
bus frequency as control parameters for energy flow management
in IRES. To develop an intelligent energy flow management in IRES,
renewable energy sources and load are forecasted at first stage and
optimized at second stage. However, control structure of IRES is
classified into three categories viz: centralized control arrange-
ment, distributed control arrangement, hybrid centralized and
distributed control arrangement. Centralized control for IRES is
the combination of one master controller and several slave
controllers for various renewable energy sources and storage
systems. Master controller receives measured signals from system
components and takes decision on control actions. This control
scheme suffers from heavy computation time and may be sub-
jected to the problems of single point failures. In distributed
control arrangement for IRES, local controllers of each renewable
energy source and storage system communicate with one another
to take appropriate decision for global optimization. This control
scheme offers low computational burden on each local controller
without any single point failure problems. Distributed control
structure has the disadvantage of complex communication among
various local controllers. In hybrid centralized and distributed
control arrangement, centralized control scheme is used in each
group and distributed control scheme is used to coordinate each
group. This control minimizes computational effort on master and
slave controller and hence reduces single point failure problems in
IRES. Merits and demerit of various types of control structures for
energy flow management in IRES are summarized in Table 15.
Compared to other related review articles [25,55,118,141,142],
the present paper covers all relevant issues of IRES. The presented
paper describes the advantages of IRES over single technology based
system and need of storage system. Classification of ESS based on
time frame and form of storage is also presented. ESS for stand-alone
applications can be selected on the basis of discussed classification.
Available mathematical models for renewable energy sources
are given in the paper for energy conversion. Unit sizing and cost
optimization section covers criteria for unit sizing, available sizing
methodologies and limitations of sizing methodologies. Review work
of this section includes objective function and design constraints
considered by the researchers. System control of IRES section covers
control schemes with review work focus on control parameters and
software/techniques used by the researchers. Table 16 presents the
comparison of current review paper with related articles on issues
related to IRES based power generation. Issues include integration
configurations, need of storage systems, classification of ESS, math-
ematical modeling of renewable energy sources, available sizing
methodologies, criteria of unit sizing, objective function, design
constraints, control parameters, control schemes, software/techni-
ques used for control in IRES.
8. Challenges and future scope
Although power generation using renewable energy sources is
sustainable and environment friendly, however several challenges
are still exist in IRES based power generation as
 Capital cost of renewable energy products is considerably very
high as compared to conventional power generation technologies.
 Poor efficiency of solar panels is the major barrier in its use.
 In IRES, a significant amount of energy is lost in energy
conversion process using power converters.
 Need to improve life cycle of storage technologies with cost by
using new materials.
 In standalone mode, load transients affect system stability in
IRES environment.
 Inability of renewable energy resources (solar, wind etc.) to
meet out peak power demand.
 The disposal of storage system is a major concern for manu-
facturer and consumer.
118 A. Chauhan, R.P. Saini / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 38 (2014) 99–120
In future, following works are proposed to improve the perfor-
mance and energy management in IRES based power generation:
 For the wide deployment of IRES, it is required to provide
requisite subsidy on renewable energy products from the state
and central government.
 More research is required in battery and hydrogen storage
system to improve durability and performance with focus on
reducing their cost.
 Need for real time management in IRES using IEEE Standard
1547 and IEC 61850 for robust communication among various
system components.
 For stability issues of IRES, it is required to carry out transient
analysis of system by step changes in the variable parameters
like solar radiation, wind speed, load demand.
 Need to explore efficient DC micro grid for IRES by using DC
equipments in generation and demand side. This will certainly
improve the system efficiency by saving conversion losses.
 Nanotechnology is constant subject area for improving the
system components of integrated system.
9. Conclusion
Integrated Renewable Energy System has been recognized as a
feasible option for energy supply in stand-alone applications.
A comprehensive review covering all the relevant aspects of IRES
including integration configurations, energy storage options, sizing
methodologies and control for energy flow management has been
presented. Among various configurations, hybrid DC–AC coupled
scheme is efficient and least cost scheme for IRES. Among various
storage technologies, sodium–sulfur and vanadium redox batteries
are suitable storage option to make energy balance in integrated
systems. Sizing methodologies used by different researchers for
sizing of integrated system components have also been discussed
and summarized. It has been observed that artificial intelligence
(AI) techniques offer relative computational simplicity in order to
find the global optimum system configuration. Genetic algorithm
(GA), harmony search (HS), particle swarm optimization (PSO),
biogeography based optimization (BBO) are the most promising
algorithms for sizing and these are extensively used in current
scenario. Also, these techniques can deal with stochastic behavior
of solar or wind energy sources. Hybrid centralized and distributed
control arrangement is recognized as the best option for robust
control in IRES without single point failure problems.
Further, it has been found that lot of work in the area of IRES
has been carried out; however more research and efforts are
required to improve batteries durability and performance with
focus on lowering their cost. Under stand-alone conditions, tran-
sients in load could result into entire system collapse if modeled as
IRES. For such scenarios transient analysis of the IRES is to be
carried out through time step analysis of solar radiation, wind
speed responses.
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