St.

Paul University Philippines

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan 3500

INDIVIDUAL PAPER

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

MCC 201: ADVANCED METHODS OF RESEARCH 1
First Trimester, AY 2023-2024

Alexa Mae A. Barrera

Student, MSSW

Bryan B. Echanique, PhD

Professor

November 19, 2023

Activity 1: Diagnostics
1.How would you personally define research?
-Research is conducted to address a particular issue. This is to be done in a
precise and systematic manner to look for new knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values, or for the re-interpretation of existing knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values.
Researchers’ task is to make use of the existing data to investigate and find results,
Researchers’ task is to make use of the existing data to investigate and find results ,
and analyze whether this newly gathered facts are also true to other environment.
2.Do you like conducting research? Why?
-Yes, because Research allows you to pursue your interests, to learn something
new, to hone your problem-solving skills and to challenge yourself in new ways.
3.How does your institution cultivate the culture of research?
-Institution cultivate the culture of research establish open research working
group and to create an action plan.
4.Identify three (3) issues or problems in your institution which you want to solve
through research.
-High Risk number of Solo Parents in Tabuk City
-
-
5.Formulate three (3) working research titles, one for each of the three problems you
identified in no. 4.
-
-
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6.Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are a product of applied research, particularly
research and development (R&D). Are GMOs a positive or negative application of
research? Concretize your ideas.
Activity 2: Definition of research
1.Reflect on the following and articulate your thoughts.
It is inquisitiveness that best defines what we humans are all about. We ask
endless questions, the answers to which often beg still further questions. From
the darting, curious eyes of a baby only a few weeks old, to the growing child’s
persistent questioning of ‘tell me why/what/when/where/how/who,’ we embark
on a lifetime’s search to make sense of ourselves and the world around us. It is
curiosity that drives brain growth. (milestone, 2018)
2.React on the following statements of Senator Cynthia Villar about research.
Parang lahat ng inyong budget puro research? Baliw na baliw kayo sa
research. Aanhin niyo ba yung research? Ako matalino akong tao pero hindi ko
maintindihan yung research niyo, lalo na yung farmer. Gusto ba ng farmer
yung research? Hindi ba gusto nila tulungan niyo sila? Bakit ba lahat ng
budget niyo research?
-Research is ageless, it has existed for a long time and it continues to exist. It has
done mankind wonders, which is why it is still of great relevance to this day. Had
I not learned or experienced research, I would not have understood this. I once
viewed research as nothing but an academic chore before I had the opportunity to
immerse myself in it. Thankfully, my school values research, making me see its
true virtue lying beyond grades and requirements. Unfortunate as it is true, many
people still do not understand research and its importance in our lives. Even our
leaders seated upon political positions have no idea how important this tool is.
Senator Cynthia Villar herself does not see its purpose and insinuated it to be an
impractical waste of time and money. However, I deeply disagree with her
because I believe research is vital and beneficial in our daily lives since it
continues to solve problems and it advances humanity forward.
3.How is problem solving a) similar to and b) different from research?

Activity 3: Qualities of a good researcher

Describe your experience in conducting research.

1.How did you conduct the research?

a. Provide an overview: Start by giving a brief overview of the research topic
and your research question.
 b. Describe your methodology: Next, describe the methods you used to collect
and analyze your data. This may include surveys, interviews, observations,
experiments, or literature reviews.
c. Explain your data analysis: After describing your methodology, explain how
you analyzed your data. This may include statistical analysis, content
analysis, or thematic analysis.
d. Highlight key findings: Finally, highlight the key findings of your research
and how they relate to your research question.

2.What were the difficulties you encountered?

- Most of the time research work is found to be tedious and very tiring work to do
however, students cannot get away from this work because most often this is an
academic requirement.

3.What facilitated the success of the research?

- The attitudes of open-mindedness, flexibility, self-discipline, and enthusiastic
persistence are required to successfully perform research work. Maintaining those
attitudes takes purposeful effort on your part.

Activity 4: Value of research to humanity

Reflect on these questions and concretize your ideas with examples:

1.How would you figure out man’s life and the world in the past five centuries if no
research has ever been conducted?
- Probably on a par with any conspiracist, ignorant of reality. Research is
a natural function of our desire to understand our surroundings, without it, we could
only guess and hypothesis, resulting in a plentiful supply of drivel. One only has to look
at ‘social’ media to witness the results of a lack of developmental education. By that, I
mean; An education that encourages sensible questioning and personal research into
natural events and conditions to seek out the facts from the fiction. Imagine if
astronomy didn’t exist? How would we know what we were looking at in the sky, both
day and night? The study of the cosmos draws on many different sciences to provide
solutions to the problems associated with studying objects too far away to do so, ‘up-
close-and-personal’. For example; “What are stars made of”? The solution is to use a
branch of physics and chemistry (stellar spectroscopy) and measure the different
constituents, by the way they influence the light emitted from that star. Most research is
altruistic, only being degraded through the desire for power and greed, with nuclear
energy being a classic example. More finance has been poured into weapons research
than into the development and domestic application of nuclear fusion. There are those
who will cling onto some utopian dream, that living a simpler life will benefit society,
but reading any accurate history of those ‘simpler’ times says that life was anything but
idyllic. Disease, the ravages of poor weather for crops, leading to famine, was a cause for
research rather than a reason to avoid it.
2.How would you figure out man’s life and the world from now with man’s growing
passion for research?
- As humans' passion for research grows, it has the potential to greatly impact
both man's life and the world. Here are a few ways in which this can occur: 1.
Advancements in healthcare: Research allows scientists and medical
professionals to gain a deeper understanding of diseases and develop new
treatments. This can lead to improved healthcare outcomes, longer life
expectancy, and a better quality of life for individuals. 2. Technological
advancements: Research fuels innovation and the development of new
technologies. This can lead to improvements in various fields such as
communication, transportation, and energy. For example, the discovery of
electricity and subsequent research advancements led to the creation of various
electrical appliances, the internet, and renewable energy sources. 3.
Environmental sustainability: Research can help us better understand the impact
of human activities on the environment and develop sustainable solutions. By
studying climate change, renewable energy sources, and conservation strategies,
researchers can help mitigate the negative effects of human activities on the
planet and promote a more sustainable future. 4. Economic growth: Research
contributes to economic growth by fostering innovation and creating new
opportunities. By conducting research, individuals and organizations can develop
new products, improve existing ones, and find more efficient ways of doing
things. This can lead to the creation of new industries, job opportunities, and
overall economic prosperity. It is important to note that the impact of research on
man's life and the world is not always predictable and can vary across different
fields of study. However, by fostering a passion for research, individuals and
society as a whole can strive for progress and positive change.

3.Why should we be active consumers of research?

-Evidence shows that where consumers are involved in the design of
research and data collection tools such as surveys or questionnaires the tools
are better received by the participants. There is also evidence that involving
consumers is helpful in improving the dissemination of research findings to
the community. For example, involving consumers in setting research agendas
or identifying research priorities places consumer needs at the center of cancer
research. Another is, involving consumers in research is to ensures that issues
important to consumers are identified and prioritized, supports the
dissemination of research results, protects against money and resources being
wasted on research that has little or no benefit or impact for consumers.
Activity 5: Types of data

Concretize your thoughts on the following with examples.

1.How could you ensure valid and reliable primary data?

a) Improve data collection. Your big data analysis begins with data
collection, and the way in which you collect and retain data is important.
Your company can amass huge quantities of data in a short period of time,
but not all of that data is relevant for analysis. Start by defining the types
of data that are important to your company. Think about the behaviors
among shoppers that are of the greatest pertinence to your overall
business, so you can hone in on the most useful behavior-related data.
b) Improve data organization. Once you have a strategy in place for
improving data collection, you need a method for storing and managing
that data. Meticulous data organization is pertinent for analysis, and it
will enable you to remain in control of data quality while improving the
efficiency of analysis.
c) Cleanse data regularly. Dirty data is perhaps the biggest culprit of low-
quality data and poor data analysis. Data cleansing is imperative and will
help to ensure data analysis is centered around the highest quality, most
current, complete, and relevant data.
d) Normalize your data. When data is collected from a variety of
different sources, it often contains inconsistencies or errors in terms of
how different words are spelled. For instance, when entering a country
name, the United States often appears written out or as U.S or U.S.A.
These small derivations can actually have a big impact on data analysis.
You need to create a standard for all data to adhere to, so your data
remains uniform throughout.

2.How could you ensure valid and reliable secondary data?

a) Integrate data across departments. Data silos are like a black fog in the
marketing world, sabotaging the analysis efforts of marketers and
clouding their view of the customer. You need a data management
platform that will make it easy to integrate all departmental data into a
single platform, so you can eliminate silos and achieve greater accuracy in
data analysis.
b) Segment data for analysis. If your data is clean, well-organized, and free of
silos, but still isn’t making any sense, the next step is to segment your data
for a more detailed and focused analysis. Consider what you’re trying to
achieve from data analysis and what specific questions you want to
answer. Then you can sort data into relevant groupings to analyze trends
within the various data subsets. Not only does this make data analysis
easier by breaking the information down into smaller, more digestible
 chunks, but it also improves accuracy, enabling you to hone in on highly
specific trends and behaviors.

3.Which is more reliable, primary or secondary data? Why?

- Primary data are more reliable than secondary data. It is because
primary data are collected by doing original research and not through
secondary sources that may subject to some errors or discrepancies and
may even contain outdated information. Secondary data are less reliable
than primary data.

4.Differentiate: evaluation research, research and development, action research.

a) The concept of evaluation research simply connotes use of research
methods to evaluate programmers or services and determine how
effectively they are achieving their goals. The terms like evaluation
research, evaluative research, programmed evaluations and evaluation are
synonymous, interrelated and hence used interchangeably. All the
programmers undertaken are to be evaluated for the results they have
achieved or failed to achieve. Evaluation research provides objective
assessment of the performance. It is indispensable as it provides the
program administrator with effective use of resources and of
accountability for their use. It is now considered as an integral part of
governmental as well as non-governmental organizations and is
recognized as an important process to improve the working of
organizations. Its chief function is to determine as systematically and
objectively as possible the relevant effectiveness and impact of their
objectives. As such, evaluation is an indispensable action-oriented tool in
the organizational process for improving both activities still in progress
and future planning programming and decision making. It is also a
process, which covers aspects relating to the accessibility, availability, and
quality of the services and their utilization, their relevance or
appropriateness to local needs and expectations, viability of the
consequences or impact of the program.
b) Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously
investigate and solve an issue. In other words, as its name suggests, action
research conducts research and takes action at the same time. It was first
coined as a term in 1944 by MIT professor Kurt Lewin. A highly interactive
method, action research is often used in the social sciences, particularly in
educational settings. Particularly popular with educators as a form of
systematic inquiry, it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between
theory and practice. Due to the nature of the research, it is also sometimes
called a cycle of action or a cycle of inquiry.

5.Explain: The type of data to be collected determines the type of research to be

conducted.
-Data may be grouped into four main types based on methods for collection:
observational, experimental, simulation, and derived. The type of research data
 you collect may affect the way you manage that data. For example, data that is
hard or impossible to replace (e.g., the recording of an event at a specific time
and place) requires extra backup procedures to reduce the risk of data loss. Or, if
you will need to combine data points from different sources, you will need to
follow best practices to prevent data corruption.
6.Explain: data triangulation, data screening, data saturation.
Data Triangulation- means using multiple datasets, methods, theories, and/or
investigators to address a research question. It’s a research strategy that can help
you enhance the validity and credibility of your findings and mitigate the
presence of any research biases in your work. Triangulation is mainly used
in qualitative research, but it’s also commonly applied in quantitative research. If
you decide on mixed methods research, you’ll always use methodological
triangulation.

Data Screening- is very important to make sure you’ve met all your
assumptions, outliers, and error problems. Each type of analysis will have
different types of data screening. This lecture lists all the types, and check out the
individual analysis for the important ones.

Data Saturation-is reached when there is enough information to replicate the

study when the ability to obtain new additional information has been attained,
and when further coding is no longer feasible.

Activity 6: Approaches to research hand research designs

1.Explain: Quantitative research is deductive while qualitative research is inductive.

There are a couple of unhelpful myths about quantitative and qualitative
research: that quantitative research always requires numerical data, and that
qualitative research involves everything but the numbers. In fact, the data for
quantitative research may not be numerical: it may be human or animal tissue,
collected or cultivated bacteria, people’s self-reported emotions or impulses. It
may be any non-numerical phenomena, so long as those phenomena can be
counted or measured, and so converted into numbers for analysis. And
qualitative research, too, often takes note of numbers: how many participants,
what proportion of interviewees said X or Y, how long it took to collect the data.
Of course, there are some differences between quantitative and qualitative
research. First, they are based on different kinds of reasoning. Quantitative
research is based on deductive reasoning. The researcher formulates a
hypothesis and then conducts experiments to test that hypothesis and so reach
(or deduce) a conclusion. Qualitative research is based on inductive
reasoning. The researcher works in a more exploratory way, drawing on a range
of inputs and being open to revising their approach if circumstances suggest they
should. Again, this is not a hard-and-fast distinction, as qualitative researchers
also use deductive reasoning at times, and quantitative researchers may also use
inductive reasoning. But the emphasis is on deductive reasoning in quantitative
research, and inductive reasoning in qualitative research. Another difference is in
 the ways quantitative and qualitative researchers think about the research
context. Quantitative researchers try to minimize the impact of the research
context so that they can isolate and manipulate variables. Qualitative researchers
see the research context as a relevant factor and a potential resource. And a third
difference is in how they think about research quality. Quantitative researchers
value concepts such as representativeness and generalizability, whereas
qualitative researchers value concepts such as relevance and credibility. So, there
is a distinction to be made between quantitative and qualitative research. Their
differences are real and often very useful. But it is misleading to treat them as
though they are completely separate. There are considerable overlaps between
them, and at times the distinction can break down completely. Quantitative and
qualitative research are not oppositional but can play complementary parts in
helping us to understand and overcome real-world problems.

2.Consider your specific field of interest. Choose one of the qualitative research designs
and identify a problem to which you can apply this design.
-As a social worker, I would choose Case studies, why? one of the most common
qualitative designs, are used to examine a person, group, community or
institution. Researchers often use a bounded theory approach that confines the
case study in terms of time or space. To conduct the case study, the researcher
may draw upon multiple sources of data, such as observation, interviews and
documents. All participants chosen must share a unifying factor, which means
they all must have a direct or indirect connection to the research question or
subject being studied. After collecting the data, the researcher will analyze it to
identify common or prominent themes.

3.Consider your specific field of interest. Choose one of the quantitative research designs
and identify a problem to which you can apply this design.
- A customer satisfaction template can be used if any organization would like to
conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey. Through this kind of survey, an
organization can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the
brand or organization in the customer’s mind based on multiple parameters such
as product quality, pricing, customer experience, etc. This data can be collected
by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that
provide data in the form of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.

4.Which research approach is superior–qualitative, quantitative, or mixed? Why?

-Mixed research approach, because it utilizes both quantitative (numeric) and
qualitative (descriptive) research elements to gain a conclusion for a study. A
mixed methods study is likely to utilize several data collection practices and
evaluation processes that are appropriate for both quantitative and qualitative
approaches. Mixed methods research can most easily be identified by the
following characteristics: Collection and analysis of both quantitative and
qualitative data, Integration of the data during the collection process, Theoretical
model(s) serving as a research framework
5.Compare and contrast: ethnographic research and phenomenological research.
(compare = similarities, contrast = differences)

Similarities
 Ethnographic research is an approach to data collection and analysis that
aims at evaluating and categorizing human experiences through the lens of
the participants’ cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Phenomenological
studies, for their part, place major emphasis on the unique experiences of
individuals. The similarity between the concepts concerns the fact that
both approaches tend not to perceive physical and medical phenomena in
isolation from human’s social context. However, ethnographic research
may be both synchronic and diachronic by its nature due to the
researchers’ ability to investigate historical patterns of cultural pathologies
and average health indicators. Phenomenological research focuses
primarily on discovering ones of epidemiological data (Jamali, 2018).
Moreover, while ethnographic research aims at defining the collective
experiences of the community, phenomenology sheds light on diverse
experiences within a community united by culture or ethnic origin.
Differences
 Ethnographic Research- is a detailed and in-depth study of the
collectivistic experiences within a certain culture. In other words, it is the
systematic study of people and cultures. Ethnography involves exploring
and studying a culture from an insider’s point of view. Ethnographers
(researchers engaged in ethnography) spend extensive time periods in the
setting or community that is being studies. This may take weeks, months
or even years. This is because understanding the attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors relating to a culture require long-term observations.
 Phenomenological research- is a research study that aims to
understand the subjective, lived experiences and perspectives of
participants. It provides information about a unique individual experience
and is based on the idea that the same experience can be interpreted in
multiple ways and that reality consists of the meaning of the experience to
each participant. Phenomenology provides a rich and complete description
of human experiences and meanings.

6.Can a study use two or more of these research designs: exploratory, longitudinal,
cohort, and cross-sectional? Support your answer.
-Yes, because Cross-sequential studies share some of the benefits of cross-
sectional and longitudinal studies. It allows researchers to compare multiple
groups across time, to test for cohort effects since the study involves multiple
groups, and the time between observations is often shorter than in longitudinal
studies.

7.Differentiate: true experiment and quasi-experiment.

Differences between true experiments and quasi-experiments: In a true
experiment, participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the
control group, whereas they are not assigned randomly in a quasi-experiment.
Quasi-experiments have lower internal validity than true experiments, but they
 often have higher external validity as they can use real-world interventions
instead of artificial laboratory settings.

8.Explain the strengths of a mixed methods research design.

- Mixed methods research combines elements of quantitative
research and qualitative research in order to answer your research question.
Mixed methods can help you gain a more complete picture than a standalone
quantitative or qualitative study, as it integrates benefits of both methods. Mixed
methods research is often used in the behavioral, health, and social sciences,
especially in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal
research.

9.Differentiate: etic data, emic data, negotiated data.

Etic Data is very different from the emic perspective and can even be considered
as two contrary perspectives. In the Etic perspective, the researcher looks at the
research field objectively from a distance. This does not denote that he physically
maintains a distance, but highlights that the researcher gives prominence to the
theoretical frameworks and concepts and allows these to guide him, rather than
be guided by the subjective meanings of the research participants.

Emic Data can be understood as the perspective in which the researcher gains
the insider’s point of view. Let us examine this further. When the researcher is
conducting research on a particular topic, he enters the field. Once he has entered
the research field, he attempts to comprehend the social phenomenon from the
research subjects’ point of view.

10.What is ‘bracketing’ in phenomenological research? Explain with an example.

For qualitative researchers, bracketing is the setting aside of one’s own beliefs
and a priori assumptions in order to avoid misrepresenting a subject’s intended
meaning, perception, or experience. Simply put, bracketing helps you recognize
and temporarily suspend your personal judgments and biases on a subject while
conducting qualitative analysis that is focused on that topic. Keep reading to find
three bracketing methods you can easily apply to your own research process.
Writing analytical memos both before and during the research process is a way to
engage with your research. Think of memos as your “notes to self” to record your
train of thought, and to keep a record of your reflections as you work towards
your final thesis. In terms of bracketing, memos can record any biases or
contradicting information you come across in your work. Bracketing interviews -
Before you interview subjects or start your study, ask someone with experience
in qualitative analysis to interview you. “Bracketing interviews” can increase
your clarity and engagement with participants’ experiences by unearthing
forgotten personal experiences. It also can help you discuss emotionally charged
research topics with your participants and materials in a calm way and
simultaneously develop your capacity to understand the phenomena in question
(Rolls and Relf, 2006).[4]
Activity 7: Ethics in research

1.Why is there a need to observe ethical principles/standards in research?

-Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers. It is
important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights
and welfare of research participants. As such, all research involving human
beings should be reviewed by an ethics committee to ensure that the appropriate
ethical standards are being upheld. Discussion of the ethical principles of
beneficence, justice and autonomy are central to ethical review.
2.Explain briefly the following ethical concepts in research involving human
participants: autonomy, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence.

 As to Autonomy, this principle incorporates two elements that deal with

respecting people in regard to research:

People should be treated as autonomous

The term autonomous means that a person can make his or her own
decisions about what to do and what to agree to. Researchers must respect
that individuals should make their own informed decisions about whether
to participate in research. In order to treat people as autonomous,
individuals must be provided with complete information about a study and
decide on their own whether to enroll.

People with diminished autonomy should be protected

Some people in society may not have the capacity to make fully informed
decisions about what they do or what happens to them. This could include
young children, people who are very ill, or those with mental disabilities.
In such cases, these people should be protected and only be included in
research under specific circumstances, since they cannot make a true
informed decision on their own.

 As to Justice, this principal deals with the concept of fairness. Researchers

designing trials should consider what is fair in terms of recruitment of
participants and choice of location to conduct a trial. This encompasses issues
related to who benefits from research and who bears the risks of research. It
provides the framework for thinking about these decisions in ways that are fair
and equitable. People who are included in research should not be included merely
 because they are a population that is easy to access, available, or perhaps
vulnerable and less able to decline participating. An experimental strategy that is
likely to be used by many types of people should be tested in the very populations
of people who are likely to use it, to ensure that it is safe, effective, and acceptable
for all of the potential users. For example, experimental treatments that are
intended for use in the general population must be studied not only on men, but
on enough women to ensure that they are also safe and effective for women. The
principle of justice also indicates that questions being asked in trials should be of
relevance to the communities participating in the study.

 As to Beneficence, the definition of beneficence is action that is done for the

benefit of others. This principle states that research should:

Do no harm
The purpose of health research is to discover new information that would be
helpful to society. The purpose of research should never be to hurt anyone or
find out information at the expense of other people.

Maximize benefits for participants and minimize risks for

participants
The purpose of much research involving humans is to show whether a drug is
safe and effective. This means participants may be exposed to some harms or
risks. Researchers are obligated to do their best to minimize those possible
risks and to maximize the benefits for participants.

 As to Non-maleficence, The principle of non-maleficence, or doing no harm,

requires researchers to avoid harm or injury to children, both through acts of
commission or omission. It reminds researchers that research that is likely to do
harm to children is unethical and should not proceed. Research should be
methodologically and ethically sound, rigorous, relevant and likely to have
impact.

3.Explain briefly the 3Rsin research involving animal subjects: reduction, replacement,
refinement.

4.Why is plagiarism considered an ethical issue in research?

-When growing up, we are taught to avoid plagiarism. On the one hand, we are
taught to come up with ideas and words. And on the other hand, we are taught
that when we reference the idea of another, we credit the source. And this
instruction never ends throughout life. We hear it in higher education and
eventually in our respective jobs. And yet, like any habitual behavior, we forget
just exactly why plagiarism is an ethical issue in the first place. Additionally, we
fail to think plagiarism happens as often as it does. Passing off someone else’s
ideas as your own is done for various reasons. But none of them are acceptable.
And when we lose sight of why this is unethical, we lower our standards to what
 precisely it means to plagiarize. Additionally, we ignore who this might be
damaging.

5.Differentiate: gift authorship and ghost authorship.

 Gift Authorship-occurs when someone is credited as an author, taking
acknowledgement for a research paper when, in fact, he/she hasn’t really given
any contribution for it whatsoever. Sadly, this is a very common type of unethical
behavior, quite unacceptable in the eyes of most medical editors. There are
several motivations for such misconduct to happen: Junior researchers might feel
pressured to assign authorship to older colleagues, thinking that this might bring
better chances of publication and credibility. Senior authors might want to award
someone who has helped them in the past or gratify co-workers and collaborators
to maintain good relations with them.
 Ghost Authorship- occurs when someone that participated actively in the
research is not disclosed in the author’s byline or acknowledgments section. This
person can be a research unrelated professional that helped the main author to
draft and edit the manuscript, for example. It can also be a junior colleague or
researcher that helped carry out the research and drafted a first version of the
manuscript. Although this practice is reasonably unfair, one can always argue
that these people never had a real significant intellectual input for the project,
having had a rather more technical role, and their actions were entirely directed
by the main researcher.

6.Give an instance in which withholding information from research participants is

considered ethical.
- Deception is when a researcher gives false information to subjects or
intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research. This could
include feedback to subjects that involves creating false beliefs about oneself,
one’s relationship, or manipulation of one’s self-concept. Incomplete Disclosure
is a type of deception that involves withholding some information about the real
purpose of the study, or the nature of the research procedures.

7.Why must research participants’ informed consent be obtained?

-Informed consent is obtained to assure the researcher that the participant knows
every aspect of their participation in the trial – what the procedures or
treatments are going to look like and the potential outcomes, including the
benefits and the risks.

8.Discuss the implications of the Nuremberg Code and the Helsinki Declaration.
- The document was created to set a balance between the interests of humanity
and individual patients who are part of clinical trials. The basic principles include
respect for individuals, the right to make informed decisions, recognition of
vulnerable groups, and more.

9.Differentiate the functions of an ethics committee and a technical committee.

  Ethics Committee-is a committee formally designated to review and approve
the initiation of a clinical research study involving human participants and to
provide continuing review of the research study.
 Technical Committee-is to assist the Board in fulfilling its oversight
responsibilities on specific technical matters which are beyond the scope or
expertise of non-technical Board members.

10.Differentiatethe following types of research-ethics review: full-committee review and

expedited review.
 Full-committee review-A full board review is required for research that is not
eligible for exempt or expedited review. In summary, research that is judged to
involve more than minimal risk would undergo full board review. Depending on
the scope of the study, full board review would also occur for research involving
protected populations such as children, prisoners, or disabled individuals.
 Expedited review-Projects not eligible for an exempt review may be eligible for
an expedited review. Expedited does not mean that the review is less rigorous or
happens more quickly than convened review. It refers, instead, to certain types of
research considered to involve minimal risk.

11.Discuss three ways by which your organization ensures the ethical soundness of
research.
- Protecting the rights and welfare of research participants is based on respecting
the relevant ethical principles that underlie such protection, including the
principal of beneficence. The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines
for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research states that “persons are treated
in an ethical manner not only by respecting their decisions and protecting them
from harm, but also by making efforts to secure their well-being” (National
Commission, 1979, p.2). In the context of research, individuals are sometimes
placed at risk, and such risks should be carefully weighed against potential
benefits, either to the individual or to society. The principle of beneficence
incorporates the rules of “do no harm” and “maximize possible benefits and
minimize possible harms” (National Commission, 1979, p. 6). The best means for
assessing risks and benefits is through independent review of the proposed
research by individuals who have no direct vested interest in its outcome.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2003. Responsible
Research: A Systems Approach to Protecting Research Participants. Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/10508.

Activity 8: Writing research proposals

1.What are the key elements of a good research title?

- The “title” should be descriptive, direct, accurate, appropriate, interesting,
concise, precise, unique, and should not be misleading. The “abstract” needs to be
simple, specific, clear, unbiased, honest, concise, precise, stand-alone, complete,
scholarly, (preferably) structured, and should not be misrepresentative.
2.What is a research gap? Why must a researcher establish a research gap?
- A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by any of
the existing studies or research within your field. A researcher must establish a
research gap to help you to formulate a clear and original research problem,
objective, and hypothesis.

3.Explain the role of the review of related literature and studies (RRLS).
- The role of a literature review is to collect relevant, timely research on your
chosen topic, and synthesize it into a cohesive summary of existing knowledge in
the field. This then prepares you for making your own argument on that topic, or
for conducting your own original research.

4.What is an operational definition?

-Operational definition is the definition of a variable in terms of the actual
procedures use by the researcher to measure and/or manipulate it.

5.Differentiate: theoretical framework, conceptual framework, research paradigm

 Theoretical Framework- is based on theory in the form of model/paradigm which
serves as the basis of the study. It mentions the proponents of the study and their
results. It explains broader relationships that exist between concepts.
 Conceptual Framework-is the researcher own model which exhibiting variables
that specify the study problem and shows direction. It may be the adoption of the
model in early theory with changes that suits the inquiry. It is not well developed
than theoretical framework. if there are no concepts fits the researcher, the
researcher may construct a framework.
 Research Paradigm- is the framework into which the theories and practices of
your discipline fit to create the research plan.

6.Differentiate: Descriptive questions and inferential questions.

 Descriptive Questions-quantitatively describes the characteristics of a particular
dataset under study with the help of brief summary about the sample. It describes
the summary of the samples. Results are in the forms of charts, graphs and
tables. Also, it measures the Central tendency and measures of Dispersion are the
tools. Descriptive questions are a small dataset.
 Inferential Questions- random samples are drown from the large population from
which the data is taken. Drawing conclusions, making conclusions, determining
cause and effect relationship, hypothesis testing and making predictions.
Inferential Questions are large datasets.

7.When is a research hypothesis needed/formulated?

- If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to
write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

8.Differentiate: Research limitations and research delimitations.

  Research limitations- the limitation is beyond which one cannot go and it is
beyond the researcher’s control. The scope of the use of the study after it is
completed, with caveats.
 research delimitations- the boundary that keeps things in and out and it is within
the researcher’s control. The scope of what is done during the activity, with
justifications.

9.What sampling design is superior, probability sampling or non-probability sampling?

Why?
-For me, the sampling design that is superior is the probability sampling because
You have a complete population that you can choose from here. Since all persons
(or “units”) have an equal chance of being selected for your survey, you can
randomly select participants without missing entire portions of your audience.
This means you can generalize your results from a random sample. The main
downside is that it can be more expensive and time-consuming.

10.Explain the role of inclusion/exclusion criteria in non-probability sampling.

This method is used when there isn’t a full population list available. People are
not selected randomly; therefore, you cannot know the size and effect of sampling
error (missed persons, unequal representation, etc.). This sampling type can be
effective when you're trying to generate ideas and get feedback, but you cannot
generalize your results to an entire population with a high level of confidence.
Non-probability is convenient and less costly, but it doesn’t hold up to
expectations of probability theory.

11.Differentiate: Standardized instrument, modified instrument, and self-made

instrument
 Standardized instrument- instrument used in the previous study and is validated.
It should follow ethical standards and considerations.
 modified instrument- instrument used in the previous study but some parts were
modified and it is validated.
 self-made instrument- instrument created by the researcher. Researcher needs to
conduct a validation process and it should be at least three experts in the field or
issue being investigated. Instruments should be aligned with the specific
problems/questions of the study.

12.Why must a researcher ensure the validity, reliability, and usability of his/her
instruments before data collection?
-A researcher must ensure validity to obtain useful results, the methods you use
to collect your data must be valid: the research must be measuring what it claims
to measure. This ensures that your discussion of the data and the conclusions you
draw are also valid. Reliability to ensure that data are sound and replicable, and
the results are accurate. The evidence of validity and reliability are prerequisites
to assure the integrity and quality of a measurement instrument.