ABE321(

Hydromet
eor
ology
)
MODULE1.I
NTRODUCTION

OVERVI
EW:

Hy dr
ologyt r
eat softhewat eroftheearth,theiroccurr
ence,ci r
culat
ion,and
dist
ributi
on,theirchemi calandphy si
calpropert
ies,andt heirreactionwi ththei
r
envir
onment ,including thei
rr el
ati
on toliv
ing things.The domai n ofhy drol
ogy
embr acesthef ul
llif
ehi stor
yofwat erontheear t
h.Engi neer
inghy drologyincl
udes
those segment s oft he fi
eld pert
inentto planning,design,and oper ati
on of
engineeri
ngpr oj
ectsf orthecontr
olanduseofwat er.

Thi
s module contains t
he i
mport
antuses ofhydr
ology i
n agri
cul
tur
al
dev
elopment
,thehy
drologiccycl
eandi
tspr
ocessesandt
heav
ail
abi
li
tyofwater
.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hismodul
e,st
udent
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Expl
aint
hehydr
ologi
ccycleandit
sprocesses
2.Expl
aint
hei
mpor t
antusesofhydrol
ogyinagr
icul
tur
aldev
elopment
.

LEARNI
NGPLAN

1.
1DEFI
NITI
ONOFHYDROLOGY

Thescienceofhy dr
ologyencompassest
hebehavi
orofwat
erasit
occursint heatmosphere,onthesur
faceofthegr
ound,and
underground.

I
ni t
sbr oadestsense,hydrol
ogyisthest udyofwateri
nalli
ts
phasesandi ncludeshydraul
ics,t
hephy sicsandchemist
ryof
water,
met eorol
ogy,geol
ogyandbiology
.

Asusedbysci entist
sandengi neers,thewor dhydrologyusual l
y
hasaconsi derablynar r
owerconnot ationandt hi
si sdefinedas
thatbranchofphy si
calgeogr aphywhi chi
sconcer nedwi ththe
origi
n,dist
ri
but i
on,mov ementandpr oper
tiesoft hewat ersof
theear t
h.Thest udyofhy drologythusconcernsi t
selfwi ththe
occurrenceandt ransportat
ionofwat erthroughai r,overt he
groundandt hrought hest r
ataoft heearthandt hisincludes
threeimportantphasesofwhati sknownt hehy drol
ogiccy cle,
 namel
y:r
ainf
all
,runof
fandev
apor
ati
on.

Howev ,engi
er neer
inghydrol
ogyi
ncl
udesthosesegmentsof
hydr
ologyperti
nenttothedesi
gnandoper
ati
onofengi
neeri
ng
pr
ojectsfort
hecontrol
anduseofwater
.

1.
2HYDROLOGYANDAGRI
CULTURALDEVELOPMENT

The most i mportant uses of hy drol

ogy i n agricult
ural
development,especial
lyi nthe fi
eld ofagr iculturaland wat er
resourcesengi
neeri
ng,arei nt
hestructuralandhy drauli
cdesignof
water control struct
ures, ir
ri
gati
on and dr ainage sy st
ems,
hydropowergenerati
on,floodcontr
ol,erosioncontrolandpol l
uti
on
abatement.

1.St
ruct
uralandHy
draul
i
cDesi
gn

In any ty
pe ofr eserv
oir,provisi
on mustbe made f or
passing fl
ood fl
ows ov erorar ound the dam. The spil
lway
secti
on capacity,the hei
ghtofdam,downst ream pr
otecti
on
works,etc.dependont hecorrectassessmentoff l
oodfl
owand
rout
ing.Anunder est
imatemayr esultanunsafedesignandan
overest
imatemayl eadtounnecessaryexpendit
ure.

2.I
rr
igat
ionandDr
ainageSy
stems

Thehydrologicproblemsi nirr
igationar esi milart othosei n
watersupplybutonal argerscal e.Today ,wei ncr easinglyfind
ourselvesconfront edwi thlimit i
ngcondi t
ionsbecauseofmor e
ambi ti
ousprogr am ofirri
gationandcompl exit
iesoft hepr oblem
correspondi
nglyi ncrease.Onsomer iv
er s,waterr equi rementst o
i
rri
gat etheavailablefarmabl el andfarexceedt het ot alfl
owand
thedownst ream pr oj
ectshav et odependonr eturnf l
ow from
upstream projects. Mor eandmor e,thehy drologi sti scalled
upont oevaluat enew pr ojectsi nar easwher et hemar ginof
safetyi sal
readyl ow ort odi scovernew sour cesofwat erfor
projectsindif
ficultyort odev elopmor eeconomi calmet hodsof
wateruse.

Ont heotherhand,becauseoftheuncont
rol
ledsilt
ati
onin
ri
ver
s,st r
eamsand ot herbodiesofwater,fl
ooding ofprime
agri
cult
ural areas,especial
lyr i
cel
ands,have been al r
eady
fr
equentl
yex peri
encedduringtherai
nyseason.Tomaket hese
 areasonceagainproducti
veevendur
ingtherai
nymonths,f
lood
watersshouldbedrained.Hence,dr
ainagesyst
emsshouldbe
designedproper
lyconsider
ingthehydr
ologi
ccondi
ti
onsi nthe
area.

3.Hy
dropowerGener
ati
on

Hy dr
ologi cst udiesar eessentialt othepl anning ofany
wat erpowerdev elopmentand f ormanyexi sti
ng plant s,t he
oper ati
ng schedul ei s dependenton a per petualhy drologic
i
nv entoryandpr edictionsy stem.Todet erminethef easibil
i
t yofa
“run-of-
the-ri
v er”pl ant,oper ati
ngwi thpondage,j ustsuf fi
cientt o
ti
de ov ert he peak demand hour s ofeach day ,a r el i
able
predicti
oni sneededoft heabsolutemi nimum dai l
yflowt hatmay
beex pectedoft hest ream andoft heper centageoft imet hat
variousot herl owr atesoff lowmaybeexpect edt oexist.Fort he
“storagepl ant ”,low seasonalf l
owsr atherthanl ow dai l
yf l
ows
aret hei mpor tantpar amet ersandr eser v
oirdr awdownst udies
mustbemadet odet erminet heprimepowerpossi bil
i
tiesoft he
site and r elative economi cs ofv ari
ous height s ofdam and
capaci t
iesoft urbinegener atorunit
s.

4.Fl
oodCont
rol

Flood cont rolprojectsr ange fr

om smal limpr ovement s
suchasl ocal
izeddr edgingorchannelst raighteni
ngt ogi gantic,
basin-wi dedev elopmenti nvolvi
ngout l
aysofmoney . Forsuch
projects,itisnecessar yfirsttoanalyzestat
istical
lythepr obable
frequencyoff loods ofv ari
ous magnitudes so t hatpot ential
futuref loodlossesmaybepr edict
ed. Then,a“ designf lood”
mustbesy nthesiz edandav ari
etyofpreli
mi naryplanspr epared
forwor ksthatmi ghtprotectagainstit.Aftert hi
s,anumberof
themor epr omisingal t
ernativesmustbest udi edindet ai
l,eit
her
analyticall
yorbymeansofhy draul
icmethods.

Cl
oselyal
li
edtofl
oodcont roli
sfl
oodpr edi
cti
on. These
for
ecastswhichachi
evear emarkabl
yhi
ghdegr eeofaccuracy
arethej
ointwor
kofhydr
ologist
sandmeteor
ologist
s.

5.Er
osi
onCont
rol
 Erosioncontrolisbasical
l
yal li
edt othesedi mentat
ionof
r
eservoi
rs,theproblem whichaff
ect sreser
v oi
roperat
ionandi t
s
l
if
e.Reser voi
rsedimentat
ionisaf uncti
onoft hequali
tyofrunoff
waterfrom watersheds. Thehi ghert her ai
nfal
lint
ensit
y ,t
he
moresoilsedi
ment sarecarri
edbyt herunoffwater.

6.Pol
lut
ionAbat
ement

The enor mous gr owt h of popul ation and l arge scal e

i
ndustrializati
oni nmanycount ri
esoft hewor ldhav ebr ought
aboutmanypubl i
cheal thpr oblems,nott hel easti mpor tantof
which i st hat of t he pol luti
on of st reams. Many r i
ver s
downstr eam f r
om ci t
ieshav ebecomeopensewer sdanger oust o
publi
cheal th and dest ructiveoff i
sh and ot herwi ldl i
feand
natur
albeaut y. Compl et
e pr evention of st ream pol luti
on,
alt
houghpossi bleonsomest reams, isnoteconomi cal l
yfeasi ble.
Itisher et hatt hehy drologistcomest ot heassi stanceoft he
sanit
aryengi neers. Acompl etest r
eam pol luti
oncont rolst udy
musti ncl udeani nv estigationofst ream f l
ow,par ti
cularlyt he
magnitudeanddur ationofl ow f l
ows. I nsomei nst ances,t he
augment ati
onofl owf lowsbymeansofr eser v
oir,haspr ovent o
beatleastasi mpor tantt ot hecont rolofstr eam pollutionashav e
i
nvestment sinadditional sewage- t
reatmentpl ants.

1.
3THEHYDROLOGI
CCYCLE

Hy drologiccy clei st hedescr ipti

vet er
m appl iedtothegener al
ci
rcul ati
onofwat erf r
om t heseast ot heat mosphere,tot he
groundandbackt ot heseasagai n.Begi nningwi t
hev aporati
on
fr
om t he wat er sur f
aces i ntot he at mospher e,the v apor
condensesbyv ar iouspr ocesses,causi ngpr ecipi
tat
ionont he
earthsur face,ofwhi chapar tisr et
ainedonl andinthesoi l,t
he
surfacedepr essi onsandonv eget ati
on,andagai nr et
urnst othe
atmospher ebyev apor ationandt r
anspirati
onandt hebal ance
doesbacki ntot heseat hroughdev i
oussur faceandunder ground
channel s.Adi agr am oft hehy drol
ogiccy cleisshowni nFig.1-1.
Thehy dr
ologi
ccycl
econtinuousl
ykeepsabalancebetweenthewat erofthe
eart
handt hemoistur
eintheatmosphere.I
nor dert
obetterunderstandthe
hydrol
ogiccycl
e,weshoul dknow themeaningoft hedif
ferentprocesses
i
ncludedinthecycl
e,asfoll
ows:

1.Evaporat
ion–istheescapeofwatermolecul
esfr
om l
andand
watersur
facesi
ntotheatmospher
einthegaseousfor
m.

2.Tr
anspi
rat
ion–i
stheev
apor
ati
onofwat
erf
rom t
hel
eav
esof
pl
ant
s.

3.Preci
pit
ation–isthefal
lofmoi
stur
efr
om t
heat
mospher
eto
theeart
h’ssur
faceinanyfor
m.

4.I
nfi
lt
rat
ion–t
hev
ert
ical
ent
ryofwat
eri
ntot
heear
th’
ssur
face.

5.Percol
ati
on–i sthedownwardmovementofwat
ert
hrough
thesoi
lprof
il
ebey
ondtheroot
zonedept
h.

6.Over
landf
low (
sur
facer
unof
f)–ist hatwat
erwhicht r
avel
s
ov
erthegr
oundsur
facet
oastr
eam orasurf
acedepressi
on.

7.Int
erf
low – isthatwaterwhichmov est
hroughthesubsoi
l
unti
litreachest hest
ream orsurf
acedepressi
onbutata
muchl at
erti
met hanov
erlandf
low.
 8.Basef l
ow( dr
y-weatherfl
ow)–i sthatwat
ercomingfrom the
groundwaterreser
v oi
rwhichev entual
l
ydischar
gesi nt
ot he
streamsifthewat ertabl
eint
ersectsthest
ream channelsof
thebasin.

9.Seepage–i sthemovementofwaterinanydir
ect
ionthr
ough
the poresfr
om areser
voi
rorir
rigat
ioncanali
ntothesoilor
substr
ataoutsi
det
hewatersour
ce.

Sur
10. f
acest
orage– isthatpor
ti
onofthepreci
pit
ati
onwhi
chi
s
stor
edondepressi
onsi
nthegroundsur
face.

Soi
11. lwater–i
sthatwat
ert
hati
sst
oredi
nther
oot
zonedept
h
ofpl
ant
s.

12.Groundwater–isthatwaterthatoccurswi
thi
nthev
oidsof
t
her ocksandunder
groundgeol
ogicfor
mati
ons.

Thehy drol
ogi
ccy cl
ehassomepeculi
ari
ti
esascompar
ed t
o
otherat
mospheri
ccycles,
asf
oll
ows:

1.Anout st
andi
ngpecul i
ari
tyofthehydrol
ogi
ccy clei
sthatwater
resourceisi
nexhausti
ble,i
nsof arasiti
sav ai
labl
eeveryyear
againandagain,thoughoftenvaryi
nginquantityf
rom yearto
year,whil
emaintaini
ngaf air
lyrel
iabl
eaverageov eraperiod
ofyears.

2.Anotherpecul
iar
it
yofthi
scyclei
sthattheav
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
er
var
iesgeographi
call
yandper
iodi
cal
ly.

Thehydr
ologi
ccy
clemaybesai
dtobedet
ermi
nedbycondi
ti
ons
oft
hreeki
nds:

1.Thenat ur
eandappl
i
cat
ionofther
adi
antener
gyf
rom t
heSun,
thatkeepsupt
hecir
cul
ati
on.

2.Theinherentpr
oper
ti
esoft
hemat
eri
alofci
rcul
ati
on,
i.
e.oft
he
wateri
tself
.

3.Thest
ruct
ureoft
henat
uralr
eser
voi
rsandcondui
ts,
i.
e.oft
he
 atmosphere,t
hel andsurf
ace,andthesoi
landr
ocks,whi
ch
holdwaterorconducti
tinit
scourse.

Anagri
cul
tur
alengi
neerhasthr
eemaj
orconcer
nsi
nthe
hydr
ologi
ccycl
e,asfol
lows:

1.Themaint
enanceofsoi
linfi
lt
rabil
i
tyi
nor
dert
oret
ardr
unof
for
over
landf
lowandcontr
ol er
osion.

2.I
ni r
ri
gat
edar eas,per
col
ati
onl
ossesshoul
dbecut
offand
i
nter
fl
owreduced.

3.Reduct
ionofev
apor
ati
onl
ossesi
ncr
opl
ands.

1.
4AVAI
LABI
LITYOFWATER

Plantandani mall ifecannotsur vi

vewi thoutwat erandai r
.
Wi t
ht he rapi
d growt h ofpopulation and impr ovementi nl i
ving
standards,theconsumpt i
onofwat eri srapidlyincreasing. Itis
si
mpl yaquest i
onoft imewheni nmostpar t
soft hewor ld,the
avail
ablesuppliesofwat erwi l
lproveinadequate.Ther ei senough
wateri nourseasandoceans;howev er,t
hisseawat ercontains
about 3. 5% sodium chl ori
de plus smal lamount s of ot hers
substances. Ithasbeenest imatedt hatitwi l
lcostsomewher e
between f i
ve and ten times to make sea wat eraccept ablefor
i
ndust r
ialand agricult
ur aluses as compar ed wi tht he costof
developinginl
andwat ers.

1.
4.1Ty
pesofWat
erResour
ces

Thewat
err
esour
cesoft
hewor
ldar
eoft
woki
ndsas
fol
l
ows:

1.Surf
aceWat erResour ces.Thewat ersoftheearthandt he
moistureint heat mospher eisconti
nuousl
ybalancedbyt he
hydr
ol ogiccy cl
e.Thewat erresour
ceisinexhausti
bleandi t
i
salway sav ailableeveryyearagainandagain.Howev er,i
ts
usefulnessisl imitedbyi t
scomposi ti
onandav ai
labil
i
ty.I t
i
sonl ythef reshwat erswhi chcanbeut i
li
zedfordomest ic,
i
ndust ri
aland agr i
cult
uraluses. Fur t
hermore,onl ya
fr
actionoft hef reshwat erscanbeeasi l
ytappedasshown
 i
nTabl
e1.
1.

Thequant i
tyofprecipi
tationf rom yeartoyearv ari
esfrom one
pl
acet oanot her
.Asar esul
t,runof fvolumev ar
iesalso
geographical
lyasgi v
eni nTable1. 2.I twil
lbeobser v
edt hatSouth
andNor thAmer icaaremor efav oredwi thwaterthananyoft heot her
conti
nentsoft hewor l
d.Mostoft hear i
dareaslieinAsia,Afri
caand
Austr
alia.Aust r
ali
aisthedr i
estofal l
continent
sandt heAustral
ians
aregenuinelywor r
iedaboutthei rgrowt h.

Tabl
e1.
1.Gener
alDi
str
ibut
ionofEar
th’
sWat
erResour
ces.

Typeof Tot
alWater Propor
ti
onof
3
Water (km ) Tot
alWater Fr
eshWat
er
TOTAL 1,
500,
000,
000 100
Salty 1,
425,
000,
000 95
Fresh 75,
000,
000 5
FRESH
Frozen 60,
000,
000 4 80
Li
qui d 15,
000,
000 1 20
FRESHLI QUID
Groundwater 14,
850,
000 0.
99 19.8
Soilwater 30,
000 0.
002 0.04
Riverwater 15,
000 0.
001 0.
02
Atmospheric 15,
000 0.
001 0.
02
Biologi
cal 7,
500 0.
0005 0.
01
Lake 82,
500 0.
0055 0.
11
SOURCE:Lect
ureNotesinAdv ancedSoi
landWat
erConser
vat
ionEngi
neer
ingby
Dr.Abraham A.Caoi
l
i.
Tabl
e1.
2.Wor
ldDi
str
ibut
ionofRunof
f(Accor
dingt
oL’
vov
ich)

Cont
inent
soft
he TotalLand Runof
f
2
World Area(km ) (cm)
Europe( I
ncludingIceland) 9,
680 26.
2
Asia(Incl
udingJapanese&Phi l.I
slands) 42,
300 17.
0
Afri
ca( I
ncludingMadagascar ) 29,
850 20.
3
Australi
a(Includi
ngTasmani a&N.Zeal and) 7,
970 7.
6
SouthAmer i
ca 17,
928 45.
0
North Amer i
ca ( Includi
ng West I ndies & C. 20,
195 31.
4
Amer i
ca)
Greenland&Canadi anAr chi
pel
ago 3,880 18.
0
MalayanAr chipelago 2,620 16.
0
TOTAL 131,423
AVERAGE 25.
0
SOURCE:Engi
neer
ingHy
drol
ogybyVar
shney
.
2. Groundwat erResour ces. Besi des the sur face wat er
fl
owi ng i nrivers,thereist hesubsur f
acewat erwhichi s
deri
v ed f r
om some r ainf
allpercolati
ng i ntot he porous
subsoi lundert he influence ofgr avit
y . Thi s wat eri s
designat ed as groundwat er
,and t hewat erlev elofthis
subsur f
acewat eri sknownaswat ertable.I tconf ormsina
gener alwayt othesur faceoft hegroundabov eit, sl
opi
ngi n
the same di r
ect i
on but wi th less i ncli
nation. The
groundwat erl
evelr i
sesandf all
sdur i
ngt hey ear ,it
shei
ght
dependi ngupont heamountofper colat
ionwhi chi sadded
toitdur ingthedi ff
erentseasons.Thus,t hewat ertabl
ei s
atitshi ghestsoon af tertheend oft hemonsoon and
l
owestj ustpri
ort othecommencementoft hemonsoon.

Themov ementofgr oundwat erisv er

yslow because
of t he greaterfri
cti
onalr esi
stance which ithas t o
overcome.Thev el
ocit
yofgr oundwat ermayv aryfrom 6
met ersperdayi ncoar sesandandgr avelwithast eep
gradientt o about3 met ers pery eari nfine-
textured
sandst ones. Thus,thegr oundwat eri nsandandgr av el
formationsisamor eimpor tantsour ceofsuppl ythani n
sandst onesandotherrockformat i
ons.

Theav ai
labil
ityofgroundwat erv ari
esf r
om pl acet o
place, dependi
nguponpr eci
pit
ationandsubsoi lcondit
ions.
Itissel dom foundeconomi caltopumpoutgr oundwat er
from dept hsexceedi ng 5 meter s,exceptwher esur face
wat ers have already been dev eloped t ot he maxi mum
economi cli
mit.Wher ethewat ert abler i
sest owi thi
n1. 5
met ersoft hegr oundsur f
ace,wat er -
loggingdev el
opsand
affectst heyi
eldofcr opsduet oef florescentsaltsrisi
ngt o
ther ootzoneofcr opsandduet ol ackofaer ation.Such
areasar eparti
cularlysui
tablef
orgr oundwat erdevelopment .

Ther eis,howev er ,a need t ol i

mitgr oundwater
development .Intensi
vedev el
opmentofgr oundwaterhas
beenaccompani edbymar kedsubsidenceofl andsurface
and sal t water intr
usion. Land subsi dence created
problems pr i
mar i
ly r el
ated t o const ructi
on and
maint enance of engi neeri
ng st r
uctur
es. Sal t water
i
ntrusion willalso aff
ectt he l
i
fe oft he foundat
ion of
 bui
ldings,aside f
rom renderi
ng the groundwat
ernon-
uti
l
izablefordomesti
candindust
ri
aluses.

1.
4.2.
Seasonal
Dist
ri
but
ionofWat
er

I
nmonsooncount ri
esli
ket hePhil
i
ppines,nearl
y90%of
the ri
ver fl
ow occur s during the monsoon mont hs of
SeptemberthroughDecember ;whil
eduringther emaini
ngdry
peri
od,thesmal lfl
ow isfedlargel
ybyseepageorv er
ylit
tl
e
rai
n. This seasonaldi st
ri
buti
on causes fl
oods and f l
ood
damagedur ing therainyseason and scarcit
yofwat eror
droughtduri
ngt hedryper i
od. Thus,theonl yremedyi sto
store wat
erdur ing t
he excess period f
orcont r
oll
ed and
regul
atedusethroughouttheyear.

1.
4.3Wat
erQual
it
y

Wateravai
labil
i
t yisaf uncti
on ofboth quant
ityand
quali
ty.Mostoften,therequiredvolumeofwaterisavail
abl
e
butitsqual
it
yisnotaccept able,mostespeci
all
ywhensuch
waterist
obeut i
l
izedf ordomest i
candindust
ri
aluses.

Ther apidlyincreasingdemandf orwat erbyt hehuman

populati
onandt heindust r
iesl edt ot heuni versalclamorf or
hi
gherwat erqual i
tystandar ds.I ngener al,twost andar dsar e
beingcur rentlypr act
iced:ahi gherwat erqual it
yst andardf or
domest icuse, andal owerwat erqual i
tystandar df orindustri
al
uses.Wat erfordomest i
cusesmustbef reef r
om i mpur i
ti
es
andanyodor .Inaddi ti
on, i
tshoul dbepal atableandcol or
less.
Evenasmal ltraceofsal torav eryli
ghtcol orwi l
lmakewat er
unaccept able. On t he otherhand,t he r equirement sf or
i
ndust r
ialwat eri s notso sev ere as fordomest i
c wat er.
Howev er,wat erf orindustrialusemustbesui tablef orthe
specialprocessesi nvolv
ed.

As regards to wat er for agr

icul
tur
alpur poses,no
regulati
onshav ebeenl aid downy et;however,suchwat er
must not cont ain objecti
onabl
e salts,soli
ds and ot her
substances,ei therdissolved orsuspended in excess of
certainprescr
ibedlimit
s.

1.
4.4Met
hodsofEconomi
zingt
heUseofWat
er
 I
nv i
ewoftheshort
ageofeconomi caldam si
tesforthe
stor
ageofsur pl
uswaterduri
ngt hemonsoonmont hs,itis
necessar
yt ot
akeear
lymeasuresf oreconomizi
ngt heuseof
water.Someofthemeasurespresentl
ypracti
cedare:

a.Reducing wat eral l

owance ofcr ops,mostofwhi ch at
presentrecei v
emor et hannecessar yformaxi mum y i
elds.
The popul arnot ion among i nexperi
enced f armerst hat
“Morewat er ,mor ecr ops”shoul dbecor rected.Thisleads
toineffi
cientandwast efulapplicat
ionofwat er
.Thedept h
ofwat ert o be appl ied should be det er
mi ned corr
ect l
y
consideri
ngsoi ltexture,struct
ur eandr oot-
zonedept h.I n
mostsoi ls,wi thar ootzone dept h of1. 2 meters,t he
maximum wat erdept hi n a singleirri
gati
on should not
exceed15t o17. 5cm.

b.Reducinglossesinunlinedcanal
samount ingtoover33%.
Li
ning ofcanal s substant
ial
lyreduces absorpt
ion and
seepagelosses. Desi gni
ng canal
sf orhigherveloci
ti
es
l
eadst osuff
ici
entreducti
onincanalsect
ion.

c.Reduci ngevapor ati

onl ossesfrom reser voirsbyuseof
chemi cal
s.Hexadecanol ,aki
ndofwax,hasbeenf oundt o
form,onawat ersur face,amonomol ecul
arf i
l
m t hatis
resi
stant tot he act ion of dust and wi nd and t hus,
suppressesevapor ation. Coconutoilisal sounderst udy
and i ti s expect ed t hat i
ts usage as ev aporati
on
suppressant willbe f ound economi cal. The use of
chemicals,howev er,is noty etpr omot ed because of
probl
emsof av ail
abili
tyandeconomy . Fur therresearch
shouldbedoneont heonsiteandof fsiteeffectsoft hese
chemicals.

d.Reducing l osses i n industrial processing, cooli

ng
condensers of st eam pl ants, etc.
, by pur i
ficat
ion,
reci
rculat
ion,aircool i
ng and ot herdev i
ces. Research
acti
vit
iesonmet hodst oreducewat erlossesinindustri
al
syst
emsshoul dbeintensi
fied.

e.Drai
nageofmarshyandwater-
loggedl
ands.Mar shyand
water
-l
ogged ar
eas ar
e adaptabl
et o devel
opment of
gr
oundwater
. Hence,t
heyshouldbedrainedinorderto
 convertt
hem f
rom anunheal
thyandunsani
tar
ypl
acei
ntoa
prof
itabl
ear
ea.

f
.Resear ch i
ntothe pr
ocesses ofpurify
ing sal
ine wat er
.
Thereisalr
eadyatechnologytodesal
ini
ze/pur
if
ysalineor
bracki
sh water
. Howev er,thi
sis noty eteconomi call
y
feasi
ble.

g.Relocati
on ofindustr
yt ot he sea coast,reser
ving t
he
i
nteriorforagri
cult
ureasf araseconomi cal
lyfeasi
ble.
Rel
ocat i
ngtheindustr
ialcompaniest otheseacoastwi l
l
l
essent hepol
l
utionofthelandandwat erresour
ces.

SUMMARY

Thedescr i
pti
onoft hehy dr
ologiccy cleandt heschemat i
c
diagr
am ar eenor mouslyov ersi
mplifi
ed.Thehy drologiccy cl
eisa
convenientmeansf ordelineati
ngthescopeofhy drologyast hat
porti
onbet weenprecipi
tationont hel andandt her eturnoft hi
s
watertot heat mosphereorocean.Thecy cl
ealsoemphasi zesthe
four phases of i nterest t o the hy dr ol
ogist: pr eci
pitat
ion,
evaporati
on and t ranspi r
ati
on, sur face st reamf low, and
groundwat er.

ENGR.MEREWINALLANIEA.TAPONG
Subj
ectI
nst
ruct
or