CHAPTER IV

EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION
AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

► Evaporation and transpiration are the processes of the hydrologic cycle in

which precipitation reaching the earth’s surface is returned to the
atmosphere as vapor. Evaporation may happen on soil and water surfaces
while transpiration occurs primarily in plants. The combined effect of
evaporation and transpiration is called evapotranspiration and is usually
designated by the notation ET. Over large land areas in temperate zones,
about two-thirds of the annual precipitation is lost due to evaporation and
transpiration, and the remaining one-third runs off over streams to the
oceans. In arid regions, evapotranspiration may be even more significant,
returning up to 90% or more of the annual precipitation to the atmosphere.

► Evaporation and transpiration are important for the following reasons:

1. The change of phase liquid  vapor provides a major mechanism for

the redistribution of energy within an ecosystem and throughout the
atmosphere.

2. Probably, the most important physical effect of transpiration is the

cooling that occurs at the transpiring surface. Reduced transpiration can
easily result in an increase of 2 – 3 oC in plant temperature with
increases perhaps as great as 10oC under extreme conditions.

3. Transpiration is involved in the translocation of plant products and in

the transport of essential nutrients from the soil to plant tissue where the
nutrients enter into the photosynthetic processes.

4. Transpiration and evaporation are involved also in the purification of

water.

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4.2EVAPORATION

4.2.1 THE EVAPORATION PROCESS

 Evaporation is defined in the Glossary of Meteorology as “the

physical process by which a liquid or solid is transferred to the
gaseous state. This occurs when the number of moving molecules
that break away from the water surface and escape into the air as
vapor is greater than the number that re-enters the water surface from
the air and become entrapped in the liquid.

 This evaporation process happens in this way. When water is

warmed, the water molecules become more active and move from
the liquid water to the atmosphere. As more water molecules move
into the atmosphere, the density of the water molecules near the
water surface increases. Collisions between molecules emerging
from the water with those already in the air cause some water
molecules to return to the water. As a result, there is a constant
transfer of molecules to and from the water, but the transfer from the
water is dominant. Other molecules are caused to move farther into
the air by molecular action. After a period of time, there is nearly
the same number of molecules returning to the water surface as
leaving the water surface in a thin film next to the water. Within this
thin film, as shown in Figure 4.1, the air is nearly saturated with
water vapor and little further increase in water vapor can occur
between the water and the saturated film next to the water.
However, after a little while, water vapor escapes from the thin film
saturated air and joins the air above it, making it unsaturated once
again. As this happens, several molecules of water vapor will move
to the thin film saturated air to replace those which were able to
escape into the atmosphere. This process is repeated again and
again.

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  The essential requirements in the evaporation process are: (1) the
source of heat to vaporize the liquid water and (2) the presence of a
gradient of concentration of water vapor between the evaporating
surface and the surrounding air. The latent heat of vaporization is
539 calories per gram of water at 1 atmosphere pressure (100 deg C).
Latent heat of vaporization is the heat required, in calories, to
convert 1 gram of water at 1 atmosphere pressure to vapor. This
process can occur only when the vapor concentration at the
evaporating surface exceeds that in the overlying air.

 Water also evaporates directly from the solid state, and this process
is called sublimation. A significant amount of water vapor enters
the atmosphere through sublimation from snow and ice. This
contribution of water vapor to the atmosphere, however, is far less
than evaporation from the liquid water contained in the oceans,
lakes, and rivers on earth.

4.2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

 The most important factors affecting evaporation are discussed as

follows:

1. Vapor Pressure and Humidity. When air is warmer than water,

evaporation continues until the vapor pressure of air equals that
of water, and then no further evaporation occurs. If air is colder
than water and the vapor pressure of the water and vapor pressure
of the air are equal, the air becomes supersaturated and fog
develops.

2. Temperature. The movement of water molecules increases with

temperature. The kinetic energy of water molecules increases as
temperature rises and this increased energy permits molecules to
escape from liquid water to the air more rapidly than otherwise.
For this reason, the warmer the water, the more active are the
molecules and the greater is the transfer of molecules from the
water to the air. Of course, temperature and other factors are
interrelated, and it is not possible to isolate the effect of each
factor on evaporation. It has been observed, however, that
evaporation increases from the colder months to the warmest
month of the year.

3. Atmospheric Pressure. Fewer air molecules are present in less

dense air (lower atmospheric pressure) and so it is less likely that
escaping water molecules will collide with air molecules.

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 Consequently, evaporation is greater at lower atmospheric
pressures than at higher atmospheric pressures. Atmospheric
pressure decreases with altitude and, therefore, evaporation is
higher at higher altitudes. This effect is somewhat offset by
decreasing temperatures with increasing altitude.

4. Wind. Evaporation is believed to increase with wind velocity

until the vapor pressure gradient between the evaporating surface
and the air reaches some nearly constant relation. At this point, a
further increase in wind speed will not increase evaporation
appreciably. The effect of increased wind speed on evaporation
is believed to be related further to the size of the water body.
Wind removes water vapor from small bodies of water rather
quickly.

5. Water Quality. The vapor pressure of water is reduced when

solids are dissolved in water. Pure water has a higher vapor
pressure than salt water. Experiments showed that a salt content
of 1% slows the evaporation rate by about 1%. Since the ocean
and sea water generally contains a little over 3%, its evaporation
rate is lower than that of freshwater by about 3% also.

6. Water Depth and Soil Type. Shallow water bodies are more
rapidly heated than are deep water bodies and are, therefore,
evaporated more rapidly. Precipitation that is ponded on a
drainage basin and intercepted precipitation are evaporated
rapidly after rainfall when insolation provides renewed heating.
The effect of this heating is increased because dark soils and
other dark objects absorb incoming radiation and convert it to
heat more effectively than lighter-colored soils and objects.

7. Area of Evaporation. Evaporation will be greater for a place

having the larger exposed area.

4.2.3 APPLICATION OF EVAPORATION IN HYDROLOGY

 Evaporation is important when long-term storage for water supply is

the primary purpose of a study. Evaporation from storage reservoirs,
therefore, can be large and represents a direct loss for the project
purpose. Evaporation from soils in the drainage basin is important
because this antecedent moisture deficit must be satisfied before any
significant runoff will occur. On the other hand, irrigation of
agricultural lands is scheduled, on the basis of the moisture deficit,
to alleviate plant stress. The evaporation rate is related to the soil

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 type as well as the rate of replenishment of moisture in the soil from
rainfall or water delivery.

 By suppressing evaporation, loss of usable water can be prevented.

Oil and chemicals (e.g. acetyl alcohol) have been used to reduce
evaporation rate from water surfaces. Less than 10 grams of this
chemical can make a film covering about 4000 m 2 of water surface.
If the film can remain unbroken over the entire surface of a reservoir,
as much as 70% reduction in evaporation can be effected. In some
areas, sand storage dams have also been used to save runoff water
that would otherwise evaporate.

 Knowledge of the evaporative process can be used beneficially to

dispose of unwanted waste and to cool water heated during industrial
processes. Evaporation ponds can serve as an efficient means to
dispose of waste. If the pond is shallow, the evaporation rate is
generally high. Of course, ponds must be properly lined to prevent
the waste water from percolating down to the underlying
groundwater.

4.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

 Evaporation is usually measured by evaporation pans and

atmometers. Evaporation pans are most widely used for measuring
evaporation in the Philippines. The use of an evaporation pan is as
follows:

“Water is placed in a relatively small, shallow pan and

the water level is measured. Water levels in the pan are
measured using a hook gage or a similar device by which the
levels can be measured accurately. Water is added daily to
keep the levels within a limited range. The change in the
water level measures the evaporation, which is then
converted to the equivalent value for evaporation from a
body of water.”

 The evaporation rate from a pan is not equal to that from a body of
water, and, for this reason, a conversion coefficient, called the pan
coefficient, must be determined to make the two values compatible.
Evaporation from the pans is affected by the size, depth and location
of the pan. Evaporation observations are easy to make using an
evaporation pan.

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 There are three different types of evaporation pans according to
exposure, as follows:

1. Sunken Evaporation Pan. The pan is buried to eliminate

objectionable boundary effects, such as radiation on the side
walls and heat exchange between the atmosphere and the pan
itself. However, this creates observational problems, such as:

a. Sunken pan collect more trash;

b. It is difficult to install, clean and repair;
c. If there are leaks, they are not easily detected;
d. The height of vegetation adjacent to the pan will affect
measurements; and
e. There is appreciable heat exchange between the pan and the
soil depending on soil type, moisture content and vegetative
cover.

Examples of this type of evaporation pan are the U.S.

Bureau of Plant Industry Sunken Pan and the Colorado Sunken
Pan. The U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry Sunken Pan is (1.8 m
(6 ft) in diameter and 0.6 m (2 ft) deep. It is buried in the ground
to a depth within 10 cm (4 in) of its top. The water level is to be
kept no more than 1.25 cm (0.5 in) above or below the ground
level. The conversion coefficient for this pan is 0.95. It is little
used, however, because of its difficulty in installation and
because it tends to gather blowing dust and snow. The Colorado
Sunken Pan is 0.9 m (3 ft) square and has a depth that can range
from 46 cm (18 in.) to 0.9 m (36 in). It is buried in the ground to
within 10 cm (4 in) of the top. The water level in the pan is to be
maintained within 2.5 cm (1 in) of the ground level. The
coefficient of this pan ranges from 0.75 to 0.86; the mean value
of 0.78 is used.

2. Floating Evaporation Pan. This pan more nearly approximates

the evaporation from a body of water rather than that from an on-
short installation. Observational difficulties are prevalent with
floating pans such as:

a. Splashing renders the data unreliable; and

b. Installation and operational expenses are excessive.

Example of this is the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)

Floating Pan. This pan is based on the theory that evaporation
from a floating pan on a body of water would be nearly the same

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 as from the surrounding water. This pan is 0.9 m (3 ft) square by
46 cm (18 in) deep. It is supported by gimbals in the center of a
drum float raft that has dimensions of 4.27 m (14 ft) by 4.9 m (16
ft). The pan is submerged in the water so that the sides project
7.5 cm (3 in) above the water surface. The water level in the pan
is kept at nearly the same level as the surrounding water. The
coefficient for this pan ranges from 0.78 to 0.82; the
recommended value is 0.80.

3. Surface Evaporation Pan. This pan being installed above-

ground surface experience greater evaporation than the sunken
pans, primarily because of the radiant energy intercepted by the
side walls, and the heat exchange through the pan. Both
deficiencies, however, can be minimized by insulating the pan.
The principal advantages of surface exposure are economy and
ease of installation, operation and maintenance.

The U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Pan (Standard

National Weather Service Class A Pan), or commonly called
Class A Pan, shown in Figure 4.1, is the most widely used
surface evaporation pan. It is 1.22 m (4 ft) in diameter and 25.4
cm (10 in) deep, and is exposed on a wood frame which raises the
bottom of the pan 15.4 cm (6 in) above the ground surface to
allow air circulation under it. The pan is filled with water to a
depth of 20 cm and instructions require that it be refilled when
the depth has fallen to 18 cm. Water surface level is measured
daily with a hook gage in a stilling well, and evaporation is the
decrease in the water level in the pan within a specified time,
adjusted for any precipitation measured in a Standard Rain
Gage. Water is added everyday to bring the water level in the
pan up to a fixed point in the stilling well.

The conversion coefficient to be applied to this pan

evaporation ranges from 0.6 to 0.8, with an average of 0.7. Its
advantages are that (a) more data are available from using this
pan, (b) the coefficient is quite stable, (c) it is easily accessible,
(d) it has a reasonable cost, and (e) it is located above much
blowing dirt and snow. The disadvantages are that its coefficient
is less than unity and that the data obtained using this pan vary in
time and space.

This pan is generally recommended for evaporation

studies. It is quite simple and easy to install. Its wide use
provides a large amount of comparable data. Pan measurements

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 are satisfactory because they approximate evaporation from large
bodies of water reasonably close and have the advantage of less
cost and labor.

4.2.5 DETERMINATION OF EVAPORATION FROM WATER

SURFACES

Evaporation from water surfaces can be estimated by several

methods:

1. Water Budget Method. This method of determining long-term

evaporation can be used as a standard for comparing other methods.
This method is not perfect, but it is satisfactory for practical
purposes. The water budget equation for estimating evaporation is
expressed by the formula:

E = I + P – O – S + ΔS
(4.1)

where E is evaporation, I is inflow (irrigation), P is precipitation, O

is outflow, S is seepage, and ΔS is the change in storage. Inflow,
outflow, precipitation, and change in storage can be measured
reasonably accurately. Seepage is difficult to measure or evaluate
directly and accurately, and the extent to which this quantity is
accurate will affect the true value of evaporation. This equation has
been used to measure evaporation from reservoirs.

2. Energy Budget Method. The energy-budget method for estimating

evaporation is similar to the water-budget method, except that the
energy budget deals with the conservation of energy rather than
water. The energy available for evaporation is obtained by
considering the incoming energy, the outgoing energy, and the
energy stored in the water body for a given time interval.

The energy balance for a water body, shown can be expressed

as:

Hs = Hn + Hai – Hao – Hg – He – Hw
(4.2)

where Hs is the increase in the energy storage in the water body, Hn

is the net radiation, Hai is the heat inflow into the water body due to

86
advection, Hao is the heat outflow from the water body due to
advection, Hg is the heat loss from the water body to the ground by
conduction, He is the latent heat flux due to evaporation (negative) or
condensation (positive) and Hw is the sensible heat loss from the
water body to the atmosphere. These energy terms are expresses in
either cal/cm2 per day or langleys.

The net radiation (Hn) is expressed by the formula:

H n = Hc – H r – H b
(4.3)

where Hc is the incoming solar radiation, Hr is the reflected

radiation, and Hb is the back radiation (long-wave radiation) from
the water body.

The latent heat flux due to evaporation or condensation (H e) is

expressed by the equation:

He = ρ E H v
(4.4)

where ρ is the density of water (cm 3/g), E is the rate of evaporation

(cm/day), and Hv is the latent heat of vaporization (cal/g).

The quantity (Hc – Hr) represents the incoming solar radiation

to the water body with a reflection coefficient (albedo) of “r” (0 ≤ r
≤ 1), and can be expressed as:

Hc – Hr = Hc (1 – r)
(4.5)

where Hr = r Hc and Hc is the solar radiation.

Likewise, the quantity:

Hai – Hao = Ha

where Ha represents the net advected energy. This simplifies

equation 4.2 into:

H s = Hn + Ha – H g – H e – H w
(4.6)

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 For a soil column, Ha =0. For short periods of time, Ha and Hs
are negligible. All energy terms except Hw can be measured or
evaluated indirectly. The sensible heat term Hw, which is not
amenable to easy measurement, is estimated using the Bowen
Ratio(B), defined as:

B = Hw / He = Hw / (ρ E Hv)
(4.7)

But the Bowen Ratio can be computed also by the equation:

B = 0.61 (p/1000) [(Tw – Ta) / (es – ea)]

(4.8)

where p is the atmospheric pressure (millibars), Ta is the air

temperature (deg C), Tw is the water-surface temperature (deg C), ea
is the vapor pressure of the air (millibars), and es is the saturation
vapor pressure (millibars) corresponding to the water-surface
temperature.

From equations 4.6 and 4.7, evaporation rate (E) in cm/day is

expressed as:

E = (Hn – Ha – Hg – Hs) / [ρ Hv (1 + B)]

(4.9)

The term Ha can be expressed as:

Ha = [cp He (Te – Tb)] / Hv

(4.10)

where cp is the specific heat of water (cal/g-deg C), Te is the

temperature of the evaporated water (deg C), and Tb is the
temperature at an arbitrary datum usually taken as 0 deg C.

The net radiation Hn may be computed by the equation:

Hn = Rs (1 – r) - Rl
(4.11)

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where Rs is the solar short wave (sun + sky) radiation received at the
earth’s surface (cal/cm2-day); Rs (1-r) is the net short-wave
radiation (cal/cm2-day); r is the short-wave reflectance, or albedo,
which equals 0.05 – 0.15 for water; and Rl is the net outgoing
thermal radiation (cal/cm2-day).

The quantity Rs can be computed by the formula:

Rs = Io [a + b (n/N)]
(4.12)

where Io is the solar radiation received at the earth’s outer surface or

the earth’s atmosphere (cal/cm2-day), n is the actual number of hours
of bright sunshine, N is the maximum possible number of sunshine
hours, a is a constant depending on the region and has been reported
to vary from 0.18 – 0.34, and b is a constant and has been reported to
vary from 0.52 – 0.56. As cited by Bras (1990), Penman (1948)
recommended the values of 0.18 and 0.55 while Black et al. (1954)
have values of 0.23 and 0.48 for the constants “a” and “b”,
respectively.

Penman (1948), as cited by Bras (1990), showed that the

quantity Rl can be estimated by the equation:

Rl = Ro [0.1 + 0.9 (n / N)]

(4.13)

and the quantity Ro is expressed as:

Ro = σ T4 (ε – 1)
(4.14)

where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 11.71 x 10-8 cal/cm2-oK4-

day or 2.0 x 10-9 mm of water/day; T is the temperature of the water
surface (oK); and ε is the emissivity, defined as the ratio of the long-
wave radiation down from the atmosphere to that upward from the
earth and its value varies from 0.906 – 0.985 for water surfaces.

Finally, Penman (1948), again as cited by Bras (1990),

expressed Rl in mm of water by the equation:

Rl = σ T4 [0.56 – 0.092 (ea)0.5] [0.1 + 0.9 (n/N)]

(4.15)

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3. Mass-Transfer Methods. The mass-transfer approach for
calculating evaporation from free water surfaces originated from the
aerodynamic law first presented in 1802 by Dalton. As the name
implies, this approach is based on the determination of the mass of
water vapor transferred from the water surface to the atmosphere.
Employing the Dalton’s Law, a mass-transfer equation is derived as:

E = f(u) [es – ea]

(4.16)

where E is the evaporation rate (cm/day), f(u) is a function of wind

speed u, es is the saturation vapor pressure (millibars), and ea is the
actual vapor pressure (at prevailing air temperature), in millibars.
The (es – ea) is also called saturation vapor-pressure deficit, the
difference between the saturation vapor pressure at the water-surface
temperature and the vapor pressure of air at some height above the
water surface.

A commonly used expression for f(u)is due to Meyer (1944),

as cited by Bras (1990):

f(u) = C (1 + u8/16)
(4.17)

where C is a constant that is equal to 0.36 for daily data on an

ordinary lake and 0.5 for wet surfaces, and u8 is the wind speed
(km/hr) at an elevation of 8 meters.

4. Combination Methods. The combination methods combine the

energy-budget and mass-transfer methods. The most popular
combination method for computing evaporation from free water
surfaces is that developed by Penman (1948), as cited by Rosenberg
et al. (1968). This method combines fundamental physical
principles and empirical concepts based on standard meteorological
observations. The physical principles are the energy-balance
equation and the mass-transfer (or aerodynamic) equation.

The Penman Method can be modified to provide

evapotranspiration (ET) estimates for crops. A detailed discussion
of this method is presented in section 4.4.3 of this chapter.

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4.3TRANSPIRATION

4.3.1 THE TRANSPIRATION PROCESS

 Transpiration is the process by which water vapor leaves the living

plant body and enters the atmosphere. This involves the continuous
movement of water from the soil into the roots, through the stem,
and out through the leaves to the atmosphere. This is the dominant
factor in plant-water relations because evaporation of water produces
the energy gradient which causes the movement of water into and
through the plants. This process virtually ceases during the night
due to stomatal closure in the leaves of almost all plants.

 Transpiration can considered as similar to evaporation except that

the surface from which the water escapes is not a free water surface,
but rather through plant leaves, specifically the stomata. The
number of stomata on plant leaves varies according to plant species.
The density of stomata can vary from 50,000 to nearly 800,000 per
square inch, with many more on the lower leaf surface than on the
upper. These stomata actively transpire water vapor to the
atmosphere during daylight, but close after darkness begins.

 Transpiration is affected by physiological and environmental factors.

Stomata tend to open and close in response to environmental
conditions such as light and dark, heat and cold, and others. Their
function is vital to plant metabolism because stomata allow carbon
dioxide to enter the plant through the photosynthetic process.
Important physiological factors include: (a) stomatal density and
behavior, (b) extent and character of protective coverings, (c) leaf
structure, and (d) plant diseases. All these factors are influenced by
the types of plants and the density of those plants. Leaves that are
shaded by higher leaves transpire less water than those exposed to
direct sun rays. With adequate soil moisture, the greater the plant
density, the greater the amount of moisture lost by transpiration.
Plant diseases reduce transpiration and are often more common and
severe in plants that are densely grouped.

 Environmental factors that affect transpiration are essentially the

same as for evaporation, but can be considered a bit differently. The
most important factors affecting transpiration are: (a) vapor-pressure
gradient, (b) temperature, (c) solar radiation, (d) wind, and (5)
available soil moisture. The difference in vapor pressure between
the space immediately inside the leaf and the outside air determines
the vapor-pressure gradient and is a measure of the energy required

91
 to move the water from the leaf to the air. Plants transpire little, if
any, when the vapor-pressure gradient is low as during a rainfall
event. On the other hand, plants transpire rapidly during times in
sunshine when warm, dry air surrounds them and plenty of soil
moisture is available.

Transpiration rate is doubled for approximately each 18 oF rise in

temperature. It also increases with increasing insolation. Wind usually
increases transpiration by removing the film of moisture-laden air next to the
leaf and consequently increasing the vapor-pressure gradient. Actually, gentle
winds were found to be more effective in increasing transpiration than strong
winds. The transpiration process is greatly affected by the amount of soil moisture
present. The higher the moisture content of the soil, the easier it would be for
plant roots to remove moisture from the soil, and the higher the amount of
transpiration from plant leaves. Finally, transpiration can be altered by spraying
leaves with chemicals. It has been found that spraying leaves with Bordeaux
mixture, a common insecticide made from copper sulfate and lime, increases
transpiration while spraying with hexadeconal reduces transpiration.

4.3.2 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSPIRATION

The method employed for measuring transpiration is dependent on the size

and nature of plants. There are three ways by which transpiration rate may be
measured:

1. Using a Drying Agent. Small plants may be placed in a small closed container,
such as plastic bag, and the amount of moisture transpired in this closed
container is measured using a drying agent that is placed inside the container to
absorb the transpired water vapor. This transpired water vapor in the drying
agent can be measured by weighing the drying agent before and after the test.
Allowances are made for variations in humidity during the measurement.

2. Using a Phytometer. A phytometer is a large vessel, filled with soil, in which

plants are planted. The soil surface is sealed to prevent evaporation, so the only
moisture escape is through transpiration. The lost moisture can be determined
by weighing the plant and container before and after the test. This method
yields good results as long as natural environmental conditions are maintained.

3. Using a Potometer. A photometer operates in the same manner as a

phytometer, except that it filled with water instead of soil. However, there is
still controversy among scientists whether this simulates the natural growing
conditions of the plant.

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4.4EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

4.4.1 THE CONCEPT OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 In a cropped area, water is lost by the processes of evaporation and

transpiration. Plant and soil scientists have been trying their best to
measure separately the evaporation losses from soil surfaces and
transpiration from plants, respectively, but to no avail; hence, they
came up with the term evapotranspiration (ET) which they defined
as the quantity of water transpired by plants during their growth, or
retained in the plant tissues, plus the moisture evaporated from the
surface of the soil and the vegetation. Later, a group of plant
scientists coined the phrase “consumptive use” which is now
interchangeably used with the term “evapotranspiration”. However,
consumptive use (CU) is actually used to designate the losses of
water due to evapotranspiration and the water that is used by the
plant for its metabolic activities. So, CU differs from ET only in that
it includes the water used to make plant tissue. Since the water used
in the actual metabolic processes is insignificant (less than 1% of
ET), the term CU is generally taken to be equivalent to ET.

 Evapotranspiration significantly varies with a lot of environmental,

climatic and plant factors. Scientists revealed that
evapotranspiration could happen at the potential (maximum) rate that
is usually higher than the actual rate observed from plants. Potential
Evapotranspiration (ETp) is the evapotranspiration from an
extended surface of a short green crop which fully shades the
ground, exerts little or negligible resistance to the flow of water and
is never short of water. The ET p, however, cannot exceed free water
evaporation under the same weather conditions. On the other hand,
Actual Evapotranspiration (ETa) refers to the amount of water lost
due to evapotranspiration that is actually observed/measured in a
cropped area. The ETa is usually less than the ETp except for rice
which has a higher ETa than ETp from 20 days until 90 days after
transplanting.

 Evapotranspiration, being a combination of the processes of

evaporation and transpiration, is influenced by all environmental,
meteorological, water quality and plant (physiological and
morphological) factors affecting said processes as they occur
separately.

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4.4.2 MEASUREMENT OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 There are already established methods and procedures to measure the

evapotranspiration rate of plants. However, evapotranspiration is
commonly measured lysimetry, wherein an apparatus called
lysimeters is used.

 A lysimeter is a tank buried in the ground to measure the

percolation of water through the soil and the evapotranspiration of
the crops. This was first used in the study the percolation of water
through soil. In the 20th century, lysimeter design was modified to
permit the study of evapotranspiration. Lysimeters vary in their
accuracy; the most accurate types can detect losses as small as 0.01
mm of water and can be used to accurately detect ET rates over time
periods shorter than 1 hour, about 5- 10 min periods.

 Lysimeters provide the only direct measure of water flux from a

vegetative surface. These are the most dependable means of
measuring evapotranspiration rate; but to provide reliable
measurements of ET, they should meet the following criteria:

1. The lysimeter should be fairly large and deep to reduce the

boundary effect and to avoid restricting root development.

2. The physical conditions within the lysimeter must be comparable

to those outside.

3. The crop in the lysimeter should be of the same height or planted

as dense as in the surrounding area.

4. Each lysimeter should have a “guard-ring” area around it

maintained under the same crop and moisture conditions in order
to minimize clothesline effect.

 The reliability of ET data collected by the lysimeter depends on how

well conditions within the lysimeter (soil structure and density,
drainage characteristics, temperature, and density height, etc. of the
crop) match the conditions surrounding the lysimeter. The high
installation costs and the immobility of lysimeters preclude the use
of lysimeter as routine field instrument.

 Lysimeters are of several types, as follows:

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 1. Potential Evapotranspirometer. A potential evapotranspirometer
is a lysimeter in which the water table is held constant in a mass
of soil so that evaporation may proceed at a potential rate. This
should not be used to provide estimates for periods shorter than 1
day.

2. Floating Lysimeter. A floating lysimeter is an instrument that

float on liquids so that the displacement of the fluid by the
lysimeter bin is measured, generally with a manometer and its
weight determined by the Archimedean principle. This type of
lysimeter should not be used to obtain estimates of ET for periods
shorter than 1 day and, even then, care must be exercised to
account for errors due to temperature fluctuations. For periods as
long as 1 week, however, such lysimeters may provide
sufficiently accurate measurements of ET.

3. Weighing Lysimeter. A simple weighing lysimeter can be made

by filling a small container with soil and burying it in the ground.
The container can be removed from the soil periodically and
weighed on a scale. Very accurate estimates of ET can be
obtained from precision weighing lysimeters.

4.4.3 CALCULATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION RATE

 All methods of calculating crop evapotranspiration involve the

equation:

ETa = ETp x kc
(4.18)

where ETa is the actual crop evapotranspiration, ETp is the potential

evapotranspiration, and kc is the crop coefficient. Crop coefficient
(kc) is a unitless factor used to convert ET p to ETa for a specified
crop. This factor changes with growth stages because of the
changing albedo, increasing height of evaporating surface, increasing
plant biomass and increasing evapotranspiring surfaces.

 Many methods with differing data requirements and levels of

sophistication have been developed for calculating ET p. However,
the Penman Method, a combination method, is still the most
commonly used method to compute the potential evapotranpiration
(ETp). This method combined the aerodynamic and energy budget
methods. This equation requires data on air temperature (T a, oK),
relative humidity (f, %), sunshine hours (n/N, decimal), wind

95
 speed at 2 meters height (u 2, mi/day), radiation rate (Ro,
mm/day) and albedo or reflection coefficient (r, decimal).

The Penman equation has the modified form, as follows:

H + 0.27 Ea
ETp = (4.19)
 + 0.27

H = Rs (1- r) - Ta4 (0.56 – 0.92ea )(0.10 + 0.9 n/N) (4.20)

Ea = 0.35 (es – ea)(1.0 + 0.01 u2) (4.21)

where ETp is potential evapotranspiration (mm water/day), H is the

heat budget of the evapotranspiring surface (mm water/day), Rs is
the radiation incident upon the surface (mm water per day), r is the
albedo or reflection coefficient of the surface (decimal), Ta4 is the
long wave radiation from a blackbody (mm water per day), Ta is the
air temperature (degrees Kelvin), ea is the actual vapor pressure
(mm Hg), Ea is the evaporation due to mass movement (mm water
per day), es is the saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature
(mm Hg), f is the relative humidity (decimal), u2 is the mean wind
speed at two meters (reference or datum line) above the ground
(miles per day), n is the actual duration of bright sunshine (hrs), N is
the maximum duration of bright sunshine (hrs) which varies with
latitude, and  is the slope of saturated vapor pressure curve of air
at absolute temperature in oF (mm Hg /0F)

 The incident solar radiation is usually measured with pyranometer or

pyrheliometer. However, there are but a few stations in the
Philippines monitoring the incident solar radiation (Rs). Moreover,
most of the instruments currently in operation are not serviced,
maintained and calibrated properly. Hence, it is preferable to use
estimates of Rs on the basis of extra terrestrial radiation Ro and the
ratio (n/N), using the formula:

Rs = Ro [(a + b (n/ N)]

(4.22)

where “a” and “b” are coefficients whose values vary with location.
Table 4.1 presents the estimated values of “a” and “b” for various
stations in the Philippines.

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 Table 4.1. Estimated “a” and “b” values for various stations
and regions in the Philippines.

STATION Region a b
BPI, Baguio City 1 0.20 0.51
Cagayan Valley Experimental Station, San Mateo 2 0.18 0.49
Isabela
Maligaya Rice Research and Training Center, 3 0.15 0.56
Nueva Ecija
UPLB, College, Laguna 4 0.24 0.54
BRCES, Pili, Camarines Sur 5 0.16 0.43
Victorias Milling, Negros Occidental 6 0.17 0.41
University of Eastern Philippines, Catarman Northern 8 0.20 0.42
Samar
MIT, Kabacan, Cotabato, Mindanao 11 0.27 0.26
SOURCE: Handouts on Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

 The values of Ro are fixed for given location. Table 4.2 presents the
Ro values (mm water per day) for latitudes from 5 to 22 degrees
North.

Table 4.2. Extra-terrestrial radiation, Ro (mm water per day).

DEGREES
NORTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
5 14.1 14.9 15.4 15.4 15.0 14.5 14.7 15.1 15.3 15.1 14.4 13.9
6 13.9 14.8 15.4 15.4 15.1 14.7 14.9 15.2 15.3 15.0 14.2 13.7
7 13.7 14.6 15.4 15.5 15.2 14.8 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.9 14.0 `3.5
8 13.6 14.5 15.3 15.6 15.3 15.0 15.1 15.4 15.3 14.8 13.9 13.3
9 13.4 14.3 15.3 15.6 15.4 15.1 15.2 15.4 15.3 14.8 13.7 13.1
10 13.2 14.2 15.3 15.7 15.5 15.2 15.3 15.5 15.3 14.7 13.6 12.9
11 13.0 14.0 15.2 15.7 15.6 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.2 14.6 13.4 12.7
12 12.8 13.9 15.1 15.7 15.7 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.2 14.4 13.3 12.5
13 12.6 13.7 15.0 15.7 15.8 15.5 15.6 15.6 15.2 14.2 13.1 12.3
14 12.4 13.6 14.9 15.7 15.8 15.6 15.7 15.7 15.1 14.1 12.8 12.0
15 12.2 13.4 14.8 15.7 15.9 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.1 14.0 12.6 11.8
16 12.0 13.3 14.7 15.6 16.1 15.8 15.9 15.7 15.0 13.9 12.4 11.6
17 11.8 13.1 14.6 15.6 16.1 15.9 16.0 15.8 15.0 13.8 12.2 11.4
18 11.6 13.0 14.6 15.6 16.2 16.0 16.1 15.8 14.9 13.6 12.0 11.1
19 11.4 12.8 14.5 15.6 16.2 16.1 16.2 15.9 14.9 13.5 11.8 10.9
20 11.2 12.7 14.4 15.6 16.3 16.4 16.3 15.9 14.8 13.3 11.6 10.7
21 10.9 12.5 14.3 15.6 16.3 16.4 16.3 15.9 14.7 13.2 11.4 10.4
22 10.7 12.3 14.2 15.5 16.3 16.4 16.4 15.8 14.6 13.0 11.1 10.2
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

97
 The reflection coefficient or albedo (r) varies with the nature of the
evaporating surface. Some estimates of “r” values are given in Table
4.3.

Table 4.3. The albedo of selected surface or cover.

SURFACE /COVER r
Open Water Surface 0.05
Annual field crops at their early vegetative growth stage 0.12
Annual field crops just before and after peak vegetative growth 0.18
stage
Annual field crops at their peak growth stage 0.25
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

 The long wave radiation from the black body (Ta4) expressed in
terms of its equivalent mm water per day may be obtained from
Table 4.4.

Table 4.4. The long wave radiation (Ta4) for various mean air
temperature (Ta) in mm water per day.

Ta (oC) Ta (oK) Ta4 Ta (oC) Ta (oK) Ta4 Ta (oC) Ta (oK) Ta4

10 283 12.8 19 292 14.7 28 301 16.5
11 284 13.0 20 293 14.9 29 302 16.7
12 285 13.2 21 294 15.1 30 303 17.0
13 286 13.4 22 295 15.3 31 304 17.2
14 287 13.6 23 296 15.5 32 305 17.4
15 288 13.8 24 297 15.7 33 306 17.6
16 289 14.0 25 298 15.9 34 307 17.8
17 290 14.3 26 299 16.1 35 308 18.0
18 291 14.5 27 300 16.3
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

 The actual vapor pressure (ea, mm Hg) of the air is calculated by the
formula:

ea = es (f / 100)
(4.23)

where “es” is the saturation vapor pressure for a given air

temperature and “f” is the relative humidity in percent. The
saturation vapor pressure (mm Hg) of the air at any given
temperature may be obtained from Table 4.5.
98
 Table 4.5. Saturation vapor pressure (mm Hg) of air at
various air temperatures.
TEMPERATURE (0C) es TEMPERATURE (0C) es
(mm Hg ) ( mm Hg )
0 4.6 20 17.6
1 5.0 21 18.7
2 5.3 22 19.8
3 5.7 23 21.1
4 6.1 24 22.4
5 6.5 25 23.8
6 7.1 26 25.3
7 7.5 27 26.8
8 8.0 28 28.4
9 8.6 29 30.2
10 9.2 30 31.9
11 9.8 31 33.8
12 10.5 32 35.8
13 11.3 33 37.8
14 12.1 34 40.0
15 12.8 35 42.3
16 13.7 36 44.8
17 14.6 37 47.2
18 15.5 38 49.8
19 16.5 39 52.6
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

 The height at which the wind speed (u) is measured varies with the
monitoring agency. The PAGASA usually monitors the wind speed
at the height of 10 meters. To correct wind speed measurements at
heights other than 2.0 meters, a correction factor from Table 4.6 is to
be multiplied to the measured wind speed in order to get the
extrapolated wind speed at two meters height (u2).

 The value of  (slope of saturated vapor pressure) in mm Hg for

temperature ranging from 10 to 35 oC maybe obtained from Table
4.7.

Table 4.6. Correction factors to convert wind speeds measured

at heights other than 2 meters.

MEASURE- CORRECTION MEASURE- CORRECTION

MENT FACTOR MENT FACTOR
HEIGHT HEIGHT
(m) (m)
0.5 1.35 3.0 0.93
1.0 1.15 4.0 0.88
1.5 1.06 5.0 0.85
2.0 1.00 10.0 0.77
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

Table 4.7.  (slope of saturation vapor pressure) as a

function of the Ta (mm/deg 0 F)

99
 TEMPERATURE Decimal Fraction
(0 C ) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
10 0.3325 0.3360 0.3396 0.3431 0.3467
11 0.3502 0.3542 0.3582 0.3622 0.3662
12 0.3702 0.3746 0.3835 0.3835 0.3879
13 0.3923 0.3971 0.4019 0.4067 0.4115
14 0.4163 0.4216 0.4269 0.4322 0.4375
15 0.4428 0.4474 0.4518 0.4563 0.4608
16 0.4705 0.4760 0.4870 0.4870 0.4924
17 0.4969 0.5034 0.5088 0.5143 0.5198
18 0.5254 0.5309 0.5364 0.5418 0.5473
19 0.5530 0.5584 0.5639 0.5694 0.5748
20 0.5805 0.5860 0.5914 0.5969 0.6024
21 0.6145 0.6200 0.6255 0.6309 0.6369
22 0.6485 0.6553 0.6621 0.6689 0.6757
23 0.6826 0.6894 0.6962 0.7030 0.7098
24 0.7166 0.7236 0.7304 0.7373 0.7414
25 0.7506 0.7574 0.7642 0.7710 0.7778
26 0.7933 0.8001 0.8069 0.8137 0.8205
27 0.8359 0.8444 0.8530 0.8615 0.8700
28 0.8786 0.8871 0.8956 0.9042 0.9127
29 0.9212 0.9298 0.9383 0.9468 0.9554
30 0.9639 0.9743 0.9846 0.9950 1.0054
31 1.0157 1.0261 1.0365 1.0469 1.0572
32 1.0676 1.0780 1.0883 1.0987 1.1091
33 1.1940 1.1298 1.1402 1.1505 1.1609
34 1.1713 1.1817 1.1920 1.2024 1.2127
35 12231 12335 1.2438 1.2543 1.2645
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David
 The Penman equation estimates are under conditions of unlimited
water supply. Even when such conditions are satisfied, the actual
evapotranspiration from a growing crop may slightly differ from
such ETp estimates. This is because with a growing crop, the
distance between reference height and the top of the canopy changes.
Furthermore, if the ETp rates are calculated for fixed albedo value,
then corrections for the changing albedo with crop growth must be
made.

 Actual evapotranspiration (ETa) rates must be computed by

correcting ETp for changing plant height and cover. This is usually
done by multiplying the ETp estimate by the appropriate crop
coefficient (kc) as given by equation 4.18.

 Generally, the albedo value of 0.05 (free water surface) for ETp
estimation is assumed for evaluating k c values. The crop
coefficients, kc, under condition where the soil moisture is optimum

100
 for crop growth were estimated for selected crops and are listed in
Table 4.8.

Table 4.8. Crop coefficients for various crops at different crop

growth stages.
CROP Crop Growth Stage ( % of Total Growth Cycle)
0-20 20-40 40-70 70-90 Maturity
Lowland rice 0.95 1.05 1.10 1.10 0.61
Soybean/ 0.60 0.70 0.90 0.75 0.50
Cowpea/Mungo
Wheat 0.50 0.65 0.90 0.80 0.50
Peanut 0.40 0.55 0.85 0.90 0.50
Tobacco 0.40 0.60 0.75 0.75 0.75
Corn 0.40 0.70 0.90 0.80 0.55
Cabbage 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.65
SOURCE: Handouts in Evapotranspiration by W.P. David

 The Penman’s equation has been found to be satisfactory in both

humid and arid regions under calm weather conditions. Its main
drawbacks are as follows:

1. The meteorological observations are many such that its

applicability is limited.

2. It involves tedious computations.

3. In its derivation, the Penman’s formula assumed that an adiabatic
condition prevails.

4. The method is based upon a flat surface; actually, a surface with

vegetation is three-dimensional.

5. The method employs only one speed and as such rely upon an
extremely crude measure of turbulence.

6. The Penman equation is dependent on radiation values which are

also estimated.

7. Penman assumed constant reflectivity values but reflectivity of

water varies with sun’s angle.

8. The mean surface temperature is extremely difficult to measure.

9. The Penman equation does not give accurate daily estimates and
is usually accurate only for a period of five days or longer.

101
 To simplify the computation of ET p and ETa by the Penman Method,
a step by step list of procedure is given below:

COMPUTING ETp & ETa BY THE PENMAN METHOD

( 1) Enter the number of actual sunshine hours from PAG-ASA: n =

__________
( 2) Enter maximum possible sunshine hours from PAG-ASA: N =
__________
( 3) Compute: n/N = __________
( 4) Obtain values of “a” & “b” from Table 4.2: a = __________, b =
__________
( 5) Obtain value of “Ro” from Table 4.3: Ro = __________
( 6) Compute : Rs = Ro [ a + b (n/N) ] = __________
( 7) Obtain value of “r” from Table 4.4: r = __________
( 8) Compute: Rs (1-r ) = __________
( 9) Compute: [0.10 + 0.9 (n/N)] = __________
(10) Enter values of “Ta” & “f” from PAG-ASA: Ta = __________, f =
__________
(11) Obtain value of “Ta4” from Table 4.5: Ta4 = __________
(12) Obtain value of “es” from Table 4.6: es = __________
(13) Compute: ea = (f x es)/100 = __________
(14) Compute: 0.56 – 0.092ea = __________
(15) Compute: H = (8) – (9) (11) (14) = __________
(16) Compute: es – ea = __________
(17) Enter value of wind speed from PAG-ASA: u = __________ miles/day at
__________meters high

(18) Obtain correction factor from Table 4.7: CF = __________

(19) Compute wind sspeed at 2 meters high: u2 = u x CF = __________
(20) Compute: (1.0 + 0.01 u2) = __________
(21) Compute: Ea = 0.35 (16) (20) = __________
(22) Obtain value of  from Table 4.8:  = __________
(23) Compute: ETp = ( H + 0.27 Ea)/( + 0.27) = __________
(24) Obtain value of kc from Table 4.9: kc = __________
(25) Compute: ETa = ETp x kc = __________

 In areas where the Penman Method is not applicable, because of lack

of weather instruments, the Pan Evaporation Method is most
preferred. This is done using an evaporation pan. This pan is of
many shapes and sizes, is inexpensive, relatively easy to maintain
and simple to operate. However, care must be taken in relating
evaporation from pans to actual ET, especially in arid climates. Pans
may, at times, show less evaporation than ET from vegetation. The
smaller values generally occurs when the pan is partially shaded or is
placed within an irrigated field. Because animals may drink from a
pan or debris may fall into it, screens are sometimes used. However,
screens can also reduce pan evaporation. Generally, pan evaporation
102
 is less than ETp with the greatest difference in the most densely
screened pan. Water level changes in the pans are commonly
measured with a micrometer gage.

 It has been observed that a close relationship exists between the

evapotranspiration rate of crops and the evaporation rate of water in
a properly located evaporation pan. Hence, a relationship was
derived as:

ETp = Epan x kp
(4.24)

ETa = ETp x kc = Epan x kp x kc

(4.25)

where ETp is the potential evapotranspiration, ETa is the actual

evapotranspiration, Epan is the pan evaporation, kp is the pan
coefficient, and kc is the crop coefficient.

 The pan coefficient (kp) accounts for differences in pan type and
conditions upwind of the pan, and for dissimilarities between plants
and evaporation pans. The shape and color of evaporation pans
significantly influence the pan coefficient. Water loss from circular
pans is independent of wind direction while evaporation from square
pans depends on wind direction (since the amount of evaporation
depends on the length of the water surface). Color differences
between pans affect the reflection of radiation and hence,
evaporation. Screens mounted above pans reduce pan evaporation
by as much as 10%. In general, the pan coefficient rises as relative
humidity increases and wind speed decreases. This coefficient is
usually given for a particular evaporation pan or it may be obtained
from Table 4.9. The table gives the Class A pan coefficients when
the pan is surrounded by short green crop (Figure 4.3) and when the
pan is surrounded by dry-fallow land (Figure 4.4).

103
 Figure 4.3. Evaporation pan surrounded by short green crop (CASE A).

Figure 4.4. Evaporation pan surrounded by dry-fallow land (CASE B).

Table 4.9. Pan coefficients for Class A pan for different ground covers and
levels of mean relative humidity and 24-hour wind.

CASE A (Pan surrounded by short green crop)

Upwind Distance of Average Daily Wind Speed (m/s)
Green Crop (m)
Light Moderate Strong Very Strong (8)
(2) (2-5) (5-8)
Mean Relative Humidity  40%
0 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40
10 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.45
100 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.50
1000 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.55
Mean Relative Humidity = 40 – 70%
0 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.45
10 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.55
100 0.80 0.75 0.65 0.60
1000 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.60
Mean Relative Humidity  70%
0 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.50
10 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.60
100 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.65
1000 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.65
CASE B (Pan surrounded by dry-fallow land)
Upwind Distance of Average Daily Wind Speed (m/s)
Green Crop (m)
Light Moderate Strong Very Strong (8)
(2) (2-5) (5-8)
Mean Relative Humidity  40%
0 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.50
10 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45
100 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40
1000 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35

104
 Mean Relative Humidity = 40 – 70%
0 0.80 0.75 0.65 0.60
10 0.70 0.65 0.55 0.50
100 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.45
1000 0.60 0.55 0.45 0.40
Mean Relative Humidity  70%
0 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.65
10 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.55
100 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.50
1000 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.45

 There are several differences between plants and evaporation pans

that cause their responses to differ and make “k p” vary from unity, as
follows:

1. The reflectance of solar radiation from a water surface is only 5 –

8% while the reflectance of plant surfaces is 20 – 25%.

2. Heat storage within an evaporation pan can be significant and

may cause almost equal evaporation during night and day. Most
crops transpire only during daytime.

3. The wind profile over a crop surface differs from that over a pan.

4. Evaporation pans offer no stomatal resistance to water loss.

4.5 CONTROLLING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

► Evapotranspiration is a major avenue of water loss from plants. Yet, it is

believed that this process should happen so that plants may grow. On this
premise, therefore, human beings can only control evapotranspiration but
cannot eliminate it. Some ways to control evapotranspiration are:

1. Increasing planting density to the optimum to reduce exposure of

ground surface to sunlight.

2. Controlling weeds in order to minimize unnecessary transpiration losses

of water.

3. Use of mulching materials to cover soil surfaces.

4. Use of reflectants to increase albedo and antitranspirants.

105