Mids Merged

Signals & Systems
Course No. :EEE/ECE/INSTR F243
Course Title: Signals and Systems
Instructor-in-charge: Ramakant Yadav
Team of Instuctors: BVVSN Prabhakar Rao,

Venkateswaran Rajgopalan,
Amit Ranjan Azad
January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 1

Why learn this subject?
This is one of the fundamental course for electrical, electronics and

communication engineers.
Digital Signal Processing,
Courses Communication Systems,
Digital Image Processing,
Neural Network, Robotics
PG (MS) Studies and DSP, Biomedical Engineering
Research (PhD) Speech Signal Processing
Redpine (wireless networking),

Microsemi (FPGA, Ics), Synopsys
Job openings (DSP systems for medical,
consumer etc), Qualcom
(wireless technologies),Siemens,
Philips, Texas Instruments, GE,
National Instruments, Defense
Labs, Automobile Industries
Things to Remember
• Presentation will be uploaded in section L on CMS in PDF format.
• Google Drive link of Recorded Video Lectures will be uploaded in section L1

on CMS.
• Lecturers will be roughly 45 Min and Q&A 5 Min
• Keep your mobiles Switched off or in Silent
• Lectures: T Th S (10 – 10:50 AM)
• Notice – in section L on CMS
• Consultation Hour : Monday 12.00 – 1.00 PM
• Email : ramakant@Hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
Evaluation Scheme
Weightage (%) Nature of

Component Duration Date & Time
and Marks Component
16/3 (9:00 – CB
Mid Semester Test 1 ½ Hour 30% (90) 10:30 am)
To be announced CB
Quizzes ---- 30% (90) in Class
Comprehensive 19/05 FN CB+OB
3 Hours
Exam 40% (120) (20%+20%)
TOTAL
100% (300)

Course Description
This course is about signals and their processing by systems. It
involves:
 Basic signal analysis
 Basic system analysis
 Time-domain analysis (including convolution)
 Laplace Transform and transfer functions
 Fourier Series (revision) and Fourier Transform
 Sampling Theorem and signal reconstructions
 Basic z-transform

Course Description
The students are required to review following mathematical

topics: Calculus, Fourier Series, Fourier Transforms,
Laplace Transform, Complex variables and Statistics.

Course Plan
Lecture Learning Objectives Topics to be covered
No.
1 Importance of the signals & Introduction to course
Systems course
2–4 Understanding different Classification of CT
types of continuous time Signals & Signal
(CT) signals & performing operations
signal operations
5-6 Understanding different Classification of DT
types of discrete time (DT) Signals & Signal
signals & performing signal operations
operations
January 18, 2022 Signals & systems

9
Course Plan
No.
7 Defining various systems Classification of Systems
8 - 9 Obtaining of LTI system LTI Systems, Property of
output for any arbitrary LTI Systems and Linear
input signal using impulse convolution
response
10 - 11 Signal representation using Orthogonal Signal set &
basis signals Fourier series
12 - 14 Synthesize and analysis of Aperiodic Signal

various continuous time Representation, Fourier
signals Transforms & its
properties
Course Plan
No.
15 - 16 Studying exponentially Laplace transform & its
growing signals and properties
analyzing stable systems
17 Analyzing stable systems Solution of LTI continuous
time systems using
Laplace transforms
18 - 20 Sampling of continuous Sampling & reconstruction
time signals and their
recovery
21 - 22 Synthesize and analysis of Discrete Time Fourier
various discrete time Transform & its properties
January 18, signals
2022 Signals & systems 11
Course Plan
23 – 24 Analysis of discrete time Z-transforms & its
systems properties
25 - 26 z-transform solution of Z-transforms converting

Linear difference equation difference equations into
algebraic equations
27 - 28 Numerical computation of DFT & its properties
Discrete Fourier transform
29 - 30 Obtaining output for DT Discrete time systems,
systems for any arbitrary discrete time convolution
discrete input signal (graphical procedure)

Course Plan
31 – 33 DFT method using FFT Fast Fourier Transform,
algorithms DIT FFT & DIF FFT
algorithms
34 – 37 DFT & IDFT using FFT DFT using FFT & Inverse
algorithms DFT , Discrete-time
convolution using FFT
38 - 42 Study of frequency Introduction to analog
response of different filters
systems

Learning Outcomes
#
1 Represent both continuous-time and discrete-
time signals as a Fourier series.
2 Use the Fourier transform and the Laplace
transform to analyze continuous-time signals and
systems
3 Explain the importance of superposition and
convolution in the analysis of linear time invariant
systems.

Learning Outcomes
#
4 Demonstrate an understanding of the
relationship between the stability and
causality of systems and the ROC of their
Laplace transforms
5 Use the discrete-time Fourier transform and
the z-transform to analyze discrete-time
signals and systems
6 Use FFT algorithm
Books
• T1: Lathi B P, Principles of Signal Processing &
Linear Systems Oxford University Press, 2009.
Reference Books:
• R1: A V Oppenheim, A S Willsky, Nawab S N,
“Signals & Systems”, PHI, Second Edition, 2006
• R2: Nagrath I J, Sharan S N, Ranjan Rakesh &

Kumar S, Signals & Systems, Second Edition
TMH, 2001.

Signals & Systems
Define what signals and systems are.
 A signal is a function of one or more independent variables that conveys information
about some (usually physical) phenomenon.
 For a function f , in the expression f(t1, t2,...,tn), each of the {tk} is called an
independent variable, while the function value itself is referred to as a dependent
variable.

Signals & Systems
 A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals in order to produce
one or more output signals.

Signals & Systems
Highpass Filter Circuit
Electrical Circuit

Next class
• Introduction to signals
• Classification of signals
• Signal operations
January 18, 2022 Signals & Systems 20

Thank You!

Signals & Systems

Outline
• Introduction to signals & Systems
• Classification of signals

Signals & Systems
Define what signals and systems are.
 A signal is a function of one or more independent variables that conveys information
about some (usually physical) phenomenon.
 For a function f , in the expression f(t1, t2,...,tn), each of the {tk} is called an
independent variable, while the function value itself is referred to as a dependent
variable.

Signals & Systems
 A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals in order to produce
one or more output signals.

Signals & Systems
Highpass Filter Circuit
Electrical Circuit

Classification of Signals
• Analog and Digital
• Continuous-time and Discrete-time
• Periodic and Nonperiodic
• Causal, anticausal and Noncausal
• Energy and power
• Deterministic and probabilistic (random)



Continuous & discrete time signals
Examples
GNP : Gross National product
Monthly sales of a corporation

Continuous to Discrete time – Sampling
x(t) = Asin (ωt + ø)
t = nΔT, n =1, 2, 3….

ΔT – time duration between the samples

Examples
x(t) = A Sin (ωt+ø)
A = nΔa , n =1,2,3 ……
For e.g. in A/D Δa = 5 V/28

Examples
x(t) = A Sin(ωt+ø)
A = nΔa , n =1,2,3 ……
For e.g. in A/D Δa = 5 V/28
t = nΔT, n =1, 2, 3….

ΔT – time duration
x(t) = A Sin(ωt+ø) between the samples

Important Points
• An analog signal’s amplitude can take on any value
in a continuous range (i.e. infinite number of values).
• Digital signal’s amplitude can take only finite number

of values.
• A continuous time signals are specified for every

value of time.
• A discrete time signals are specified for discrete

values of time.
• Analog signal need not be continuous-time and a digital
signal need not be discrete-time.

Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
A continuous-time signal x( t ) is said to be periodic with
period T if there is a positive nonzero value of T for which

A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic with period
N if there is a positive integer value of N for which


Important points:
 Sum of two or more periodic signals will be periodic if
ratio of their fundamental periods are rational.
 If the resulting signal is periodic, then the fundamental

period
 Note also that the sum of two continuous-time periodic

signals may not be periodic but that the sum of two
periodic sequences is always periodic

A periodic signal of period To

Periodic Signals
Examples of Periodic Signals

Aperiodic (Nonperiodic) Signals
Any signal which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic (or
aperiodic) signal.

Causal, noncausal & anticausal Signals
• A causal signal does not start before t = 0
i.e. f ( t )  0 for t  0 .
• An anticausal signal is zero for all t  0
• A noncausal signal starts before t = 0

Causal f ( t )  0 for t  0 .

Noncausal

Anticausal
f ( t )  0 for t  0 .
(1) All periodic signals are _____signals

(causal, noncausal & anticausal)
(2) In the above statement vice-versa is

true ?

Signals & Systems

Even and odd signals

Practical signals are always a combination of
even and odd signals


Example
Draw even and odd components of

a signal

Example

Solution

Energy and Power signals

• Energy Signal has finite energy and zero power
• Power Signal has finite Power and infinite

energy



The Energy of this signal is the shaded region

Energy and Power signals ?

• A signal cannot be both energy and power signal
• A signal can be neither energy nor power signal. e.g.
Ramp signal (x(t) = t)
• Periodic signals are power signals. But all power signals

are not periodic.
• Power of an energy signal = 0
• Energy of a power signal = infinite

Example
Determine whether the following signal is an

energy signal , power signal or neither

Deterministic and Probabilistic
(Random) Signals
• Deterministic
– Physical description of the signal known
completely either in mathematical or graphical
form

Deterministic and Probabilistic
(Random) Signals
• Probabilistic (Random)
– Signal whose values cannot be predicted precisely but
are known only in terms of probabilistic/statistical
description

Important points
Fundamental difference between CT & DT signals:
 x(t) : t can take any real value
 x(n) : n can take only integer values
For a discrete time signal (sequence) x(n), value like

x(4/3), x(5/6), x(-2/3) are not defined.

Signal Operations
January 22, 2022 Circuits & Signals 21

Signal Operations
• Time shifting (delayed & advanced)
• Time scaling (compressed & expanded)
• Time inversion (time reversal)
• Amplitude scaling
• Amplitude inversion

Signal Operations

Signal Operations

Time shifting

Time scaling

Amplitude scaling

Important points
Time shifting Ø(t) = x(t+T)
 If T is negative, the signal is delayed (shifted to the right).
 If T is positive, the signal is advanced (shifted to the left).
Time scaling
Ø(t) = x(at)
 Time scaling refers to compression (a>1) or expansion (a<1) of
a signal in time.
 Time reversal : mirror image or reflection of the signal about
the vertical axis.
 Mirror image or reflection of a signal, about the horizontal axis
will result in a signal amplitude reversal.

Rules for Combined Signal Operation
(Rule 1)
(1) Time shifting (2) Time Scaling (3) Time Inversion
(Rule 2)
(1) Time scaling (2) Time Inversion (3) Time Shifting
Any of the above rule can be followed but

easier is Rule1
Combined Signal Operation

Combined signal operation

Example

Signal Operations

Signal Operations

Time shifting

Time scaling

Amplitude scaling

Important points
Time shifting Ø(t) = x(t+T)
 If T is negative, the signal is delayed (shifted to the right).
 If T is positive, the signal is advanced (shifted to the left).
Time scaling
Ø(t) = x(at)
 Time scaling refers to compression (a>1) or expansion (a<1) of
a signal in time.
 Time reversal : mirror image or reflection of the signal about
the vertical axis.
 Mirror image or reflection of a signal, about the horizontal axis
will result in a signal amplitude reversal.

Rules for Combined Signal Operation
(Rule 1)
(1) Time shifting (2) Time Scaling (3) Time Inversion
(Rule 2)
(1) Time scaling (2) Time Inversion (3) Time Shifting
Any of the above rule can be followed but

easier is Rule1
Combined Signal Operation

Combined signal operation

Combined signal operations- Rule 2
Example

DT Example

Example
A Continuous-Time Signal x(t) is shown in figure.
Sketch and label each of the following signals
(a) x(t  2) (b) x(2t)
(c) x(t / 2) (d ) x(t)

Example
Find the Combined (Mixed) Signal Operations
t
x(2  )
2

Example

Example
(i) x(-t) (ii) x(t-1) (iii) x(t+2)

(iv) x(t/2) (iv) x(2t) (v) x(2 – 2t)

Solution
(v) x(2 – 2t)

Example
January 27, 2022 Electrical Sciences I 18

Elementary Signals in the CT domain

Unit step Signal ?
Unit step function is defined as

Unit ramp Signal ?
Unit ramp function is defined as

Impulse Signal ?
Unit impulse function is defined as
 (t )  0, everywhere except at t  0

  (t)dt  1

(Area coveredunder the signal  1)

Unit-Impulse Function
It can be visualized as a tall, narrow rectangular
pulse of unit area with infinitesimally small width (ε)
and infinitely large height (1/ε).

The relationship between r(t), u(t) & δ(t)

Multiplication of a function by an impulse

Elementary Signals in the DT domain

Unit step Signal ?
Unit step sequence is defined as

Unit ramp Signal ?
Unit ramp sequence is defined as

Impulse Signal ?
Unit impulse sequence is defined as


Unit step Signal ?

Unit ramp Signal ?

Impulse Signal ?

The relationship between r(n), u(n) & δ(n)


Systems
• A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals in order
to produce one or more output signals.
Signals & systems January 29, 2022 7

Systems
Classification of Systems

(1) Linear and Nonlinear
(2) Time invariant and Time varying
(3) Instantaneous and Dynamic
(4) Causal and Noncausal
(5) Invertible and Noninvertible
(6) Stable and Unstable

Linear / Nonlinear Systems



Problem
Verify the following system is

Linear / nonlinear
(1) y(t) = t2 x(t)

Solution
(1) y(t) = t2 x(t)
y1(t) = t2 x1(t) y2(t) = t2 x2(t)
y3(t) = a1y1(t) +a2y2(t) = a1t2x1(t)+a2t2x2(t)

Now
y4(t) = t2 [a1x1(t)+a2x2(t)]
y4(t) = y3(t) → SYSTEM is LINEAR

Time-invariant / Time-Varying Systems
Time-invariant system is one whose

parameters do not change with time

Time-invariant system
No change in the shape of the output signal

Time-invariant & Time-Varying Systems
Example : Networks contain RLC elements

and other active elements such as
Transistors are Time-invariant systems

Problem
Verify whether the system given by
y(t) = t x(t)
is (i) time-invariant ?

Solution
(i) Time invariant ?
The response due to the delayed input is
The delayed output is obtained by putting (t-to) in the given eqn.

Solution

Problem
Y(n) = x(n2)

February 3, 2022 Signals & Systems 1

Unit step Signal ?

Unit ramp Signal ?

Impulse Signal ?



Systems
• A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals in order
to produce one or more output signals.
Signals & systems February 3, 2022 7

Systems
February 3, 2022 Signals & systems 8

(1) Linear and Nonlinear
(2) Time invariant and Time varying
(3) Instantaneous and Dynamic
(4) Causal and Noncausal
(5) Invertible and Noninvertible
(6) Stable and Unstable




Problem
Verify the following system is

Linear / nonlinear
(1) y(t) = t2 x(t)

Solution
(1) y(t) = t2 x(t)
y1(t) = t2 x1(t) y2(t) = t2 x2(t)
y3(t) = a1y1(t) +a2y2(t) = a1t2x1(t)+a2t2x2(t)

Now
y4(t) = t2 [a1x1(t)+a2x2(t)]
y4(t) = y3(t) → SYSTEM is LINEAR

Time-invariant system is one whose

parameters do not change with time

Time-invariant system
No change in the shape of the output signal

Time-invariant & Time-Varying Systems
Example : Networks contain RLC elements

and other active elements such as
Transistors are Time-invariant systems

Problem
y(t) = t x(t)

Solution
(i) Time invariant ?
The delayed output is obtained by putting (t-to) in the given eqn.

Solution

Problem
Y(n) = x(n2)

Example
(1) The response due to the delayed input is
(2)The delayed output is obtained by putting (n-no) in the given eqn.

Instantaneous / Dynamic Systems
A system is said to be Instantaneous (memoryless) if
the output at any time depends on only the input at that
same time.
If the system output at any instant of time t depends on
the past input, and also past output such a system is a
Dynamic (with memory) system
Example : Resistive Networks

Networks containing inductive and capacitive

elements generally dynamic systems.


Causal / Noncausal Systems
Causal (nonanticipating) System : The
output, y(t), at any instant to depends
only on input, x(t), for t ≤ to
Present output y(t) depends only on the
past and present inputs x(t), not on future inputs
Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible to obtain an output
before an input is applied to the system.
Practical REAL TIME system must be Causal

Noncausal (anticipating) System : Output, y(t), at any time
depends not only on past and present inputs but also on
inputs in future
Examples:
1. Missile guidance system or Missile tracking system.
2. Weather forecasting
Note that all memoryless systems are causal, but not

vice versa.


Invertible and Noninvertible Systems
A system S produces y(t) with input x(t), if there exists another
system Si which produces x(t) from y(t), then S is invertible and
system Si is known as inverse of system S

If we can obtain the input x(t) back from the

output y(t) of a system by some operation, the
system S is said to be invertible. Otherwise the
system is noninvertible.
Essential that there is one-to-one mapping

between input and output
Example : S is an amplifier with gain G, it is

Invertible and Si is an attenuator with gain 1/G

Stable and Unstable systems
Stable Systems:
A system is bounded-input/bounded-output (BIBO) stable
if for any bounded input x(t) defined by
the corresponding output y(t) is also bounded defined by


Problem
(1) Verify whether the system

given by y(t)=x(t2) is
(i) causal
(ii) instantaneous (memoryless)
(iii) time-invariant ?

Solution
(i) Causal ?
y(t)=x(t2)
y(2)=x(4)
Since the output depends on the future

input, hence the system is noncausal

Solution
(ii) y(t)=x(t2) ----- Instantaneous?
y(1)=x(1) y(2)=x(4)
Since the output depends on the present
and future inputs, it requires memory.
Hence the system is not instantaneous (it is
Dynamic)
Is this explanation is correct ? Yes/No
If No, how do you prove it ?
y(t)=x(t2) ----- Instantaneous?
t = 0.2, y(0.2) = x(0.04)

Present output depends on past input
Hence the system is Dynamic

(iii) Time invariant ?
y1(t,to) = x(t2 - to)
The delayed output is obtained by putting

(t-to) in the given eqn.
y(t-to) = x(t-to)2
Problem

Problem

Linear Time-invariant (LTI) systems

LTI Systems

Why impulse signal is chosen to
study a system’s response?
• Impulse signal has infinite frequencies, so
using impulse signal we will come to know
how a system will respond to all frequencies.
• Any arbitrary signal can be represented
using an impulse function
• So the impulse response can tell us about
the characteristics of a given system

Response of LTI systems
(1) First, the input signal can be decomposed

into a set of impulses, each of which can be
viewed as a scaled and shifted delta function.

Response of LTI systems
(1) First, the input signal can be decomposed

into a set of impulses, each of which can be
viewed as a scaled and shifted delta function.

(2) Second, the output resulting from each
impulse is a scaled and shifted version of
the impulse response.

(3) Third, the overall output
signal can be found by
adding these scaled and
shifted impulse responses.

(4) In other words, if we know a system's
impulse response, then we can
calculate what the output will be for any
aribitrary input signal.
This means we know about the system.

Response of a CT LTI System

Response of a CT LTI System

Properties of a CT LTI System

Convolution
(A Graphical understanding)

Graphical Convolution Example
(1) Find f(t)  g(t)
t t

f(τ) g(τ)
τ τ
Converting from t to τ

f(τ)
g(t-τ)
(1) No Overlap
(2) Overlap starts from t = -2

g(t-τ) f(τ)
t 1
 d  t  2
-1
g(t-τ) f(τ)
t 1
 d  2
t -1

g(t-τ) f(τ)
τ
 d  2 - t
t -1

No Overlap

C(t) = convolution

Graphical Understanding
Note: a) Convolution computations are simplified if
simpler of the two functions is inverted.
b) In graphical convolution the area under the product
of the two functions is determined for all values of
t = -∞ to ∞. Since the mathematical description of the
product of the two functions is generally valid over a
range of t. Thus repeating the procedure for every
value of t amounts to repeating it only a few times for
different ranges of t.

Width of Convolved Function
Width of the convolved function, c(t), is T1+T2 where
T1 and T2 are the widths of f(t) and g(t) respectively.
The reason for this is because the time it takes for the
Signal of width T1 to completely pass signal of width
T2 so that they are non-overlapping is T1+T2.
When the signal stop overlapping their convolution
is zero.
Note: Some signals violate the width property

superficially.
Width of Convolved Function
Width Property: If the durations (widths) of ƒ1(t) and
ƒ2(t) are T1 and T2 respectively, then the duration of
ƒ1(t) * ƒ2(t) is T1+T2.

Convolve the following two signals

Change variable t →τ

Example using Convolution formula

Convolution with an impulse

Shifting Property

Categorization of LTI Systems based on Impulse Response

LTI systems with or without memory
Recall that a system is memoryless if its output depends on the current input only.
From the expression

A system is said to be invertible if there exists an inverse system which when

connected in series with the original system produces an output identical to the input.

Causal / Noncausal LTI Systems
Causal system output depends only on the past and the present values of the input.
Thus, in a causal system, it is not possible to obtain an output before an input is

applied to the system.
Therefore, for a causal continuous-time LTI system, we have
h(t) = 0 for t < 0

A continuous time LTI system is BIBO (bounded input bounded output) stable if its
impulse response is absolutely integrable, that is,

Step Response of LTI Systems

Graphical Convolution
(2) Find f(t)  h(t)

(3) Find f(t)  h(t)
f(t) = u(t-1)
h(t) = u(t+1)

Graphical Convolution
• Convolve the following two functions:

f(t) g(t)
2 3
*
t t
2 -2 2
February 12, 2022 Signals & Systems 4 - 12

• Replace t with t in f(t) and g(t)
• Choose to flip and slide g(t) since it is simpler
and symmetric
• Functions overlap like this:
3
g(t-t)
2
f(t)
t
2
-2 + t 2+t

• Convolution can be divided into 5 parts
I. t < -2 3 g(t-t)
• Two functions do not overlap 2

f(t)
• Area under the product of the
t
functions is zero 2
-2 + t 2+t
II. -2  t < 0 3 g(t-t)
• Part of g(t) overlaps part of f(t) 2

f(t)
• Area under the product of the
t
functions is 2
-2 + t 2+t
2t
2t 2
 t2  32  t  3t 2
0 3(t  2)dt  3  2  2t    2  62  t    2  6
0

III. 0  t < 2
• Here, g(t) completely overlaps f(t)
• Area under the product is just
2 2
2
 t 
0 3 t  2  dt  3   2  2t  6
0
3 g(t-t)
2
f(t)
t
2
-2 + t 2+t

IV. 2  t < 4
• Part of g(t) and f(t) overlap
• Calculated similarly to -2  t < 0
3
g(t-t)
2
f(t)
t
2
-2 + t 2+t
V. t4
• g(t) and f(t) do not overlap
• Area under their product is zero
• Result of convolution (5 intervals of interest):
0 fort  2
 3
 t 2  6 for  2  t  0
 2
y(t)  f (t) * g(t)  6 for 0  t  2
3 2
 t 12t  24 for 2  t  4
2
0 fort  4
-2 0 2 4 4 - 17
February 12, 2022 Signals & Systems
Output
y(t)
-2 0 2 4

Example
The system shown in Fig. 1 (a) is formed by connecting two systems in cascade. The
impulse responses of the systems are given by h1(t) and h2(t), respectively, and
(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the overall system shown in Fig. 1 (b)
(b) Determine if the overall system is BIBO stable.
Fig. 1

Solution
Solution
Fourier series

What is Fourier Series?
• An analogy from optics

Fourier series
• As any vector can be represented using basis
vectors
→ Signals can be represented using
basis signals
• What properties the basis signals should
have ?
They should be orthogonal/orthonormal
(why?)

Fourier series
• Can you name two common orthogonal
signals?
• Sine and Cosine
• Any Periodic functions and signals may be

expanded into a series of sine and cosine
functions

A Sum of Sinusoids
• Our building block:
A sin (  t   
• Add enough of them to get
any signal f(t) you want!
• Which one encodes the

coarse vs. fine structure of
the signal?
8
Fourier series
• Fourier series expansion is used for periodic
signals to expend them in terms of their
harmonics which are sinusoidal and orthogonal
to one another.
• Sine and cosine representation will provide us

information on the frequency and phase
content of the signal

Fourier series
Fourier demonstrated that any periodic signal can be

viewed as a linear composition of sine/cosine
functions.

Fourier series
Types
(1) Trigonometric Form
(2) Compact Trigonometric Form
(3) Exponential Fourier Series


f (t )  a o   a n cos n  o t  bn sin n  o t 
n 1
where a o , a n and bn are constants

1 T 1
ao   f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt
T 0 T T
2 T
an   f (t ) cos n  0 tdt
T 0
2 T
bn   f (t ) sin n  0 tdt
T 0

Fourier series

What is Fourier Series?
• An analogy from optics

Fourier series
• As any vector can be represented using basis
vectors
→ Signals can be represented using
basis signals
• What properties the basis signals should
have ?
They should be orthogonal/orthonormal
(why?)

Fourier series
• Can you name two common orthogonal
signals?
• Sine and Cosine
• Any Periodic functions and signals may be

expanded into a series of sine and cosine
functions

A Sum of Sinusoids
• Our building block:
A sin (  t   
• Add enough of them to get
any signal f(t) you want!
• Which one encodes the

coarse vs. fine structure of
the signal?
5
Fourier series
• Fourier series expansion is used for periodic
signals to expend them in terms of their
harmonics which are sinusoidal and orthogonal
to one another.
• Sine and cosine representation will provide us

information on the frequency and phase
content of the signal

Fourier series
Fourier demonstrated that any periodic signal can be

viewed as a linear composition of sine/cosine
functions.

Fourier series
Types
(1) Trigonometric Form
(2) Compact Trigonometric Form
(3) Exponential Fourier Series


f (t )  a o   a n cos n  o t  bn sin n  o t 
n 1
where a o , a n and bn are constants

1 T 1
ao   f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt
T 0 T T
2 T
an   f (t ) cos n  0 tdt
T 0
2 T
bn   f (t ) sin n  0 tdt
T 0

Line Spectrum
Let
Draw
(i) Magnitude Vs Frequency
(ii) Phase Vs Frequency

Line Spectrum


f (t )  C o   C n cos( n  o t   n )
n 1
where C o  ao
1   bn 
2 2
 n  tan  
Cn  a b
n n  an 
Sufficient Conditions for existing Fourier Series
(1) f(t) is absolutely integrable over one period, i.e.
T
 f (t ) dt  
0

(2)

(3)

Example:
Find the Fourier series of the following periodic signal

Exponential FOURIER SERIES



Relationship between coefficients D & C

Relationship between coefficients D & a,b

Peoperties of Even and Odd Functions
Even Function X Odd Function = Odd Function
Even Function X Even Function = Even Function
Odd Function X Odd Function = Even Function




Relationship between coefficients D & C

Relationship between coefficients D & a,b

Peoperties of Even and Odd Functions
Even Function X Odd Function = Odd Function
Even Function X Even Function = Even Function
Odd Function X Odd Function = Even Function

Effect of Symmetry

Effect of Symmetry
1 T 1
ao   f (t )dt   f (t )dt
T 0 T T
2 T
an   f ( t ) cos n 0 tdt
T 0
2 T
bn   f ( t ) sin n  0 tdt
T 0

Even Symmetry
If a periodic signal has even symmetry the
Fourier series would contain only cosine terms
and the exponential Fourier coefficients will be
real.
f(t) = f(-t)
 
f (t )  a o   a n cos( n  o t )   bn sin ( n  o t )
n 1 n 1
bn = 0
Odd Symmetry
If the periodic signal has odd symmetry

then the Fourier series will contain only
sine terms and the exponential Fourier
coefficients will be imaginary.
f(t) = - f(-t)
ao = 0 & an = 0

Half-wave Symmetry
 T 
f t     f ( t )
 2 
All even numbered harmonics vanish

Half-wave Symmetry


f (t )  C o   C n cos( n  o t   n )
n 1
 2
1 22

P  C   Cn 0 P   Dn
2 n 1 
 2
P   Dn

 2
2
P  D  2 Dn
o
n1

Finding Fundamental
Frequency & Period

Determine Fundamental Frequency
1  2  7 
(1) f1 (t )  2  7 cos t  1   3 cos t   2   5 cos t   3 
2  3  6 

Rules
(1) The ratio of any two frequencies

is a rational number – It is periodic
(2) The largest positive number of

which all the frequencies are
integral multiples is the
Fundamental Frequency

(3) The largest number of which a1/b1,
a2/b2, a3/b3,……
Find GCF of a1, a2, a3…. and LCM of

b1, b2, b3, …..

Solution
1  2  7 
(1) f1 (t )  2  7 cos t  1   3 cos t   2   5 cos t   3 
2  3  6 

Problem

Problem

Fourier Transforms

Why do we need transforms?
Transformation of a signal from the time domain into a representation of the
frequency components and phases is known as Fourier analysis.
• We can't analyze all the signals that we want to, in their existing domain.
• Transforming a signal means looking at a signal from a different angle so as to gain
new insight into many properties of the signal that may not be very evident in their
natural domain.
• Transformation is usually implemented on an independent variable.
Examples:
 For a musician, all the ragas played are actually in time domain but frequency is more
important for him than time. Why frequency has more value must be somewhat
intuitive as the variations in sound are due to change in frequency.
 For a circuit, the input and output signals are functions of time. If we need to study or
monitor these signals, we use an Oscilloscope to display these signals using spatial
coordinates.

What is the Fourier transform?
Fourier Transform:
 Every periodic signal can be written as a summation of sinusoidal functions
of frequencies which are multiples of a constant frequency (known as
fundamental frequency). This representation of a periodic signal is called
the Fourier Series.
 An aperiodic signal can always be treated as a periodic signal with an

infinite period. The frequencies of two consecutive terms are
infinitesimally close and summation gets converted to integration. The
resulting pattern of this representation of an aperiodic signal is called the
Fourier Transform.
Fourier Transforms

natural domain.
Examples:
coordinates.

Fourier Transform:
the Fourier Series.

Fourier Transform.
Non-periodic Signal Representation by
Fourier Integral
A non-periodic signal can be approximated as a special case
of periodic signal with infinite period.
• Hence if we let T0 to approach infinity we'll get frequency

infinitesimally close to each other.
• This is same as saying that we'll get every possible frequency and
hence the whole continuous frequency axis.
• Thus our frequency spectrum will no more be a series , but will be a
continuous function.
• The representation will change from a summation over discrete
frequencies to an integration over the entire frequency axis.

• Periodic signal f T0 (t ) is formed by repeating the signal f(t) at
intervals T0 .
• T0 is made long enough to avoid overlap between the repeating

pulses.
• If T0   , the pulses in the periodic signal repeat

after an infinite interval.
lim f T 0 ( t )  f ( t )
T0  
Periodic
Signal
 If T0   
Nonperiodic
Signal

Exponential Fourier Series representation of a
periodic signal  fT (t )  is:
o

How the nature of spectrum changes as T0 increases
1
Dn  F ( n0 )
T0
• The Fourier Coefficients [Dn] where Dn are 1/T0 times the samples
of F(ω) uniformly spaced at intervals of ω0.
•Therefore (1/T0)F(ω) is the envelope for the coefficient Dn

• Doubling T0 halves fundamental frequency ω0.
• This results in the spectrum containing twice the number of
samples where the envelope (1/T0)F(ω) is halved.
• Thus as T0 is doubled the spectrum becomes denser with smaller

magnitude with the envelope having same relative shape.

Continuous Periodic Square Wave
T1 = 4 To T2 = 8 To T3 = 16 To

• Thus f(t) can be rewritten as:
1 
j t
f (t )   F ( )e d
2 
• The integral on the right side is called the Fourier

Integral.
• Non-periodic signal is represented by a Fourier
Integral instead of a Fourier Series.

• F(ω) is the direct (forward) Fourier Transform of f(t)
and f(t) is the inverse Fourier Transform of F(ω).
• f(t) and F(ω) are a Fourier Transform pair and are

expressed as:
F(ω) = ℱ[f(t)] and f(t) = ℱ-1[F(ω)]
or
f (t )  F ( )

Existence of Fourier Transforms
• All signals are not Fourier Transformable.

• Existence of Fourier Transform is assured for
any f(t) satisfying Dirichlet conditions.
• The conditions are:

 | f (t ) | dt  .

 jt
and since | e | 1

| F ( ) |  | f (t ) | dt


1. f(t) is absolutely integrable

 | f (t ) | dt  .

2. Finite number of maxima and minima in any

interval.
3. Finite number of finite discontinuity in any interval.
NOTE: Signals which do not satisfy these conditions can

have Fourier transforms, if impulse functions are
permitted in the transform.
Fourier Transforms

natural domain.
Examples:
coordinates.

Fourier Transform:
the Fourier Series.

Fourier Transform.
Non-periodic Signal Representation by
Fourier Integral
A non-periodic signal can be approximated as a special case
of periodic signal with infinite period.
• Hence if we let T0 to approach infinity we'll get frequency

infinitesimally close to each other.
• This is same as saying that we'll get every possible frequency and
hence the whole continuous frequency axis.
• Thus our frequency spectrum will no more be a series , but will be a
continuous function.
• The representation will change from a summation over discrete
frequencies to an integration over the entire frequency axis.

• Periodic signal f T0 (t ) is formed by repeating the signal f(t) at
intervals T0 .
• T0 is made long enough to avoid overlap between the repeating

pulses.
• If T0   , the pulses in the periodic signal repeat

after an infinite interval.
lim f T 0 ( t )  f ( t )
T0  
Periodic
Signal
 If T0   
Nonperiodic
Signal

Exponential Fourier Series representation of a
periodic signal  fT (t )  is:
o

1
Dn  F ( n0 )
T0
• The Fourier Coefficients [Dn] where Dn are 1/T0 times the samples
of F(ω) uniformly spaced at intervals of ω0.
•Therefore (1/T0)F(ω) is the envelope for the coefficient Dn

• Doubling T0 halves fundamental frequency ω0.
• This results in the spectrum containing twice the number of
samples where the envelope (1/T0)F(ω) is halved.
• Thus as T0 is doubled the spectrum becomes denser with smaller

magnitude with the envelope having same relative shape.

Continuous Periodic Square Wave
T1 = 4 To T2 = 8 To T3 = 16 To

• Thus f(t) can be rewritten as:
1 
j t
f (t )   F ( )e d
2 
• The integral on the right side is called the Fourier

Integral.
• Non-periodic signal is represented by a Fourier
Integral instead of a Fourier Series.

• F(ω) is the direct (forward) Fourier Transform of f(t)
and f(t) is the inverse Fourier Transform of F(ω).
• f(t) and F(ω) are a Fourier Transform pair and are

expressed as:
F(ω) = ℱ[f(t)] and f(t) = ℱ-1[F(ω)]
or
f (t )  F ( )

• All signals are not Fourier Transformable.

• Existence of Fourier Transform is assured for
any f(t) satisfying Dirichlet conditions.
• The conditions are:

 | f (t ) | dt  .

 jt
and since | e | 1

| F ( ) |  | f (t ) | dt


1. f(t) is absolutely integrable

 | f (t ) | dt  .

2. Finite number of maxima and minima in any

interval.
3. Finite number of finite discontinuity in any interval.
NOTE: Signals which do not satisfy these conditions can

have Fourier transforms, if impulse functions are
permitted in the transform.
Example
Find the Fourier transform of e-atu(t)

Example
The amplitude and phase spectrum

Some Functions
Unit Gate Function
U n it G a te F u n c tio n is d e fin e d a s :

Unit Triangular Function
Unit Triangle Function {(t)} is defined as:

Function sinc(x)
• The function sin(x)/x is the “sine over argument”

function and is denoted sinc(x).
sin x
sin c( x) 
x
• Can be used for filtering or interpolation of signals

• sinc(x) is a product of an oscillating signal sin x
(of period 2π) and a monotonically decreasing
function 1/x.

• sinc(x) exhibits sinusoidal oscillations of period 2π with amplitude decreasing
continuously as 1/x.
• sinc(x) = 0 for x = ±π, ±2π, ±3π, …First zero of function sinc(aω/b) occurs at
ω =……...
• sinc(x) is an even function of x.
• sinc(x) = 0 when sin(x) = 0 except at x=0, where it appears indeterminate.
• Using L’ Hôpital’s rule sinc(0) = 1.

Example

Example

Example

Properties of Fourier Transforms

Duality of the Fourier Transform
• For any result or relationship between f(t) and
F(ω), there exists a dual result or relationship,
obtained by interchanging the roles of f(t) and
F(ω) in the original result.

Symmetry (Duality) Property

Example
t  ωτ 
(1) If rect   τ sinc 
τ  2 
 t 
Then  Sinc   ?
2
Use Symmetry Property

Solution

March 1, 2022 Signals & Systems 1



Example
t  ωτ 
τ  2 
 t 
2
Use Duality Property

Solution

A constant (dc) signal and its
Fourier Spectrum
F(j)
(t)
1
F
t 
0 0
F(j)
1 2()
F
t 
0 0

Unit Step signal and its Fourier
Spectrum

The Scaling Property

Significance of Scaling Property


• Thus if signal is wider then its spectrum is
narrower and vice versa.
• Doubling the signal duration halves its bandwidth

and vice versa.

Time-Frequency
Inversion Property
This is called time and Frequency inversion property.

Example
Find the Fourier transforms of

at
1) e u (t )
using time and frequency - inversion property

Solution

Time Shifting Property
If f (t )  F ( ), then from time - shifting property
f (t  t0 )  F ( )e  jt0

Time-Shifting Property
If f (t )  F ( )
then, Show that f (t  t0 )  F  e  j t 0
• Delaying a signal by t0 seconds does not change

its amplitude spectrum. The phase spectrum is
changed by –ωt0. Linear Phase shift
• Higher frequencies get higher phase shift

Problem on Time-Shifting Property
a t
Find the Fourier Transform of e




Example
t  ωτ 
τ  2 
 t 
2
Use Symmetry Property

Solution

A constant (dc) signal and its
Fourier Spectrum
F(j)
(t)
1
F
t 
0 0
F(j)
1 2()
F
t 
0 0

Unit Step signal and its Fourier
Spectrum



Significance of Scaling Property


• Thus if signal is wider then its spectrum is
narrower and vice versa.
• Doubling the signal duration halves its bandwidth

and vice versa.

Time-Frequency
Inversion Property
This is called time and Frequency inversion property.

Example
Find the Fourier transforms of

at
1) e u (t )
using time and frequency - inversion property

Solution

Time Shifting Property
If f (t )  F ( ), then from time - shifting property
f (t  t0 )  F ( )e  jt0

If f (t )  F ( )
then, Show that f (t  t0 )  F  e  j t 0
• Delaying a signal by t0 seconds does not change

its amplitude spectrum. The phase spectrum is
changed by –ωt0. Linear Phase shift
• Higher frequencies get higher phase shift

If f (t )  F ( )

 jt0
FT [ f (t  tfo ()]t t0 )f 
then, to )e dt
(t  F  jt
e


a t
Find the Fourier Transform of e

Find the Fourier Transform of e a t t0 using

Time-shifting property

 a t t0 a t
e is time shifted signal of e
a t 2a
e  2 2
a 
Using time shifting property
 a t t 0 2a  j t 0
e  2 2
e
a 
Draw its amplitude and phase spectrum
Frequency-Shifting Property
If f (t )  F ( )
then, f (t )e j o t
 F    o 

Modulation of a signal in
communication
Find FT of f (t ) cos ot

1
f (t ) cos ot  [ f (t )e jot  f (t )e  jot ]
2
1
then, f (t ) cos ot  [ F (  o )  F (  o )]
2

Modulation of a signal in communication
Application of modulation
( shifting) property
• For effective radiation of power over a radio link, the antenna size
must be of the order of the wavelength of the signal to be radiated.
• If several signals, each occupying the same frequency band, are

transmitted simultaneously over the same transmission medium,
they will all interfere.
• It will be impossible to separate them at a receiver.

Convolution property
Convolution property
Application of convolution property
Time differentiation and time Integration property
Problem
Problem
Parseval's relation
Problem
Problem
Problem
Example
Consider an LTI system whose response to the input
(a) Find the frequency response of this system.

(b) Determine the impulse response of this system.

Solution

Example
Consider an LTI system whose response to the input
(a) Find the frequency response of this system.

(b) Determine the impulse response of this system.

Solution

Solution

Problem

Signals & Systems
Tutorial Sheet 7

Problem 1
(i) Find the FT of a given signal
f(t) = e-(t/2) u(t)

Solution

Solution

Problem 2
Use Symmetry and inversion properties
and show that
1 j
 (t )    u ( )
2 t 
1
Hint : u (t )   ( ) 
j

Solution

Problem 3
Sketch the following function

(a) sinc(t/5) X rect(t/10π)
sinc(t/5) rect(t/10π)

Problem 4
Determine the FT of the following function
(a) Using Time-shifting property and (b)

verify with the FT integral formula(basic
definition).

Solution 4 (b)

Solution 4 (b)

Problem 5
Find the Inverse Fourier Transform of the
spectra

sin 2t  sin t
Answer f (t ) 
t
1 
j t
Use f (t )   F ( )e d
2 
or

Problem 6
The FT of the triangular pulse f(t) shown below

figure (a) is expressed as
Fig. (a)

Using the given information and the time shifting
properties, find the FT of the pulses given below.
Fig. (d)
Fig. (b)
Fig. (c)
Solution

Solution

Solution

Mids Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mids Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Signals & Systems

Course No. :EEE/ECE/INSTR F243

Course Title: Signals and Systems

Instructor-in-charge: Ramakant Yadav

Team of Instuctors: BVVSN Prabhakar Rao,

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 1

This is one of the fundamental course for electrical, electronics and

Redpine (wireless networking),

• Presentation will be uploaded in section L on CMS in PDF format.

• Google Drive link of Recorded Video Lectures will be uploaded in section L1

• Lecturers will be roughly 45 Min and Q&A 5 Min

• Keep your mobiles Switched off or in Silent

• Lectures: T Th S (10 – 10:50 AM)

• Notice – in section L on CMS

• Consultation Hour : Monday 12.00 – 1.00 PM

Weightage (%) Nature of

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 6

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 7

The students are required to review following mathematical

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 8

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems

12 - 14 Synthesize and analysis of Aperiodic Signal

25 - 26 z-transform solution of Z-transforms converting

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 12

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 13

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 14

• R2: Nagrath I J, Sharan S N, Ranjan Rakesh &

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 16

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 17

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 18

Highpass Filter Circuit

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 19

January 18, 2022 Signals & Systems 20

January 18, 2022 Signals & systems 21

January 20, 2022 Signals & systems 1

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 2

January 20, 2022 Signals & systems 3

January 20, 2022 Signals & systems 4

Highpass Filter Circuit

January 20, 2022 Signals & systems 5

• Continuous-time and Discrete-time

• Periodic and Nonperiodic

• Causal, anticausal and Noncausal

• Energy and power

• Deterministic and probabilistic (random)

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 7

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 8

Monthly sales of a corporation

t = nΔT, n =1, 2, 3….

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 10

x(t) = A Sin (ωt+ø)

For e.g. in A/D Δa = 5 V/28

t = nΔT, n =1, 2, 3….

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 12

• Digital signal’s amplitude can take only finite number

• A continuous time signals are specified for every

• A discrete time signals are specified for discrete

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 13

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 14

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 15

January 20, 2022 Signals & Systems 16

 If the resulting signal is periodic, then the fundamental

 Note also that the sum of two continuous-time periodic