NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

TOPIC : HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

TUTOR: MR. ONGUKU

MEANING

Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people’s freedoms and

opportunities and improving their well-being. Human development is about the real
freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.

The human development concept was developed by economist Mahbub ul Haq. At the
World Bank in the 1970s, and later as minister of finance in his own country, Pakistan,
Dr. Haq argued that existing measures of human progress failed to account for the true
purpose of development—to improve people’s lives. In particular, he believed that the
commonly used measure of Gross Domestic Product failed to adequately measure well-
being.

THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

The state of the nation is often expressed through GDP (Gross Domestic Product), daily
stock market results, consumer spending levels, and national debt figures. But these
numbers provide only a partial view of how people are faring.

The Human Development Index was developed as an alternative to simple money

metrics. It is an easy-to-understand numerical measure made up of what most people
believe are the very basic ingredients of human well-being: health, education, and
income. The first Human Development Index was presented in 1990. It has been an
annual feature of every Human Development Report since, ranking virtually every
country in the world from number one (currently Iceland) to number 177 (currently
Sierra Leone).

This composite index has become one of the most widely used indices of well-being
around the world and has succeeded in broadening the measurement and discussion of
well-being beyond the important, but nevertheless narrow, confines of income. In a
number of countries, the Human Development Index is now an official government
statistic; its annual publication inaugurates serious political discussion and renewed
efforts, nationally and regionally, to improve lives.

THE AMERICAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

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The Measure of America presents a modified American Human Development Index. The
American HD Index measures the same three basic dimensions as the standard HD
Index, but it uses different indicators to better reflect the U.S. context and to maximize
use of available data. For example, while the standard index measures access to
knowledge using the average number of years that students spend in school, we have
chosen instead to use educational attainment, a more demanding indicator.

While data are plentiful on the extremes of affluence and deprivation in the United
States, the American Human Development Index provides a single measure of well-
being for all Americans, disaggregated by state and congressional district, as well as by
gender, race, and ethnicity. All data used in the index come from official U.S.
government sources—the American Community Survey of the U.S. Census Bureau and
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

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The data included in the American Human Development Index will help us understand
variations among regions and groups. It is a snapshot of America today. Moreover, the
index will serve as a baseline for monitoring future progress.

WHY HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND INCOME?

Most people would agree that a long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a
decent material standard of living are the basic building blocks of well-being and
opportunity. They are also the building blocks of the American Human Development
Index as well as the U.N. Human Development Index upon which it is modeled. These
three core capabilities are universally valued around the world, and measurable,
intuitively sensible, and reliable indicators exist to represent them—two critical
considerations in the construction of a composite index.

A LONG AND HEALTHY LIFE

The most valuable capability people possess is to be alive. Advancing human

development requires, first and foremost, expanding the real opportunities people have
to avoid premature death by disease or injury, to enjoy protection from arbitrary denial
of life, to live in a healthy environment, to maintain a healthy lifestyle, to receive quality
medical care, and to attain the highest possible standard of physical and mental health.

In the American HD Index, life expectancy at birth stands as a proxy for the capability
to live a long and healthy life. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a
baby born today is expected to live if current mortality patterns continue throughout his
or her lifetime. The most commonly used gauge of population health the world over,
life expectancy at birth represents one-third of the overall American HD Index.

The American Human Development Project calculates life expectancy for the 50 states,
the 435 congressional districts, women and men, and major racial and ethnic groups
from mortality data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National
Center for Health Statistics, and population data from the CDC WONDER database.

ACCESS TO KNOWLEDGE
Access to knowledge is a critical determinant of long-term well-being and is essential to
individual freedom, self-determination, and self-sufficiency. Education is critical to
people’s real freedom to decide what to do and who to be. Education builds confidence,
confers status and dignity, and broadens the horizons of the possible—as well as
allowing for the acquisition of skills and credentials. Globalization and technological
change have made it extraordinarily difficult for poorly educated Americans to achieve

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the economic self-sufficiency, peace of mind, and self-respect enabled by a secure
livelihood.

Access to knowledge is measured using two indicators: school enrollment for the
population age 3 and older, and educational degree attainment for the population 25
years and older. A one-third weight is applied to the enrollment indicator and a two-
thirds weight is applied to the degree attainment indicator. Both indicators are from the
American Community Survey, U.S. Census Bureau.

A DECENT STANDARD OF LIVING

Income is essential to meeting basic needs like food and shelter—and to moving beyond
these necessities to a life of genuine choice and freedom. Income enables valuable
options and alternatives, and its absence can limit life chances and restrict access to
many opportunities. Income is a means to a host of critical ends, including a decent
education; a safe, clean living environment; security in illness and old age; and a say in
the decisions that affect one’s life. Money isn’t everything, but it’s something quite
important.

A decent standard of living is measured using median personal earnings of all full- and
part-time workers 16 years and older from the American Community Survey, U.S.
Census Bureau.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

What Are the Eight Stages of Human Development?

If human development is the study of how people change throughout their lives, how
and when does this development happen? Many scientists and psychologists have
studied various aspects of human development, including ego psychologist Erik
Erikson. He examined the impact of social experiences throughout an individual’s life
and theorized that psychosocial development happens in eight sequential parts. What
are the eight stages of human development?
Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust
In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on how well their
caregivers meet their basic needs and respond when they cry. If an infant cries out to be
fed, the parent can either meet this need by feeding and comforting the infant or not
meet this need by ignoring the infant. When their needs are met, infants learn that
relying on others is safe; when their needs go unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.

Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of the second
stage is independence versus dependence. Like in the first stage, toddlers go through
this stage responding to their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be

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independent and explore the world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of
self-efficacy. If the caregivers hover excessively or encourage dependence, these
toddlers grow up with less confidence in their abilities.

For example, if a toddler wants to walk without assistance in a safe area, the caregiver
should encourage this autonomy by allowing the independent behavior. If the caregiver
insists on holding the toddler’s hand even when it’s not necessary, this attention can
lead to doubt later in life.

Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak up when they
need something. Some children may state that they’re sad because a friend stole their
toy. If this assertiveness is greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking
initiative is helpful behavior. However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for
their assertiveness, they may grow up to be timid and less likely to take the lead.

Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers. If children
feel they’re accomplished in relation to peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If,
however, they notice that other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they
may struggle with self-esteem. For example, a first grader may notice a consistently
worse performance on spelling tests when compared with peers. If this becomes a
pattern, it can lead to feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for good reason.
Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self. Adolescents who can clearly identify
who they are grow up with stronger goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who
struggle to break free of their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still
deeply depend on their parents for social interaction and guidance may experience
more role confusion than teenagers who pursue their own interests.

Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to solidify their
lifelong bonds; many people enter committed relationships or marriages, while others
form lifelong friendships. People who can create and maintain these relationships reap
the emotional benefits, while those who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer
from isolation. A young adult who develops strong friendships in college may feel more
intimacy than one who struggles to form and maintain close friendships.

Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to society. They
may be busy raising children or pursuing careers. Those who feel that they’re
contributing experience generativity, which is the sense of leaving a legacy. On the

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 other hand, those who don’t feel that their work or lives matter may experience feelings
of stagnation. For example, a middle-aged adult who’s raising a family and working in
a career that presumably helps people may feel more fulfilled than an adult who’s
working at a day job that feels meaningless.

Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect. Adults who feel
fulfilled by their lives, either through a successful family or a meaningful career, reach
ego integrity, in which they can face aging and dying with peace. If older adults don’t
feel that they’ve lived a good life, they risk falling into despair.

Other Theories of Human Development

Although widely used, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory has been critiqued
for focusing too much on childhood. Critics claim that his emphasis makes the model
less representative of the growth that people experienced in adulthood. Erikson’s model
of the stages of human development is only one theory addressing growth and change
throughout life, as many other psychologists have researched their own theories of
human development, including the following:

Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s theory is widely
used in education programs to prepare teachers to instruct students in developmentally
appropriate ways. The theory is based on four stages:

 Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), children learn object
permanence, which is the understanding that people and objects still exist even when
they’re out of view.
 Preoperational — In the preoperational stage (2-7 years old), children develop symbolic
thought, which is when they begin to progress from concrete to abstract thinking.
Children in this stage often have imaginary friends.
 Concrete operational — In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old), children
solidify their abstract thinking and begin to understand cause and effect and logical
implications of actions.
 Formal operational — In the formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood),
humans plan for the future, think hypothetically, and assume adult responsibilities.
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg created a theory of human development based on moral
development concepts. The theory comprises the following stages:

 Preconventional — In the preconventional stage, people follow rules because they’re

afraid of punishment and make choices only with their best interests in mind.
 Conventional — In the conventional stage, people act to avoid society’s judgment and
follow rules to maintain the systems and structures that are already in place.

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 Postconventional — In the postconventional stage, a genuine concern for the welfare of
others and the greater good of society guides people.
Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud popularized the psychosexual theory. The theory comprises five stages:
 Oral — In the oral stage (birth to 1 year old), children learn to suck and swallow and
may experience conflict with weaning.
 Anal — In the anal stage (1-3 years old), children learn to withhold or expel feces and
may experience conflict with potty training.
 Phallic — In the phallic stage (3-6 years old), children discover that their genitals can
give them pleasure.
 Latency — In the latency stage (roughly 6 years old through puberty), they take a break
from these physical stages and instead develop mentally and emotionally.
 Genital — In the genital stage (puberty through adulthood), people learn to express
themselves sexually.
Ideally, children move through each phase fluidly as their sexual libidos develop, but if
they’re stuck in any of the phases, they may develop a fixation that hinders their
development.

Behavioral Theory
The behavioral theory focuses solely on a person’s behaviors rather than the feelings
that go alongside those behaviors. It suggests that behaviors are conditioned in an
environment due to certain stimuli. Behavioral theorists believe that behavior
determines feelings, so changing behaviors is important because this will in turn change
feelings.

The attachment theory focuses on the deep relationships between people across their
lifetime. An important attachment theory finding is that children must develop at least
one strong bond in childhood to trust and develop relationships as adults. The
attachment theory comprises four stages:
 Asocial or pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks old)
 Indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks old to 7 months old)
 Specific or discriminate attachment (7-9 months old)
 Multiple attachments (10 months old or later)
Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory builds upon the behavioral theory and postulates that people
learn best by observing the behavior of others. They watch how others act, view the
consequences, and then make decisions regarding their own behavior accordingly. The
four stages in this theory are:

 Attention
 Retention
 Reproduction
 Motivation

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In the attention stage, people first notice the behavior of others. In the retention stage,
they remember the behavior and the resulting consequences. In the reproduction stage,
people develop the ability to imitate the behaviors they want to reproduce, and in the
motivation stage, they perform these behaviors.

Sociocultural Theory
The sociocultural theory ties human development to the society or culture in which
people live. It focuses on the contributions that society as a whole makes to individual
human development. For example, children who are raised to play outdoors develop
differently from children who are raised to play indoors.
An important part of this theory is the zone of proximal development, which is an area
of knowledge and skills slightly more advanced than a child’s current level. The zone of
proximal development helps teachers think about and plan instruction, so sociocultural
theory plays a large role in preservice teacher training.

Human Development vs. Developmental Psychology

What are the differences between human development and developmental psychology?
These terms are closely related. In fact, the study of developmental psychology is most
people’s entry into human development.

Developmental psychology is defined as a scientific approach to explaining growth,

change, and consistency throughout a lifetime. It uses various frameworks to
understand how people develop and transform throughout their lives. The goals of
developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and optimize development to
improve people’s lives. In the real world, developmental psychology is used in the
study of physical, psychological, emotional, social, personality, and perceptual
development.
The study of developmental psychology can lead to careers in several different fields.
Developmental psychologists often work in colleges and universities and focus on
research and teaching. Others work in healthcare facilities, clinics, assisted living
facilities, hospitals, mental health clinics, or homeless shelters. In these applied settings,
their focus is more on assessing, evaluating, and treating people. According to June
2020 data from PayScale, developmental psychologists earn an average annual salary of
about $68,000.
Back To Top
What Are the Genetic Factors That Affect Human
Growth and Development?
One more key element of human growth and development left to explore is genetics.
Genetics influences the speed and way in which people develop, though other factors,
such as parenting, education, experiences, and socioeconomic factors, are also at play.
The multiple genetic factors that affect human growth and development include genetic
interactions and sex chromosome abnormalities.

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 Genetic Interactions
Genes can act in an additive way or sometimes conflict with one another. For example,
a child with one tall parent and one short parent may end up between the two of them,
at average height. Other times, genes follow a dominant-recessive pattern. If one parent
has brown hair and the other has red hair, the red hair gene is the dominant gene if
their child has red hair.

Gene-Environment Interactions
Humans’ genetic information is always interacting with the environment, and
sometimes this can impact development and growth. For example, if a child in utero is
exposed to drugs, the child’s cognitive abilities may be impacted, thus changing the
developmental process. In addition, even if a child’s genes would indicate a tall height,
if that child experiences poor nutrition as children, it may impact their height.

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Sex chromosome abnormalities impact as many as 1 in 500 births. The following
syndromes are examples of sex chromosome abnormalities that can impact
development:

 Klinefelter syndrome is the presence of an extra X chromosome in males, which can

cause physical characteristics such as decreased muscle mass and reduced body hair
and may cause learning disabilities.
 Fragile X syndrome is caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene that makes the X
chromosome appear fragile. It can cause intellectual disability, developmental delays,
or distinctive physical features such as a long face.
 Turner syndrome happens when one of the X chromosomes is missing or partially
missing. It only affects females and results in physical characteristics like short stature
and webbed neck.
Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is another common example of how genetics can impact development.
This chromosomal disorder may cause some individuals to experience physical or
intellectual development differences. Down syndrome occurs at the 21st chromosomal
site, in which people with Down syndrome have three chromosomes rather than two.
Those with Down syndrome often have different physical characteristics and may be
prone to physical problems like heart defects and hearing problems. Most individuals
with Down syndrome have intellectual impairment, but the degree of this impairment
varies from person to person.

Why Do We Study Human Growth and

Development?

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 The study of human growth and development offers a wealth of value for personal and
professional growth and understanding. Many reasons exist for why we study human
growth and development.

Common benefits include the following:

 To gain a better understanding of one’s own life experiences. This can help people
personally reach an understanding of what childhood events shaped their adulthood.
 To gain knowledge of how social context impacts development. This knowledge can be
invaluable for professionals like teachers as they gain a deeper understanding of their
students.
 To help others understand and contextualize the ups and downs of life. This helps
therapists and psychologists better aid their clients in self-discovery.
 To understand how societal change can support growth and development. This
understanding helps decision-makers in schools change the educational culture for the
better.
 To become a more effective research, teacher, or leader in many different industries.
Understanding human development deeply and in context has many professional
benefits that can lead to greater insight.
 To support the physical and mental health of individuals throughout their life span.
Professionals like doctors, nurses, and therapists must understand human growth and
development to better support their clients.
Students may choose to study human growth and development because of its array of
applications across many professional fields. For example, students who want to
become elementary school teachers may take courses on the stages of human
development to understand cognitive development and how children’s brains grow
and change.

Human development is a wide-reaching and ever-changing discipline. A knowledge of

human development can be invaluable to people personally as they continue to learn
and grow throughout their lives and professionally as they learn to apply what they’ve
learned to their careers.

STATE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

Human Development Index
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life
expectancy, education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of
schooling upon entering the education system), and per capita income indicators, which
are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores a
higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the gross
national income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher. It was developed by Pakistani
economist Mahbub ul Haq and was further used to measure a country's development

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by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)'s Human Development
Report Office.[1][2][3]
The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human
Development Index (IHDI). While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the
IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality), while the
HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum
level of HDI) that could be achieved if there were no inequality."[4]
The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Mahbub ul
Haq, anchored in Amartya Sen's work on human capabilities, often framed in terms of
whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life. Examples include –
being: well fed, sheltered, healthy; doing: work, education, voting, participating in
community life. The freedom of choice is central – someone choosing to be hungry (as
during a religious fast) is quite different from someone who is hungry because they
cannot afford to buy food, or because the country is in a famine.

Human Development Indicators

Human Development Index

Index
0.601
Rank
143
Trends 1990 - Present

19901995200020052010201520200.00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91.0

 Kenya
 World

Index Comparison
HDI ValueIHDI ValueMPI ValueGII ValueGDI Value00.443 (World: 0.587)0.937 (World:
0.943)0.601 (World: 0.737)0.178 (Developing Countries: 0.108)0.518 (World: 0.436)

Expand All

Health
Life expectancy at birth (years)

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 66.7

Education
Expected years of schooling (years)
11.3

Income/Composition of Resources
Gross national income (GNI) per capita (constant 2017 PPP$)
4,244

Inequality
Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI)
0.443

Gender
Gender Development Index (GDI)
0.937

Poverty
Population in multidimensional poverty, headcount (%)
38.7

Work, employment and vulnerability

Employment to population ratio (% ages 15 and older)
72.7

Human Security

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 Homicide rate (per 100,000 people)
4.9

Trade and Financial Flows

Exports and imports (% of GDP)
33.4

Mobility and Communication

Internet users, total (% of population)
17.8

Environmental sustainability
Carbon dioxide emissions, production emissions per capita (tonnes)
0.4

Demography
Total population (millions) (Data refers to 2030)
66.4

Socio-economic sustainability
Skilled labour force (% of labour force)
40.5

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THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
ISSUES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A

Aboveground Storage Tank (AST) – frequently referred to as “bulk storage

containers,” these tanks and their piping and containment systems are used for storage
of petroleum products
Advection – the transport of dissolved constituents with groundwater and is therefore
dependent upon the hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface materials and hydraulic
gradient in the aquifer
Aerobic biodegradation – the breakdown of organic contaminants by micro-
organisms into smaller organic compounds when oxygen is present; carbon dioxide
and water are often the final products
Air Knife – uses air and vacuum to carefully excavate up to six feet into the ground to
pre-clear a hole, thus mitigating the risk of drilling into an expensive underground
utility
Air Permitting – major sources of air pollutants and certain other sources must obtain
and operate in compliance with a Title V Permit–otherwise known as an operating
permit under the Clean Air Act; sources are required to certify compliance annually, at
the least
Air Toxics – chemicals released into the air that are known or suspected to cause cancer
or other serious health problems
Aliphatic Compounds – a group of organic chemical compounds in which the carbon
atoms are linked in open chains or ring compounds with double bonds
All-Appropriate Inquiry Rule (AAI Rule) -provides an escape from liability called the
“innocent landowner defense,” but can only be used if appropriate due diligence was
conducted prior to the acquisition of the property
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM International) – voluntary
technical standards development organization that covers 15 industries and a wide
range of products, systems, and services
Anaerobic biodegradation – the breakdown of organic contaminants by micro-
organisms when oxygen is not present
Anaerobic Respiration – some anaerobic bacteria use nitrate, sulfate, iron, manganese,
or carbon dioxide as their electron acceptors, and break down organic chemicals into
smaller compounds, often producing carbon dioxide and methane as final products
Analyte – compound for which an analytical laboratory has been requested to analyze a
given sample or set of samples
Anoxic – “without oxygen”; anoxic groundwater contains no dissolved oxygen which is
a common situation at hazardous waste sites–biodegradation processes often use up all
of the available oxygen

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Anthropogenic – caused by humans rather than nature
Aqueous Solubility – ability of a solution to be dissolved in water
Aquiclude – a body of rock that will slowly absorb water but will not transmit the
water fast enough to supply a well or spring (from Dictionary of Geological Terms)
Aquifer – pockets of water existing below the water table; underground layer of water-
bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (e.g., gravel, sand, silt, clay)
capable of a sustainable yield of a significant amount of water to a well or spring
Aquitard – body of impermeable or distinctly less-permeable
material stratigraphically adjacent to one of more aquifers which slows but does not
prevent the flow of water to or from an adjacent aquifer
Aromatic Compounds – hydrocarbons containing one or more rings with double bonds
(e.g., benzene)
Asbestos – naturally-occurring group of minerals that are found in the environment as
bundles of durable fibers that are fire-, heat-, and chemical-resistant and do not conduct
electricity; upon disturbance, fibers become airborne and can become trapped in the
lungs upon inhalation

Background contamination – the concentration of a regulated substance that is present

at the site, but is not related to the release of a regulated substance at the site
BTEX – benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene are four Volatile Organic
Compounds found in gasoline; often found together and are similar in chemical
properties; mobile in the subsurface and in the atmosphere, and of concern for
underground storage tank remediation sites due to their mobility and toxicity
Best Management Practices (BMPs) – practical and effective measures taken to protect
natural resources; has referred to pollution controls in the fields of industrial
wastewater control, stormwater management, and wetland management
Biodegradation – breakdown of organic contaminants into smaller compounds by
microbial organisms through metabolic or enzymatic processes, with carbon dioxide or
methane as the final product; processes vary greatly but are key in the natural
attenuation of contaminants of leaking underground storage tank and hazardous waste
spill sites
Brownfield – a formerly developed property that is about to be redeveloped, but the
reconstruction process may be complicated by the presence of a hazardous substance or
pollutant; often have high levels of subsurface contamination generated during
operation

Capillary Fringe – mostly saturated (or completely saturated) zone just above the water
table in which groundwater is drawn up from a water table; water content decreases
with distance above the water table (pores at the base of the capillary fringe are fully
saturated due to tension saturation; if pore size is small and relatively uniform, it is
possible that soils can be completely saturated with water for several feet above the

15
water table; if pore size is large, the saturated portion will extend only a few inches
above the water table)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) – a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and the burning of wood, propane, gas, charcoal,
and other fuels; replaces oxygen in red blood cells, reducing oxygen supply to organs
and tissues
CERCLA – Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
of 1980
Co-metabolic/Co-metabolism – when two or more micro-organisms are required for
the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons; some compounds that are resistant to
standard monocultural biodegradation have proved to be biodegradable with
combinations of two, three, or more different species
Commercial Energy Audit – determines the most effective low-cost means of reducing
energy use by providing a breakdown of how, where, and when electricity is used at a
business as well as potential engineering and financial modifications that may yield
energy savings
Commercial Property – refers to buildings or lands intended to generate a profit either
from capital gain or rental income
Comprehensive Phase II Environmental Site Assessment – includes extensive
sampling to fully characterize the extent of contamination as well as analyses of
potential migration pathways and receptors so that cleanup costs can be estimated
Confined Aquifer – an aquifer separated from the ground surface or
overlying aquifer by an aquiclude or aquitard to the extent that pressure can be created
in the lower reaches of the aquifer without affecting either the soil surface or the upper
reservoir of water
Constituents of Concern (COCs) – contaminants in environmental media that may
cause a risk to human health, safety, or the environment that have been identified for
further evaluation, such as risk assessment
Contaminant – regulated substance released into the environment
Corrective Action Plan – document describing exactly–often step-by-step–how a
specific situation will be changed to achieve a targeted outcome

Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) – qualitative and quantitative statements specified to

ensure that data of known and appropriate quality are obtained; involves a logical step-
by-step procedure for determining which of the complex issues affecting a site are the
most relevant to planning a site investigation before any data are collected
Dispersion – spread of dissolved constituents predominantly in the direction of
groundwater flow, but also in directions other than would be expected due to
groundwater movement only (lateral and vertical); causes some attenuation of the
concentrations (lower concentrations) as the constituent move down-gradient
Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) – “pure product” (e.g., dry cleaning
fluid) that remains undiluted as the original bulk liquid in the subsurface; more dense
than water and will sink when they reach the water table

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E

Effective Solubility – the maximum dissolved-phase concentration when a compound

is part of a chemical mixture, calculated from the compound’s mole fraction in the
mixture and its pure-phase solubility in water; always less than the chemical’s pure-
phase solubility in water
Environmental Compliance – conforming to environmental laws, standards, and
regulations to avoid future liability and to protect human health and the environment
Environmental Media – soil, sediment, surface water, groundwater, bedrock, and air
Environmental Professional – an individual who possesses sufficient education,
training, and experience necessary to exercise professional judgment to develop
opinions and conclusions regarding the presence or threat of releases to the surface or
subsurface of a property
Environmental Protection Agency – (EPA) Federal government agency created to
protect human health and the environment through research, monitoring, standard-
testing, and enforcement actions
Environmentally-Sensitive Area – type of designation for an agricultural area which
needs special protection of its landscape, wildlife, or historical value

Fermentation – takes place when the organic chemical acts as an electron acceptor
Flammable Range – range of a concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn or explode
if an ignition source is introduced; also known as “Explosive Range”
Free Product – regulated substance that is present as a separate phase liquid; liquid not
dissolved in water

Gasoline – typically composed of C4 to C12 hydrocarbons, with the majority of the

mass between C4 and C10.
Geology – science that deals with the earth’s physical structure and substance, its
history, and the processes that act upon it
Geophysical Testing – systematic collection of data for spatial studies; may use a
variety of sensing instruments, and data may be collected from above or below the
earth’s surface or from aerial, orbital, or marine platforms; often used as part of the
initial site exploration phase of a project

Heating Oil – typically used in the operation of heating equipment, boilers, or furnaces;
petroleum that is No. 1, No. 2, No. 4-light, No. 4-heavy, No. 5-light, No. 5-heavy, and
No. 6 technical grades of fuel oil; other residual fuel oils (including Navy Special Fuel
Oil and Bunker C); other fuels when used as substitutes for one of these fuel oils
Henry’s Law Coefficient (or Constant) – the ratio of the vapor-phase concentration of
an organic chemical relative to its dissolved-phase concentration in water

17
Hydraulic Conductivity (of Soils) – the ease with which pores of saturated soil permit
water movement; a quantitative measure of a saturated soil’s ability to transmit water
when subjected to a hydraulic gradient (from http://nrcs.usda.gov)
Hydrogeology – combines knowledge of hydrology and geology to understand how
water interacts with geological systems
Hydrology – the study of surface and subsurface water occurrence, distribution,
movement, and quality and its relationship with the environment within each phase of
the water cycle

Industrial Wastewater – produced as a byproduct of commercial activities; treated

wastewater may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to surface water in the
environment
In-Situ – in its original place; unmoved; unexcavated; remaining in the subsurface

Lead – naturally-occurring element found in the air, soil, water, and the earth’s crust
that is very toxic if it enters the body at high levels; commonly inhaled as dust, fumes,
or mist which then enters the bloodstream and is stored in the bones
Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) – “pure product” (i.e., gasoline) that
remains undiluted as the original bulk liquid in the subsurface. LNAPLS (such
as gasoline, diesel, other fuels, most crude oils, and creosote) are less dense than water;
when petroleum is released into the environment, it is typically as a LNAPL
Limited Phase II Environmental Site Assessment – sampling to confirm the presence
of a pollutant
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) – below the explosive/flammable range; mixture is too
lean to burn; also known as “Lower Flammable Limit“

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) – highest concentration levels allowed by law

in public water supplies promulgated by the EPA and/or the applicable State
environmental regulatory agency
Methanogenesis/Methanogenic – fermentation by micro-organisms of simple organic
carbon compounds or oxidation of hydrogen under anaerobic conditions with the
production of carbon dioxide and methane; methanogenic conditions prevail in many
contamination plumes after all other electron acceptors have been used up by other
members of the subsurface microbial community (from http://toxics.usgs.gov)
Method Detection Limit – takes into account the reagents, sample matrix, and
preparation steps applied to a sample in specific analytical methods
Micro-organisms – bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and actinomycetes typically found in soil
that assist in the processes of biodegradation and/or natural attenuation

18
Mold – spores form when humidity levels exceed 40%; some species may cause fungal
hypersensitivity, upper and lower respiratory issues, asthma, pneumonia, and other
symptoms that are commonly associated with allergies, asthma, and the common cold
Monitoring Well – a well constructed exclusively to monitor and/or sample conditions
of a water-bearing aquifer, e.g., water pressure, depth, movement, temperature, or
quality; provides controlled access for groundwater quality samples and hydrogeologic
infiormation
Motor Fuel – petroleum or petroleum-based substance that is motor gasoline, aviation
gasoline, No. 1 or No. 2 diesel fuel, or any grade of gasohol, and is typically used in the
operation of an internal combustion engine

Natural Attenuation – includes a variety of physical, chemical, or biological processes

that act without human intervention to reduce the mass, toxicity, mobility, volume,
and/or concentration of contaminants in soil or groundwater
Non-Detectable Concentrations – chemicals that are not detected in a sample above a
certain limit, usually the quantitation limit for the chemical in the sample
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) – the National system for
the issuance of permits under section 402 of the Federal Clean Water Act including a
state or interstate program which has been approved in whole or in part by the EPA

Occupational Safety and Health Administration – (OSHA) purpose is to “assure safe

and healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and
enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education and
assistance”; signed into law by President Nixon on December 29, 1970 (via osha.gov)
Outsourcing – allows a business to hire a consultant/third party only when needed in
order to focus on managing the operations that are vital to their success
Over-excavation – additional excavation needed after an underground storage tank and
the surrounding soil have been removed; confirmation samples are collected from the
walls and floor of the excavation pit and sent for laboratory analysis to ensure that the
remaining soil does not present a threat to groundwater
Overfill – a release that occurs when a tank is filled beyond its capacity
Oxygenate – fuel additives (alcohols and ethers) that contain oxygen, which can boost
gasoline’s octane quality, enhance combustion, and reduce exhaust emissions

Phase I Environmental Site Assessments (Phase I ESA) – a safeguard which limits a

property owner’s exposure to environmental liability; goal is to determine the presence
of any hazardous substances or petroleum products in, on, or at a property; includes
records review, site reconnaissance, interviews, and report preparation
Phase II Environmental Site Assessments (Phase II ESA) – typically occur after a
recognized environmental condition is discovered during a Phase I ESA; includes

19
sampling and laboratory analyses to confirm the presence or absence of hazardous
substances or petroleum products
Photoionization Detector (PID) – a portable vapor and gas detector that measures a
variety of volatile organic compounds and toxic gases; uses ultraviolet light to break
down VOCs in the air into positive and negative ions
Physico-Chemical Properties – shorthand phrase referring to the physical and chemical
properties of a given chemical or compound; properties are needed to evaluate fate and
transport of chemical; including, but not limited to, aqueous solubility, vapor pressure,
density, Henry’s Law Coefficient, specific gravity, and biodegradability
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) – chemical compounds that consist of
fused aromatic rings. Some of these compounds have high toxicity values and have
been identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or teratogenic.
Practical Quantitation Limit (PQL) – the lowest limit that can be reliably achieved
within specified limits of precision and accuracy under routine laboratory conditions
for a specified matrix; based on quantitation, precision and accuracy, normal operation
of a laboratory, and the practical need in a compliance-monitoring program to have a
sufficient numbers of laboratories available to conduct the analyses

Radon – radioactive gas commonly found in geologic regions that have prevalent
granite or shale deposits; cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted; second-leading cause of
lung cancer in the United States
Receptor – human or other living organism with the potential to be exposed to and
adversely affected by contaminants because it is present at the source or along
the contaminant migration pathway
Recognized Environmental Condition (REC) – the presence or likely presence of any
hazardous substances or petroleum products in, on, or at a property
Regulated Discharge – point or nonpoint source discharge subject to the permit or
approval requirements of state and Federal regulations and any diffuse surface or
groundwater discharge to surface waters which has the potential to cause an
exceedance of the water quality standards
Regulated Substance – an element, compound, mixture, solution, or substance that,
when released into the environment, may present substantial danger to public health,
welfare, or environment; includes any hazardous substance as defined by CERCLA,
petroleum, and any other substance determined by the environmental regulating
agency (via PADEP)
Regulatory Compliance – describes the goals that businesses must strive to achieve in
their efforts to ensure they know and satisfy relevant laws, standards, and regulations
Remedial Action Plan (RAP)– detailed summary of the environment issues found on a
property during a site characterization; outlines a plan of action that illustrates which
methods will be used to achieve cleanup goals
Remediation – to clean up, mitigate, correct, abate, minimize, eliminate, control, or
prevent a release of a regulated substance into the environment to protect the present

20
or future of public health, safety, welfare, or the environment, including preliminary
actions to study or assess the release
Reportable Release – a quantity or unknown quantity of regulated substance released
to or posing an immediate threat to surface water, groundwater, bedrock, soil, or
sediment; release reporting quantities and requirements are state- and material-specific
Reporting Limit – lowest concentration at which a contaminant is reported
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) – give the EPA the authority to
control solid and hazardous waste through the generation, transportation, storage, and
disposal process; addresses the increasing problems cause by municipal and industrial
waste
Risk Assessment – process to quantify the risk posed by exposure of a human or
ecological receptor to regulated substances; includes baseline risk assessments,
development of site-specific standards, and risk assessment of the remedial alternatives

Saturated Zone – subsurface zone in which all the spaces in the rock or soil are filled
with water; the water table is the top of the saturated zone in an unconfined aquifer
Sediment – solid fragmental material that originates from weathering of rocks and is
transported or deposited by air, water, or ice; accumulates by other other natural agents
such as chemical precipitation from solution or secretion by organisms; forms in layers;
includes sand, gravel, silt, mud, till, loess, and alluvium
Sick Building Syndrome – occupants of a building experience acute health- or comfort-
related issues that seem to be directly linked to the time spent in the building;
symptoms cannot be attributed to allergies, asthma, or the common cold
Smear Zone – area where free product has been transported through soils due to a
fluctuating water table; a zone in soil that is either above or below the water table at
any given time
Snow Fans – compressed air and water spray out through several nozzles, and the
airflow generated by the large fans blows the air/water mix into the air as a mist to
achieve long hang time–which allows for freezing to occur; function well in moderate
winds and broadcast snow over large areas
Snowmaking Automation – allows ski resorts to take advantage of small snowmaking
windows while reducing energy use, manual labor, and risk of injury
Soil – unconsolidated materials above bedrock
Solubility – relative capability of being dissolved
Spill Prevention, Countermeasure, and Control Plan (SPCC Plan) – establish
operating procedures for the prevention of, preparedness for, and response to oil
discharges at specific non-transportation-related facilities that may reach navigable U.S.
waters and adjoining shorelines
Stakeholders – all parties with a direct or indirect interest in the outcome of any activity
Stormwater Runoff – generated from rain and snowmelt events that flow over land or
impervious surfaces and does not soak into the ground; operator of these sources may
be required to obtain a NPDES permit before they can discharge water

21
Stratigraphy – a description of the rock or soil strata in the subsurface, particularly the
sequence of layer
Superfund Site – and land in the United States that has been contaminated by
hazardous waste and identified by the EPA as a candidate for cleanup due to the risks
to human health and/or the environment

Topography – detailed description or representation on a map of the natural and

artificial features of an area
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) – amount of inorganic materials such as minerals, salts,
metals, cations, or anions dissolved in water
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) – EPA regulates the introduction of new or
existing chemicals under this act; EPA can require reporting, record-keeping and
testing, and restriction relating to chemical substances and/or mixtures

Underground Storage Tank (UST) – a tank and any underground piping connected to
the tank that has at least 10% of its combined volume underground
Underground Storage Tank Indemnification Fund (USTIF) – goal is to provide a
cleaner state of Pennsylvania by administering a fiscally-responsible program to
reimburse eligible participants for reasonable and necessary expenses incurred from
releases into the environment
Underground Utility Markouts – involves a color code and symbols to label public
utility mains below the surface; mains may include lines for telecommunication,
electricity distribution, natural gas, cable television, fiber optics, traffic lights, street
lights, storm drains, water mains, and wastewater pipes
Unsaturated Zone – area between the ground surface and the aquifer’s water
table within which the moisture content is less than the saturation and the pressure is
less than atmospheric; soil pore spaces in this zone may contain air or other gases; also
known as the “Vadose Zone”
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) – above the explosive/flammable range; the mixture is to
rich to burn; also known as the “Upper Flammable Limit“

Vapor Pressure – equilibrium between gas and solid; force exerted by the gas or vapor
released by a liquid or solid substance in a closed container; an indication of a liquid’s
evaporation rate
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – organic chemicals that are easily evaporated at
normal room temperature; BTEX chemicals, benzene, ethylene, glycol, formaldehyde

22
Water Quality Objectives (WQOs) – narrative on numerical criteria designed to define
appropriate levels of environmental quality and to control activities that can adversely
affect aquatic systems
Wet Bulb Temperature – relationship between temperature and humidity; the lowest
temperature that can be reached by evaporating water into the air and will always be
less than or equal to the air temperature

, natural environment and environmental change, are defined on the basis of what is meant
by natural as reflected by common usage and dictionary entries. The three degradation
terms, environmental degradation, land degradation, and soil degradation, are defined as any
change or disturbance to the environment, land, or soil perceived to be deleterious or
undesirable. A sixth term, soil regeneration, is defined as the reformation of degraded
soil through biological, chemical, and/or physical agencies. The remaining four
terms, environmental quality, air quality, soil quality, and water quality, are defined as
measures of the condition or state of each relative to the requirements of one or more
biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose.

ENVIRONMENT AND GOVERNANCE

Environmental governance is a concept in political ecology and environmental

policy that advocates sustainability (sustainable development) as the supreme
consideration for managing all human activities—political, social and economic.
[1]
Governance includes government, business and civil society, and emphasizes
whole system management. To capture this diverse range of elements, environmental
governance often employs alternative systems of governance, for example watershed-
based management.[2]
It views natural resources and the environment as global public goods, belonging to the
category of goods that are not diminished when they are shared.[3] This means that
everyone benefits from, for example, a breathable atmosphere, stable climate and
stable biodiversity.
Public goods are non-rivalrous—a natural resource enjoyed by one person can still be
enjoyed by others—and non-excludable—it is impossible to prevent someone
consuming the good (such as breathing). Public goods are recognized as beneficial and
therefore have value. The notion of a global public good thus emerges, with a slight
distinction: it covers necessities that must not be destroyed by one person or state.

23
Environmental governance matters to development because:

> The environment is disproportionately important to poor people

> The environment presents unique governance dilemmas, such as multiple public and
private rights, multiple scales and seasonality

> Governance failures lie behind many environmental problems

> Improved governance can lead to better environmental management

> Environmental management can be an effective entry point for wider governance
reform

1 Counting the ‘requirements’ for good governance and environmental health

According to the 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index, the five most significant
variables influencing environmental sustainability all related to governance:

> civil and political liberties; > government effectiveness;

> quality of political institutions; > the environmental governance regime;

> participation in international environmental agreements (Source: Yale and Columbia

Universities 2005) Each new edition of the World Development Report stresses ever
more ‘requirements’ for good governance – 45 are listed in 1997, 78 in 1998, 106 in 2000,
and 116 in 2002. This poses three dilemmas: > ‘Good governance’ must be rooted in the
realities of particular contexts.

> Governments cannot meet multiple requirements alone. They should pursue these
through decentralisation and partnerships.

> Not all requirements will be necessary or practical in most countries. The priorities,
and feasabilities need to be assessed and tested against the problems that affect most
people, and particularly the poorest and least powerful groups.

Governance improvements have led to better environmental management The 1992

Earth Summit put too much faith in the capabilities of national governments’

24
environment authorities. It is now clear that most real progress since has resulted from
improved governance linked to improved interactions between stakeholders, such as:

> Multi-stakeholder engagement in standards and certification:

Civil society and private sector participation has been key in the recent proliferation of
standards for environmental management and the generation of market-based
incentives, such as forest, fisheries and organic food certification and labelling. Such
schemes are often governed by multistakeholder groups. Because these schemes
identify what is good and how can it be measured and rewarded through the market,
they have increasingly influenced broader government policy and legislation.

> Decentralisation and local decision-making:

Civil society organisations and groups of poor people have negotiated improved rights,
responsibilities, returns and relationships – often in partnership with local government
or environment authorities to improve service delivery (e.g. community-led sanitation
in slums, and community management of wildlife and forests). This has also helped to
improve transparency and accountability in the use of environmental assets.
Environmental management is now increasingly driven

With government:

> Create the capacity to support engagement by civil society and multiple local
organisations – and to respond to them. Exercises such as Participatory Poverty
Assessments are excellent means for such engagement, enabling real environmental
issues to be explored in depth. Given that real progress is often through experiment and
local cases, Irish Aid’s partner IIED has found that multi-stakeholder environmental
governance ‘learning groups’ can offer an unthreatening – but effective – way forward
in identifying ‘what works’ for better environmental governance.

> Build environmental information systems that track the value and use of key
environmental assets in relation to the needs of the poor e.g. environmental wealth
accounts (World Bank 2005). A simple national ‘state of environment’ report can be
helpful, especially if it includes povertyenvironment indicators and shows who bears
the costs, benefits and risks of different uses of the environment. If linked to e.g. a
multi-stakeholder forum that is asked to regularly review the state of the environment,
this can improve transparency. Irish Aid could support this type of work as part of a
wider donor group.

> Link information on where poverty is, and where environmental problems are e.g.
environment indicators in poverty monitoring, and poverty-environment mapping

25
(such as the World Resources Institute has been doing in East Africa1 ). This can start to
show correlations and where poverty/environment solutions most need to be
coordinated.

> Support environment budget reviews as part of all sectors’ inputs into public
expenditure review processes

With international governance regimes:

> Support stronger Southern delegations and more equitable, cost-effective and
accountable negotiation processes in multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), as
well as agreements (e.g. on trade and finance) that influence the value of environmental
assets in developing countries. The most pressing issue is improving agreements on
climate change to enable developing countries to both mitigate and adapt to its impacts.

> Develop incentives to implement international agreements as well as mechanisms to

ensure their compliance and enforcement. It is critical to reward poor people for their
role in providing environmental services, such as biodiversity protection. It is helpful if
the reporting and enforcement mechanisms of multiple MEAs can be rationalised and
streamlined to help countries with limited capacity, such as small-island developing
states. > Support environmental democracy, through promoting Principle 10 of the Rio
Declaration (1992), which seeks to tackle inequalities of access to information, public
participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters.
Partnership for Principle 10 is an international partnership open to governments,
international organisations and civil society groups to enhance and accelerate Principle
10 at the national level.

> Support – and encourage national government sign-up to – transparency and anti-
corruption schemes such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, which
examines revenue flows and usage from mining and minerals
(www.eitransparency.org); and the Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade
Initiative.

Challenges
Challenges facing environmental governance include:

 Inadequate continental and global agreements

26
 Unresolved tensions between maximum development, sustainable development
and maximum protection, limiting funding, damaging links with the economy and
limiting application of Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs).
 Environmental funding is not self-sustaining, diverting resources from problem-
solving into funding battles.
 Lack of integration of sector policies
 Inadequate institutional capacities
 Ill-defined priorities
 Unclear objectives
 Lack of coordination within the UN, governments, the private sector and civil
society
 Lack of shared vision
 Interdependencies among development/sustainable economic growth, trade,
agriculture, health, peace and security.
 International imbalance between environmental governance and trade and finance
programs, e.g., World Trade Organization (WTO).
 Limited credit for organizations running projects within the Global Environment
Facility (GEF)
 Linking UNEP, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World
Bank with MEAs
 Lack of government capacity to satisfy MEA obligations
 Absence of the gender perspective and equity in environmental governance
 Inability to influence public opinion[15][16][17]
 Time lag between human action and environmental effect, sometimes as long as a
generation[18]
 Environmental problems being embedded in very complex systems, of which our
understanding is still quite weak

Environmental governance issues[edit]

Soil deterioration[edit]
Soil and land deterioration reduces its capacity for capturing, storing and recycling
water, energy and food. Alliance 21 proposed solutions in the following domains:[42]

 include soil rehabilitation as part of conventional and popular education

 involve all stakeholders, including policymakers and authorities, producers and
land users, the scientific community and civil society to manage incentives and
enforce regulations and laws
 establish a set of binding rules, such as an international convention
 set up mechanisms and incentives to facilitate transformations
 gather and share knowledge;
 mobilize funds nationally and internationally
Climate change[edit]

27
The scientific consensus on climate change is expressed in the reports
of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and also in the statements by all
major scientific bodies in the United States such as National Academy of Sciences.[43]
The drivers of climate change can include - Changes in solar irradiance - Changes in
atmospheric trace gas and aerosol concentrations Evidence of climate change can be
identified by examining - Atmospheric concentrations of Green House Gases (GHGs)
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) - Land and sea surface temperatures - Atmospheric water
vapor - Precipitation - The occurrence or strength of extreme weather and climate
events - Glaciers - Rapid sea ice loss - Sea level[44]
It is suggested by climate models that the changes in temperature and sea level can be
the causal effects of human activities such as consumption of fossil fuels, deforestation,
increased agricultural production and production of xenobiotic gases.[45]
There has been increasing actions in order to mitigate climate change and reduce its
impact at national, regional and international levels. Kyoto protocol and United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) plays the most important role
in addressing climate change at an international level.[46]
The goal of combating climate change led to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol by 191
states, an agreement encouraging the reduction of greenhouse gases, mainly CO
2. Since developed economies produce more emissions per capita, limiting emissions in
all countries inhibits opportunities for emerging economies, the only major success in
efforts to produce a global response to the phenomenon.
Two decades following the Brundtland Report, however, there has been no
improvement in the key indicators highlighted.
Biodiversity[edit]
Environmental governance for protecting the biodiversity has to act in many levels.
Biodiversity is fragile because it is threatened by almost all human actions. To promote
conservation of biodiversity, agreements and laws have to be created to regulate
agricultural activities, urban growth, industrialization of countries, use of natural
resources, control of invasive species, the correct use of water and protection of air
quality. Before making any decision for a region or country decision makers, politicians
and community have to take into account what are the potential impacts for
biodiversity, that any project can have.
Population growth and urbanization have been a great contributor for deforestation.
Also, population growth requires more intense agricultural areas use, which also results
in necessity of new areas to be deforested. This causes habitat loss, which is one of the
major threats for biodiversity. Habitat loss and habitat fragmentation affects all species,
because they all rely on limited resources, to feed on and to breed.[47]
‘Species are genetically unique and irreplaceable their loss is irreversible. Ecosystems vary across
a vast range of parameters, and similar ecosystems (whether wetlands, forests, coastal reserves

28
etc) cannot be presumed to be interchangeable, such that the loss of one can be compensated by
protection or restoration of another’.[48]
To avoid habitat loss, and consequently biodiversity loss, politicians and lawmakers
should be aware of the precautionary principle, which means that before approving a
project or law all the pros and cons should be carefully analysed. Sometimes the
impacts are not explicit, or not even proved to exist. However, if there is any chance of
an irreversible impact happen, it should be taken into consideration.[49]
To promote environmental governance for biodiversity protection there has to be a clear
articulation between values and interests while negotiating environmental management
plans.[50] International agreements are good way to have it done right.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
human activities. The CBD's objectives are: “to conserve biological diversity, to use
biological diversity in a sustainable fashion, to share the benefits of biological diversity
fairly and equitably.” The convention is the first global agreement to address all aspects
of biodiversity: genetic resources, species and ecosystems. It recognizes, for the first
time, that the conservation of biological diversity is “a common concern for all
humanity”. The Convention encourages joint efforts on measures for scientific and
technological cooperation, access to genetic resources and the transfer of clean
environmental technologies.
The Convention on Biological Diversity most important edition happened in 2010 when
the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi Targets, were launched.
These two projects together make the United Nations decade on Biodiversity. It was
held in Japan and has the targets of ‘halting and eventually reversing the loss of biodiversity
of the planet’.[51] The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity has the goal to ‘promote its overall
vision of living in harmony with nature’ As result (...) ‘mainstream biodiversity at different
levels. Throughout the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity, governments are encouraged to
develop, implement and communicate the results of national strategies for implementation of the
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity’.[51] According to the CBD [51] the five Aichi targets are:

1. ‘Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across

government and society;
2. Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use;
3. Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic
diversity;
4. Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services;
5. Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge
management and capacity building.’
Water
The 2003 UN World Water Development Report claimed that the amount of water
available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%.

29
In the same report, it is indicated that in 1998, 2.2 million people died from diarrhoeal
diseases.[52] In 2004, the UK's WaterAid charity reported that one child died every 15
seconds from water-linked diseases.
According to Alliance 21[53] “All levels of water supply management are necessary and
independent. The integrated approach to the catchment areas must take into account
the needs of irrigation and those of towns, jointly and not separately as is often seen to
be the case....The governance of a water supply must be guided by the principles of
sustainable development.”
Australian water resources have always been variable but they are becoming
increasingly so with changing climate conditions. Because of how limited water
resources are in Australia, there needs to be an effective implementation of
environmental governance conducted within the country. Water restrictions are an
important policy device used in Australian environmental governance to limit the
amount of water used in urban and agricultural environments (Beeton et al. 2006).
There is increased pressure on surface water resources in Australia because of the
uncontrolled growth in groundwater use and the constant threat of drought. These
increased pressures not only affect the quantity and quality of the waterways but they
also negatively affect biodiversity. The government needs to create policies that
preserve, protect and monitor Australia's inland water. The most significant
environmental governance policy imposed by the Australian government is
environmental flow allocations that allocate water to the natural environment. The
proper implementation of water trading systems could help to conserve water resources
in Australia. Over the years there has been an increase in demand for water, making
Australia the third largest per capita user of water in the world (Beeton et al. 2006). If
this trend continues, the gap between supply and demand will need to be addressed.
The government needs to implement more efficient water allocations and raise water
rates (UNEP, 2014). By changing public perception to promote the action of reusing and
recycling water some of the stress of water shortages can be alleviated. More extensive
solutions like desalination plants, building more dams and using aquifer storage are all
options that could be taken to conserve water levels but all these methods are
controversial. With caps on surface water use, both urban and rural consumers are
turning to groundwater use; this has caused groundwater levels to decline significantly.
Groundwater use is very hard to monitor and regulate. There is not enough research
currently being conducted to accurately determine sustainable yields. Some regions are
seeing improvement in groundwater levels by applying caps on bores and the amount
of water that consumers are allowed to extract. There have been projects in
environmental governance aimed at restoring vegetation in the riparian zone. Restoring
riparian vegetation helps increase biodiversity, reduce salinity, prevent soil erosion and
prevent riverbank collapse. Many rivers and waterways are controlled by weirs and
locks that control the flow of rivers and also prevent the movement of fish. The
government has funded fish-ways on some weirs and locks to allow for native fish to
move upstream. Wetlands have significantly suffered under restricted water resources
with water bird numbers dropping and a decrease in species diversity. The allocation of

30
water for bird breeding through environmental flows in Macquarie Marshes has led to
an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout
Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There
has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity
levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not
enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can
negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive
species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive
species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research
in producing daughterless carp to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also
gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving
into floodplains and wetlands. Investment in national and regional programmes like the
Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan
Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers
programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-
vegetation and aquatic pest control. The Living Murray programme has been crucial for
the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500
billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and
water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to
suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If
environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in
policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010). In Arab
countries, the extensive use of water for agriculture also needs critical attention since
agriculture in this region has less contribution for its national income. [54] [55] [56]
Ozone layer[edit]
On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Montreal
Protocol to address the declining ozone layer. Since that time, the use
of chlorofluorocarbons (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides
such as methyl bromide has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases
are still in use.[57]
Nuclear risk[edit]
The Nuclear non-proliferation treaty is the primary multilateral agreement governing
nuclear activity.
Transgenic organisms
Genetically modified organisms are not the subject of any major multilateral
agreements. They are the subject of various restrictions at other levels of governance.
GMOs are in widespread use in the US, but are heavily restricted in many other
jurisdictions.
Controversies have ensued over golden rice, genetically modified salmon, genetically
modified seeds, disclosure and other topics.
Precautionary principle

31
The precautionary principle or precautionary approach states that if an action or policy
has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence
of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the burden of proof that it is
not harmful falls on those taking an action. As of 2013 it was not the basis of major
multilateral agreements. The Precautionary Principle is put into effect if there is a
chance that proposed action may cause harm to the society or the environment.
Therefore, those involved in the proposed action must provide evidence that it will not
be harmful, even if scientists do not believe that it will cause harm. It falls upon the
policymakers to make the optimal decision, if there is any risk, even without any
credible scientific evidence. However, taking precautionary action also means that there
is an element of cost involved, either social or economic. So if the cost was seen as
insignificant the action would be taken without the implementation of the
precautionary principle.[58] But often the cost is ignored, which can lead to harmful
repercussions. This is often the case with industry and scientists who are primarily
concerned with protecting their own interests.[59]
Socio-environmental conflicts[edit]
Environmental issues such as natural resource management and climate change have
security and social considerations. Drinking water scarcity and climate change can
cause mass migrations of climate refugees, for example.[60]
Social network analysis has been applied to understand how different actors cooperate
and conflict in environmental governance. Existing relationships can influence how
stakeholders collaborate during times of conflict: a study of transportation planning and
land use in California found that stakeholders choose their collaborative partners by
avoiding those with the most dissimilar beliefs, rather than by selecting for those with
shared views. The result is known as homophily—actors with similar views are more
likely to end up collaborating than those with opposing views.

Agreements
Conventions
The main multilateral conventions, also known as Rio Conventions, are as follows:
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992–1993): aims to conserve biodiversity.
Related agreements include the Cartagena Protocol on biosafety.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) (1992–1994): aims
to stabilize concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would stabilize the climate
system without threatening food production, and enabling the pursuit of sustainable
economic development; it incorporates the Kyoto Protocol.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) (1994–1996): aims to
combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and desertification, in
developing countries (Though initially the convention was primarily meant for Africa).
Further conventions:

32
 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1971–1975)
 UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972–1975)
 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES) (1973–1975)
 Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (1979–1983)
 Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes (Water Convention) (1992–1996)
 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal (1989–1992)
 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedures for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (COP) (2001–2004)
The Rio Conventions are characterized by:

 obligatory execution by signatory states

 involvement in a sector of global environmental governance
 focus on the fighting poverty and the development of sustainable living conditions;
 funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for countries with few financial
resources;
 inclusion of a for assessing ecosystem status[63]
Environmental conventions are regularly criticized for their:

 rigidity and verticality: they are too descriptive, homogenous and top down, not
reflecting the diversity and complexity of environmental issues. Signatory countries
struggle to translate objectives into concrete form and incorporate them consistently;
 duplicate structures and aid: the sector-specific format of the conventions produced
duplicate structures and procedures. Inadequate cooperation between government
ministries;
 contradictions and incompatibility: e.g., “if reforestation projects to reduce CO
2 give preference to monocultures of exotic species, this can have a negative impact
on biodiversity (whereas natural regeneration can strengthen both biodiversity and
the conditions needed for life).”[15]
Until now, the formulation of environmental policies at the international level has been
divided by theme, sector or territory, resulting in treaties that overlap or clash.
International attempts to coordinate environment institutions, include the Inter-Agency
Coordination Committee and the Commission for Sustainable Development, but these
institutions are not powerful enough to effectively incorporate the three aspects of
sustainable development

Key principles of Good Governance

33
  Effectiveness and efficiency – Processes and institutions should produce results
that meet needs while making the best use of resources.
 Responsiveness – Institutions and processes should serve all stakeholders and
respond properly to changes in demand and preferences, or other new
circumstances.
 Coordination, integration and coherency - Governance should enhance and
promote coordinated and holistic approaches to effectively integrate several
policy and institutional areas and a multitude of stakeholders. Policies and
actions must be coherent and consistent, strive towards the same goals, and be
easily understood.
 Rule of law and impartiality – Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced
impartially, with equity and in a nondiscriminatory way. All citizens,
irrespective of gender, religion, sexuality, ethnicity, and age, are of equal value
and entitled to equal treatment under the law, as well as equitable access to
opportunities, services and resources. All people in society should have
opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
 Accountability – Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil
society organisations, should be responsible for executing their powers properly
and be accountable to the public for what they do and for how they do it.
 Transparency – Is built on the free flow of information in society. Processes,
institutions and information should be directly accessible to those concerned.
 Participation – All men and women should have a voice, or through legitimate
intermediate institutions representing their interests, in decision-making and the
development and implementation of policies and programs that affect them.
Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, capacities
to participate constructively, as well as national and local governments following
an inclusive approach.
 Integrity – Behaviours and actions consistent with a set of moral and ethical
principles and standards, embraced by individuals as well as institutions,
creating a barrier to corruption.

POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT

What Is Population?
A population is a distinct group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation
or a group of people with a common characteristic. In statistics, a population is the pool
of individuals from which a statistical sample is drawn for a study. Thus, any selection
of individuals grouped together by a common feature can be said to be a population.

34
How to Calculate a Population
A population can be defined narrowly, such as the number of newborn babies in North
America with brown eyes, the number of startups in Asia that failed in less than three
years, the average height of all female accounting examination candidates, or the mean
weight of all U.S. taxpayers over age 30.

What is the Environment?

An Environment is everything that is around us, which includes both living and
nonliving things such as soil, water, animals and plants, which adapt themselves to
their surroundings. It is nature’s gift that helps in nourishing life on the earth.
The environment plays an important role in the existence of life on the planet earth. The
word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which meaning
“surrounding.” An ecosystem refers to all the living and the non-living things present
in the environment and it is a foundation of the Biosphere, which determines the health
of the entire planet earth.
Ecology and Environmental science are the branches of life science, which mainly deal
with the study of organisms and their interactions among organisms and their
environment.

Types of Ecosystem
There are two main types of ecosystem. Listed below are the types and examples of the
ecosystem.

1. Natural ecosystem – It is a naturally produced biological environment found in

nature. It includes deserts, forests, grasslands, lakes, mountains, ponds, rivers,
oceans, etc.
2. Artificial ecosystem – It is an artificial environment which is created and
maintained by man. It includes an aquarium, crop fields, gardens, parks, zoo, etc.

The components of the environment are mainly divided into two categories.

 Biotic environment–It includes all living organisms such as animals, birds,

forests, insects, reptiles and microorganisms like algae, bacteria, fungus, viruses,
etc.
 Abiotic environment– It includes all non-living components such as air, cloud,
dust, land, mountains, rivers, temperature, humidity, water, water vapour, sand,
etc.

Importance of Environment
Environment plays an important role in healthy living and the existence of life on
planet earth. Earth is a home for different living species and we all are dependent on the

35
environment for food, air, water, and other needs. Therefore, it is important for every
individual to save and protect our environment.

Impact of Human Activities on the Environment

There are different types of human activities which are directly attributed to the
environmental disasters, which include- acid rain, acidification of oceans, change in
the climate, deforestation, depletion of an ozone layer, disposal of hazardous wastes,
global warming, overpopulation, pollution, etc.
Environmental Issues and Solutions

An environment is generally defined as the surrounding or conditions in which a

person, animal or plant survives or operates. From this, it must be relatively easy for
one to comprehend its importance in the famed cycle of life.
Our environment is constantly changing, and as our environment changes so does the
need to become increasingly aware of the environmental issues that are causing these
changes. With a massive increase in natural disasters, warming and cooling periods,
and different types of weather patterns, people need to be a lot more cautious with the
way they lead their lives in conjunction with the types of environmental issues our
planet is facing.
Also Read: Our Environment

Environmental Issues
Environmental issues are the harmful effects of human activities on the environment.
These include pollution, over-population, waste disposal, climate change, global
warming, greenhouse effect, etc.
Various environment protection programs are being practised at the individual,
organizational and government levels with the aim of establishing a balance between
man and environment.
Some of the current environmental issues that require urgent attention are:

Climate Change
Climate change is a great concern in today’s scenario. This problem has surfaced in the
last few decades. Greenhouse gases are the major cause of climate change.
Environmental changes have several destructive impacts such as the melting of glaciers,
change in seasons, epidemics, etc.

Global Warming
The burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the automobiles and chlorofluorocarbons
add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has led to an increase in earth’s

36
temperature causing environmental changes. This increase in temperature across the
globe is known as global warming.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer of concentrated ozone gas. It protects us from the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet rays. This very important layer is being destroyed by CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), which are used in industries and everyday life (e.g. aerosol cans).
The chlorine in these compounds destroys the ozone layer. The hole in the ozone layer
leaves humans and wildlife exposed to the harmful UV rays resulting in several skin
diseases including cancer.

Water Pollution
The introduction of harmful substances into rivers, oceans, lakes and ponds, which
changes the physical, chemical or biological condition of the water is called water
pollution. The polluted water lacks oxygen and therefore the organisms die.
Water is the main source of life and therefore it is our prime duty to prevent it from any
kind of pollution.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the result of emissions from the industries, automobiles, and increasing
use of fossil fuels. The gaseous emissions have added to an increase in the temperature
of the earth. Not only this, but it had also increased the risk of diseases among
individuals.

Solid Waste Management

Solid-waste management is defined as the discipline associated with the generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste in a
manner that it does not have a harmful effect on the environment.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the depletion of trees and forests at an alarming rate. The trees provide
us with oxygen, several raw materials and also maintain the temperature of the earth.
Due to the depletion of trees for commercial purposes, there has been a drastic change
in the earth’s climate.
Forests are an abode to a large number of wild animals and plants. Destruction of
forests has led to the elimination of a large number of plants and animal species
affecting the biodiversity.

Overpopulation

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The earth’s population is increasing drastically. It is estimated to be more than seven
billion. The increasing population has led to a shortage of resources. If this continues, it
will be very difficult to sustain such a huge population. The other environmental issues
including pollution, waste management, deforestation, climate change and global
warming are all associated with over-population.
Also Read: Solid Waste Management

Solutions to Environmental Issues

Following are some of the most common solutions to the environmental issue:

1. Replace disposal items with reusable items.

2. The use of paper should be avoided.
3. Conserve water and electricity.
4. Support environmental friendly practices.
5. Recycle the waste to conserve natural resources.

Environmental issues are a warning of the upcoming disaster. If these issues are not
controlled, there will soon be no life on earth.
Population and the Environment
The impact of population growth on economic development is a complex issue. As
might be imagined population growth has positive and negative effects on
development. Start the discussion today with the notion of sustainability. Even if
population growth can be accommodated now, are there adverse effects that will
jeopardize the ability to meet the needs of future generations? On Thursday we’ll
consider the notion of sustainability as developed in the article by Arrow and the
committee. Interesting paper on many levels, but it is unique in that the committee of
authors represent famous economists and ecologists (biologists). Rare that they write
together. Michel’s definition: [chart] Sustainability: a social and economic system is
considered “sustainable” if the needs and demands of the present generation can be met
without diminishing the possibility of fulfilling, minimally, a comparable set of needs
and demands for all future generations. Can think of sustainable much like permanent
income: the level of consumption supported with no reduction of assets.
When considering the effect of population growth on sustainability, we have to look at
the impact of popuatlion growth on:
• Resource Scarcity: – Food – Energy (coal, oil, uranium) – Raw materials (iron, copper,
wood, water)
• Environmental Impacts – Pollution – Soil degradation – Deforestation – Global
Warming Population growth would not be sustainable if it has important negative
impacts that will jeopardize the ability of future generations to meet their needs. First,
let’s look at the evidence about resource scarcity and environmental change, and see

38
what is the role of population growth in these changes. Food Scarcity Quote from Sen
[slide] Food has become less scarce because of:
• Increased production (green revolution of 60s, 70s)
• Additional farmland

• Increased nutritional food produced So far as food is concerned, there is no clear sign
of limits. 9 to 10 billion people by 2050 — World Bank predicts no food shortage.
Persistent malnutrition is due to poverty more than shortage of carrying capacity.

Energy Scarcity First, let’s look at the mechanisms which can regulate scarcity. Prices: In
a competitive (free) market, prices an indicator of scarcity — the more scarce the higher
the price. Fluctuations in price reflect perceptions of scarcity. Oil is not a good example
because its supply largely controlled by a cartel (and is not a free market) Price affects
consumption: quantity demanded declines as price increases. Expect to see prices
increase as resources become depleted. And as prices increase, quantity supplied will
increase. In terms of oil and other non–renewable energy sources this means that as the
price of oil increases so too does the incentive for exploration and innovation, including
creation of new, more efficient technologies or alternative energy sources (e.g., solar
energy).

At low energy prices, not cost–effective to use wind or solar energy. But as the price of
oil increased these energy sources (and others) become cost effective, and reduce the
demand for oil. Belief in the role of prices (more than the role of markets) is what makes
economists less pessimistic of the future than biologists. Economists see the market as a
viable means for regulating and or controlling energy usage. The regulation need not be
simply through the market factors, as government can impose taxes. Thus, many
advocate for higher gasoline taxes.

Externalities can affect consumption or production, and may be positive or

negative. What are some examples?

• Air Pollution can be an externality in both consumption and production. It

lowers the utility of consumers. And can raise the cost of producers. In
Pittsburgh in the 1950s office workers had to bring an extra white shirt to the
office because of the air pollution from the steel mills.

• Congestion externality. A big box discount retailer can impose traffic

congestion externalities. That is, the increased traffic, and congestion are not
incorporated in the prices of the goods sold by the retailer.

39
 • Planting forests can improve the water quality of those downstream and
would be a positive externality.

• Landscaping in of front a house. It may improve the value of the home, but
may also improve the value of homes in the neighborhood.

• Higher education. Is claimed to produce a positive externality in making for a

more informed citizenry, with higher rates of voting, and public service.

Evidence about Environmental Degradation The evidence is well–summarized

by article by {Preston}. Environmental degradation can be seen in local and
global effects. Local effects include:

• Pollution (air, water, soil)

• losses (forest, soil, fish) Global effects include:

• Atmosphere (ozone layer, global warming)

• Biodiversity (number of species of plants and animals)

Populations and Environmental Issues

More people require more resources, which means that as the population increases,
the Earth’s resources deplete more rapidly. The result of this depletion is deforestation
and loss of biodiversity as humans strip the Earth of resources to accommodate rising
population numbers. Population growth also results in increased greenhouse gases,
mostly from CO2 emissions. For visualization, during that same 20th century that saw
fourfold population growth, CO 2 emissions increased twelvefold. As greenhouse gases
increase, so do climate patterns, ultimately resulting in the long-term pattern called
climate change.

The Biggest Impacts

The use of resources and the impact of environmental issues are not equal around the
globe. People in developed countries require substantially more resources to maintain
their lifestyles compared with people in developing countries. For example, the
United States, which contains 5 percent of the world’s population, currently produces
a full 25 percent of CO 2 emissions.

40
People in developing countries tend to feel the impacts of environmental problems
more acutely, especially if they live in coastal areas directly affected by sea level rise
and the extreme weather events that accompany climate change. The most vulnerable
populations also experience decreased access to clean water, increased exposure to air
pollution and diseases – which may result from decreased biodiversity – and may feel
the impact more immediately as local resources including plants and animals deplete.

While the interconnected problems of population growth and environmental issues

seem overwhelming, it is important to remember that humans can make changes that
positively impact the planet. One good starting point is understanding and applying
the concept of sustainability, which is the opposite of resource depletion.
Sustainability describes a model of resource usage in which the current generation
uses only the resources the Earth provides indefinitely (like solar or wind power
instead of burning fossil fuels) to ensure that future generations inherit resources.

EFFECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH ON OUR

ENVIRONMENT!
One of the factors responsible for environment degradation is population growth or

population density. In particular, population density plays the most important role in

shaping the socio-economic environment. Its effects are felt on the natural environment

also.

1. Generation of Waste:

Due to his destructive activities, man has dumped more and more waste in

environment. As the man-made waste is not transformed, it causes degradation and the

capacity of environment to absorb more waste is reduced. Further, waste leads to air

and water pollution.

2. Threat to Biodiversity:

Due to his destructive activities, man has extracted more and more minerals from the

earth. Animals have been hunted and plants have disappeared. There has been loss of

biodiversity. These have led to ecological imbalance.

3. Strain on Forests:

41
Man has established new housing colonies. National highways and hydropower

projects have been built and forests have been wiped out. These destructive activities

have increased and led to ecological imbalance.

4. Urbanization:

Rapid growth of population has led to urbanization which has adversely affected

environment. Due to population pressure, natural resources in the cities are depleted at

a fast rate due to population pressure.

Moreover, population does not have proper sanitation facilities and pure drinking

water. As a result, the health of the people is adversely affected. No doubt, urbanization

reduces pressure on the rural environment, but it brings with if environmental damages

through industrial growth, emissions and wastes.

5. Industrialisation:

Underdeveloped countries are following the policy of heavy industrialisation which is

causing environmental degradation. The establishment of such industries as fertilizers,

iron and steel, chemicals and refineries have led to land, air and water pollution.

6. Land Degradation:

Intensive farming and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides have led to over-

exploitation of land and water resources. These have led to land degradation in the

form of soil erosion, water logging and salination.

7. Transport Development:

Environmental degradation is also due to transport development in the different parts

of the world. The automobiles release huge quantities of poisonous gases such as

carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. The development of ports and

42
harbours have led to oil spills from ships adversely affecting fisheries, coral reefs,

mangroves and landscapes.

8. Climatic Change:

Climatic changes are irregular due to green house gases. The thin skin of air that

surrounds the planet is being affected by human activities as never before. Urban

people are still being exposed to unaccepted levels of toxic pollutants. Further, forests

are still being degraded by acid deposition generated by faraway industries, and

greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere.

9. Productivity:

Environmental degradation not only harms health but also reduces economic

productivity. Dirty water, inadequate sanitation, air pollution and land degradation

cause serious diseases on an enormous scale in developing countries like India.

These, in turn, reduce the productivity levels in the country. To take specific instances,

water pollution has led to declining fisheries in rivers, ponds and canals in both urban

and rural areas. Water shortages have reduced economic activity in towns, and cities

and villages.

Soil and hazardous wastes have polluted ground water resources which cannot be used

for agricultural and industrial production.

Soil degradation leading to soil erosion, drought, etc. have led to siltation of reservoirs

and blocking of river and canal transport channels. Deforestation has led to soil erosion

and consequent loss of sustainable logging potential.

Loss of bio-diversity has resulted in the loss of genetic resources.

43
Last but not the least, atmospheric changes have given rise to disruption of marine food

chain, damages to coastal infrastructure due to sea-rise and regional changes in

agriculture productivity due to hurricanes in seas.

Thus, environmental degradation undermines economic productivity of a nation.

10. Technology:

Presently, environmental pollution is caused by old technology which releases gases

and pollutants causing chemical and industrial pressure on environment.

IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT ON POPULATION:

Polluted environment also affects adversely the health of people.

Table 36.1 shows the types of pollution, their poisonous elements and effects on health.

Policy Measures:
Agricultural and industrial development along with urbanisation and spread of

infrastructure combined with population growth has led to environmental degradation.

44
Environmental degradation harms human health, reduces economic productivity and

leads to the loss of amenities. The damaging effects of economic development on

environmental degradation can be reduced by a judicious choice of economic and

environmental policies and environmental investments.

We discuss some policy measures as under:

1. Control of Population Growth:

The rate of population growth should be curtailed through effective family planning

measures. This is essential because the proportion of total population in the labour force
will increase further in the years to come as a result of changes in the age structure of

the population.

The shifting of labour force from the rural to the secondary sector requires increase in

agricultural productivity. Increased agricultural productivity helps in meeting the

demand for raw materials of the expanding manufacturing sector. With increased

productivity, less workers are required to produce raw materials for industry and food-

grains for the population.

It also increases agricultural surplus thereby raising saving and investment for
economic development. So concerted efforts are needed to increase agricultural

productivity through technological advancement. This will ultimately lead to

commercialisation of agriculture and production for exports, thereby earning foreign

exchange for further development.

2. Economic Development:

The aim of population control is not only to bring about a decline in fertility rates but

also to improve the quality of life of the people. These are possible through rapid

economic development. It is not an illusion to believe that a reduction in population

45
growth will automatically raise living standards. In fact, an effective family planning

policy should be integrated with measures to accelerate economic development.

As the Ninth Five Year Plan observes:

“Several of the South Asian countries have been able to achieve economic prosperity

and improvement in quality of life in spite of population growth. This has been

attributed to the increase in productivity due to development and utilisation of

innovative technologies by the young educated population who formed the majority of

the growing population.”

In the current phase of demographic transition, developing countries can also achieve

economic growth and improvement in quality of life despite population growth

through commercialisation of agriculture, diversified industrialisation, urbanisation,

and development of infrastructure so as to increase employment opportunities, raise

income levels, and saving and investment rates.

These will help the country to achieve economic transition from low economic growth

(low per capita income) to high income growth and to high per capita income. This will,

in turn, raise the quality of life of the people and the population will be controlled
automatically.

3. Improving Health and Nutrition:

The food and nutrition security for the weaker sections in a developing country should

not be considered as issues in the Nutrition Science but should be considered as part of

right to work, right to health, right to education, right to information and right of the

poor. In such a country, there are agricultural, health, population, nutrition, children

and education policies.

46
On the other hand, there are fiscal and budget revisions, exports, imports, taxation,

price wage, employment policies and policy related to subsidies. Ultimately, all these

policies affect life of the poor, their food and nutritionist security and health. As a

leading nutritionist C. Gopalan notes: “Various types of food are needed for maximum

nutrition and if they are all taken together and in proper proportions (systematic

balanced diet), they can provide necessary nutrients.

Guarantee of good nutrition and absence of hunger are not the same thing. Our first

effort should be towards removing hunger of the poor, but our long-term goal should
be to provide maximum nutrition to our people which is useful in bringing out their

hereditary talents. Nutrition security is more important than food security. Nutrition

security includes making our food base wider and varietal. ”

Improving health and nutrition levels is an extremely important factor contributing to

the social development of a developing country. Especially the people of the weaker

sections of the society who do not take adequate advantage of health, family welfare

and nutrition services, should be made aware of these facilities so that their health and

nutrition status can be improved.

4. Reducing Poverty:

Such development projects should be started which provide greater employment

opportunities to the poor. The government should expand health and family planning

services and education so as to reach the poor that will help reduce population growth.

Further, making investments in providing civic amenities like the supply of drinking

water, sanitation facilities, alternate habitats in place of slums, etc. will not only

improve welfare but also environment.

5. Removing Subsidies:

47
To reduce environmental degradation at no financial cost to the government, subsidies

for resource use by the private and public sectors should be removed. Subsidies on the

use of electricity, fertilisers, pesticides, diesel, petrol, gas, irrigation water, etc. lead to

their wasteful use and environmental problems.

Subsidies to capital intensive and highly polluting private and public industries lead to

environmental degradation. Removing or reducing subsidies will bring both economic

and environmental benefits to the country.

6. Clarifying and Extending Property Rights:

Lack of property rights over excessive use of resources leads to degradation of

environment. This leads to overgrazing of common or public lands, deforestation, and

overexploitation of minerals, fish, etc. Clarifying and assigning ownership titles and

tenurial rights to private owners will solve environmental problems. Places where the

use of common lands, forests, irrigation systems, fisheries, etc. are regulated and rules

for their proper use are laid down by the community, the ownership rights should be

clearly specified in the administrative records.

7. Market Based Approaches:

Besides regulator measures, there is urgent need for adopting market based approaches
for the protection of environment. They aim at pointing to consumers and industries

about the cost of using natural resources on environment. These costs are reflected in

the prices paid for goods and services so that industries and ultimately the consumers

are guided by them to reduce air and water pollution.

The Market Based Instruments (MBIs) are in the form of environmental taxes that

include pollution charges (emission tax/pollution taxes), marketable permits, depositor

fund system, input taxes/product charges, differential tax rates and user administrative

charges and subsidies for pollution abatement equipment for air and water resources.

48
8. Regulatory Policies:

Regulatory polices also help in reducing environmental degradation. Regulators have to

make decisions regarding prices, quantity and technology. In making decisions, they

have to choose between the quantity or the price of pollution or resource use of

technologies.

The regulating authority has also to decide whether policies should target the

environmental problem directly or indirectly. It lays down technical standards and

regulations and charges on air, water and land pollutants. Regulators should be
impartial in applying environmental standards to both public and private sector

polluters or resources users.

9. Economic Incentives:

Like regulatory policies, economic incentives relate to price, quantity and technology.

Incentives are usually in the form of variable fees to resource users for the quantity of

pollutants in air, water and land use. They are given rebates if less waste or pollution is

generated than the emission standards laid down.

10. Public Participation:

Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve environmental

conditions. Conducting of formal and informal education programmes relating to

environment management and environmental awareness programmes can go a long

way in controlling environmental degradation and keeping the environment clean. For

instance, the scheme of eco-labelling of products helps consumers to identify products

that are environment friendly.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POVERTY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for a person's
basic needs. Poverty may include social, economic, and political elements. Absolute
poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs, such
as food, clothing, and shelter. The floor at which absolute poverty is defined is always
about the same, independent of the person's permanent location or era. On the other
hand, relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living
standards, compared to others in the same time and place. Therefore, the floor at
which relative poverty is defined varies from one country to another, or from
one society to another.
As of 2019, most people on the planet live in poverty: (in Purchasing Power
Parity dollars) 85% live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per
day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day (extreme poverty).

The “GDP of the poor”

The sustainability of the environment is now understood to be complementary and
necessary to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere.

” Ecosystem services and other non-market goods make up between 50 and 90% of the
total source of livelihoods among poor rural and forest-dwelling households worldwide
—the so- called “GDP of the poor”.

Economic development and poverty reduction strongly depend on improving

management of the environment and natural resources, the “natural capital” of the
poor.

Poverty-environment linkages
I. Eradicating poverty remains a major challenge for Least Developed
Countries: in 10 years poverty will become more concentrated in the
more fragile Least Developed Countries facing conflict and climate
stress. Natural capital makes up 36 per cent of the wealth of low-
income countries.
II. II. Inequality harms growth, poverty reduction and ecosystem
sustainability: poor and marginalised groups are disproportionally
dependent on ecosystem services. Moreover, poverty falls
disproportionately on women.
III. Poverty-environment, climate and gender mainstreaming can help
eradicate poverty, reduce inequality and combat environmental

50
 degradation: economic development and poverty reduction strongly
depend on improving management of the environment and natural
resources.
IV. IV. The integrated approach to poverty reduction and environmental
sustainability can support Governments to design both the process and
content of Sustainable Development Goal implementation: by taking
pro-poor, gender-responsive environment and climate issues into the
heart of economic decision-making, in particular, national and
subnational planning and budgeting processes.

EFFECTS OF POVERTY

Poor Health
Globally, millions suffer from poverty-related health conditions as infectious diseases
ravage the lives of an estimated 14 million people a year and are of the top effects of
poverty. These diseases are contracted through sources like contaminated water, the
absence of water and sanitation, and lack of access to proper healthcare. The list is
broad and long. Here are the top diseases commonly linked to poverty.
 Malaria: Malaria is urbanely referred to as the poor man’s disease, as more than a
million people living in poverty die from it each year. Caused by a
parasite, malaria is contracted through mosquito bites. Most prevalent in sub-
Saharan Africa, malaria affects the lives of many in 97 countries worldwide.
 Tuberculosis: Often referred to as TB, tuberculosis is a bacteria-borne disease. The
bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, targets the lungs. It also affects the kidneys,
brain, and spine. When discussing the effects of TB worldwide, it must be broken
down by burden—high burden TB and low burden TB—all of which has to do with
the number of cases that impact a country. High burden TB affects more than 22
countries, as low burden TB accounts for 10 cases per 100,000 people in a
geographical location.
 HIV/AIDS: HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. This infection attacks
the immune system and is contracted by contact with certain fluids in the body. If
HIV is left untreated, certain infections and diseases can take over the body and
cause a person to develop AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome). Thirty-
six million people in the world have HIV/AIDS. In countries like Zambia and
Zimbabwe, one in five adults live with HIV or AIDS.

Continuing the fight against poverty through economic expansion will help eliminate
poverty-related illnesses and raise the value of health in poor communities.

Crime

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There’s an old adage that says, “If a man don’t work, he don’t eat.” That’s not the case
for a large number people living in poverty. Lack of economic opportunity leads to
impoverishment which then leads to crime.

Global unemployment is at a high point. One hundred ninety-two million people

around the world are jobless. In some parts of the world, mainly poor parts,
unemployment standings will drive this number higher. In a study done on youth in
the Caribbean, it was determined that joblessness fueled criminal activity in those aged
15 through 24.
Because of the struggles in the Caribbean job market, the murder rates are higher there
than in any other region in the world. The crime rate affects 6.8 percent of the Caribbean
population against the world average of 4.5 percent, calculating the global rate per
100,000 people.

People who live below the poverty line and don’t have access to sufficient economic
opportunity, live by any dangerous means necessary.

Lack of Education
There is a direct correlation between low academic performance and poverty. Children
who are exposed to extreme levels of poverty have difficulty with cognitive
development, speech, and managing stress, which leads to adverse behavior.

In the country of Niger—the most illiterate nation in the world—only 15 percent of

adults have the ability to read and write. Eritrea follows on the heels of Niger: with a
population of 6 million, the average person only achieves four years of school.

In these poor locations, young adults and children have to leave school to work to help
provide additional income for their families. Other children don’t have access to
education due to decent schools being too far for them to travel to. On the other hand,
schools nearby don’t have enough materials and resources to properly educate children.
The conditions of the schools are just as poor as the children’s living conditions.
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POVERTY

What is poverty? The most simple definition is that you don’t have enough money to
meet your most basic needs – the costs of your home, fuel for heat, food and water. A
more in-depth version is below: People are said to be living in poverty if their income
and resources are so inadequate as to preclude them from having a standard of living
considered acceptable in the society in which they live. Because of their poverty they
may experience multiple disadvantages through unemployment, low income, poor
housing, inadequate health care and barriers to lifelong learning, culture, sport and
recreation. They are often excluded and marginalised from participating in activities
(economic, social and cultural) that are the norm for older people and their access to
fundamental rights may be restricted. What are the main causes of poverty? The past 20
years have witnessed significant changes in poverty levels throughout Scotland. Almost

52
one in five people in Scotland are now living in Poverty and for children the situation is
worse with one in four now living in Poverty.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POVERTY

What causes poverty? We know that there are a huge number of causes of poverty,
many of which are out of the hands of those who ultimately suffer. These include all of
the following:

• being born into poverty

• suffering through domestic abuse which leads to living in poverty due to the person
not being in control of their incomes

• someone losing their employment which is more of an issue at the moment due to the
current COVID-19 crisis. The end of the furlough scheme at the end of October 2020
could result in a large number of job losses

• losing everything due to a partner gambling away the family income and savings

• being pressurised into supporting others due to emotional ties leading to debt or
increased debt and potentially the loss of their home The most important factor to
remember is that no one wants to be in poverty.

What are the Effects of Povety?

Every day becomes a struggle with choices having to be made on every action that you
take. Do I have enough money to put petrol in the car to get to work? How do I make
£10 last three days to feed a family of four? Where do I get help and support for free
and without any costs? How can I reduce my costs to make the income I have last until
my next pay day? Do I heat my home or eat today? Even if I get a Food Parcel, I have no
money for fuel to cook the food.

• The levels of stress that each person is under, greatly increases. They cannot
concentrate at work, leading to issues with their performance which can then lead to
fears about losing their job.

• They become socially isolated due to not having any spare funds to join in any social
events or activities (e.g. lunch with friends, going to the pub, visiting relatives who
don’t stay nearby). People may perceive them as not wanting to engage at the very time
when they need support the most.

53
• People may be tempted to turn to crime to provide for their family - “Poverty is the
mother of all crime”.

• Parents go without food and essentials to make sure that their children and those they
support are able to have what they need.

• Children and young people are bullied at school due to not having the newest phone,
or sports gear or laptops / mobile devices.

• Life becomes so much of a struggle that often the only way to escape can be suicide.

• Poverty has negative impacts on children's health, social, emotional and cognitive
development, behaviour and educational outcomes. Children born into poverty are
more likely to experience a wide range of health problems, including poor nutrition,
chronic disease and mental health problems

What are the different kinds of poverty that you may hear about?

Fuel Poverty

People don’t have enough money to adequately heat their homes without falling into
poverty. Nearly 221k children in Scotland experience fuel poverty.

In-work poverty

Where net household earnings are below the income threshold for that household. 470k
people in Scotland don't earn the real Living Wage. 182k children in Scotland live in
poverty despite having one person in their household in work

Food poverty/Food insecurity

Poverty is the key issue in the rising numbers of people using foodbanks. Food is very
often one of the first items which people cut back on when they begin to fall into
poverty.

Housing Poverty

The average weekly social rent in Scotland has risen from £42.64 in 2004-05 to £74.44 in
2016-17, an increase of 75 per cent.

The Environmental, Economic, and Social

Components of Sustainability

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What Is Sustainability?
It seems like every other day we hear someone talk about
sustainability. Sustainability can be broadly defined as “meeting the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” When it comes to describing sustainability in our world, we need to be
concerned about three main areas of influence.

There are three interconnected spheres of sustainability that describe the relationships
between the environmental, economic, and social aspects of our world. These spheres
are a related set of concepts that, when taken together, can form a solid ground from
which major decisions and actions can be made. Examples of such decisions could
include land use planning, surface water management, building design and
construction, and even law making.

When the concepts contained in the three spheres of sustainability are applied to real
world situations, everybody wins. Natural resources are preserved, the environment is
protected, the economy isn't harmed, and the quality of life for our people is improved
or maintained. Below is a diagram showing the three spheres and how they are related.

The Three Spheres of Sustainability (Adapted from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
and Others)
CWanamaker
Basically, what this is saying is that nearly everything we do or plan to do has an effect
on the sustainability of the human race.

Environmental Sustainability
In a truly sustainable environment, an ecosystem would maintain populations,
biodiversity, and overall functionality over an extended period of time. Ideally,
decisions that are made should promote equilibrium within our natural systems and
seek to encourage positive growth. Unnecessary disturbances to the environment
should be avoided whenever possible. If there is a disturbance, it should be mitigated to
the maximum practicable extent. When decisions are made, one part of the discussion
should always be the environmental impacts of the proposed outcome or result.

There are several items that are directly related to environmental sustainability. One of
the concepts that is of the utmost importance is the proper management of our natural
resources. Using the Z-squared approach to sustainability, we can minimize our

55
impacts to the environment. In some cases we can even promote habitat restoration and
preservation as means to negotiate a successful solution to a problem.

Economic Sustainability
Similar to environmental sustainability, economic sustainability involves creating
economic value out of whatever project or decision you are undertaking. Economic
sustainability means that decisions are made in the most equitable and fiscally sound
way possible while considering the other aspects of sustainability. In most cases,
projects and decisions must be made with the long term benefits in mind (rather than
just the short term benefits). Keep in mind that when only the economic aspects of
something are considered, it may not necessarily promote true sustainability.

For many people in the business world, economic sustainability or growth their main
focal point. On the large scale (globally or even locally), this narrow-minded approach
to management of a business can ultimately lead to unsatisfactory results. However,
when good business practices are combined with the social and environmental aspects
of sustainability, you can still have a positive result that is for the greater good of
humanity.

There are several key ideas that make up economic sustainability. For example,
governments should look to promoting "smart growth" through no-nonsense land use
planning and subsidies or tax breaks for green development. Strong financial support
for universities, education programs, and research & development is an important part
of economic sustainability as well. In addition to this, an emphasis should also be
placed on other areas such as reducing unnecessary spending and cutting red tape.

Social Sustainability
Social sustainability is based on the concept that a decision or project promotes the
betterment of society. In general, future generations should have the same or greater
quality of life benefits as the current generation do. This concept also encompasses
many things such as human rights, environmental law, and public involvement &
participation. Failing to put emphasis on the social part of decision or action can result
in the slow collapse of the spheres of sustainability (and society as well).

56
One great example of social sustainability is the passing of the Clean Water Act in 1972
(and amendments in 1977) and the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974. Overall, these sets
of laws were great pieces of legislation that set minimum water quality standards for
both surface and drinking water. This had the effect of positively promoting the health
and well-being of everyone in America. The Clean Water Act also served to protect our
nation's water supply by making it essentially illegal to discharge pollutants in adjacent
rivers, lakes, and streams. This period of time in our nation also saw many other
improvements in our environmental laws. All of these laws (and other factors as well)
lead to the overall betterment of society for Americans. The graph below illustrates the
correlation between the passing of this kind of legislation and the average life
expectancy for citizens of the United States.

It's interesting to point out here that there seems to be a correlation between when these
important environmental laws were passed and the average life expectancy of
Americans.

CLIMATIC CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and linkages to climate change

1. Biological diversity includes all plants, animals, microorganisms, the

ecosystems of which they are part, and the diversity within species,
between species, and of ecosystems
2. Functional diversity, which describes the ecological functions of species
or groups of species in an ecosystem, is a biodiversity descriptor that
provides an alternative way of understanding the disturbances caused by
human activities, including climate change, on biodiversity. No single
component of biodiversity (i.e., genes, species or ecosystems) is
consistently a good indicator of the overall biodiversity as these
components can vary independently.
3. Biodiversity underlies the goods and services provided by ecosystems that
are crucial for human survival and well-being. These can be classified
along several lines. Supporting services 1 Decision V/4, para 11.
4. This is a contraction of the definition in the Convention on Biological
Diversity. 2 maintain the conditions for life on Earth including, soil
formation and retention, nutrient cycling, primary production; regulating
services include regulation of air quality, climate, floods, soil erosion,
water purification, waste treatment, pollination, and biological control of
human, livestock and agriculture pests and diseases; provisioning services
include providing food, fuelwood, fibre, biochemicals, natural medicines,

57
 pharmaceuticals, genetic resources, and fresh water; and cultural services
provide nonmaterial benefits including cultural diversity and identity,
spiritual and religious values, knowledge systems, educational values,
inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place, cultural
heritage, recreation, communal and symbolic values.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity in the

Arctic
The Arctic, Antarctic and high latitudes have had the highest rates of warming, and this
trend is projected to continue, as the above-mentioned Global Biodiversity Outlook 3
notes (p. 56).

In the Arctic, it is not just a reduction in the extent of sea ice, but its thickness and age.
Less ice means less reflective surface meaning more rapid melting. The rapid reduction
exceeds even scientific forecasts and is discussed further on this site’s climate change
introduction.

In terms of biodiversity, the prospect of ice-free summers in the Arctic Ocean implies
the loss of an entire biome, the Global Biodiversity Outlook notes (p. 57).

In addition, Whole species assemblages are adapted to life on top of or under ice —
from the algae that grow on the underside of multi-year ice, forming up to 25% of the
Arctic Ocean’s primary production, to the invertebrates, birds, fish and marine
mammals further up the food chain. The iconic polar bear at the top of that food chain is
therefore not the only species at risk even though it may get more media attention.

Note, the ice in the Arctic does thaw and refreeze each year, but it is that pattern which
has changed a lot in recent years as shown by this graph:

Climate change means ocean change

When talking about the impacts of climate change, we mostly hear about changes to
land and the planet’s surface or atmosphere. However, most of the warming is
going into the oceans where a lot of ecosystem changes are also occurring:

The implications of this is further explained with Inter Press Service’s freezer
analogy: The world’s northern freezer is on rapid defrost as large volumes of warm
water are pouring into the Arctic Ocean, speeding the melt of sea ice.

58
One of John Bruno’s colleagues, Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, talks about the impact
climate change will have on ocean ecosystems. A summary of the video here says
that Rapidly rising greenhouse gas concentrations are driving ocean systems toward
conditions not seen for millions of years, with an associated risk of fundamental and
irreversible ecological transformation. Changes in biological function in the ocean
caused by anthropogenic climate change go far beyond death, extinctions and
habitat loss: fundamental processes are being altered, community assemblages are
being reorganized and ecological surprises are likely.

Increasing ocean acidification

Although it has gained less mainstream media attention, the effects of increasing
greenhouse emissions — in particular carbon dioxide — on the oceans may well be
significant.

As explained by the US agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), the basic chemistry of ocean acidification is well
understood

These are the 3 main concepts:

1. More CO2 in the atmosphere means more CO2 in the ocean;

2. Atmospheric CO2 is dissolved in the ocean, which becomes more acidic; and
3. The resulting changes in the chemistry of the oceans disrupts the ability of
plants and animals in the sea to make shells and skeletons of calcium
carbonate, while dissolving shells already formed.

Scientists have found that oceans are able to absorb some of the excess CO2 released
by human activity. This has helped keep the planet cooler than it otherwise could
have been had these gases remained in the atmosphere.

However, the additional excess CO2 being absorbed is also resulting in the
acidification of the oceans: When CO2 reacts with water it produces a weak acid
called carbonic acid, changing the sea water chemistry. As the Global Biodiversity
Outlook report explains, the water is some 30% more acidic than pre-industrial
times, depleting carbonate ions — the building blocks for many marine organisms.

In addition, concentrations of carbonate ions are now lower than at any time during
the last 800,000 years. The impacts on ocean biological diversity and ecosystem

59
functioning will likely be severe, though the precise timing and distribution of these
impacts are uncertain.

Although millions of years ago CO2 levels were higher, today’s change is
occurring rapidly, giving many marine organisms too little time to adapt. Some
marine creatures are growing thinner shells or skeletons, for example. Some of these
creatures play a crucial role in the food chain, and in ecosystem biodiversity.

Clay animation by school children: The other CO2 problem, March 23, 2009
(commissioned by EPOCA)

Some species may benefit from the extra carbon dioxide, and a few years ago
scientists and organizations, such as the European Project on OCean Acidification,
formed to try to understand and assess the impacts further.

One example of recent findings is a tiny sand grain-sized plankton responsible for
the sequestration of 25–50% of the carbon the oceans absorb is affected by increasing
ocean acidification.

This tiny plankton plays a major role in keeping atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
concentrations at much lower levels than they would be otherwise so large effects
on them could be quite serious.

Other related problems reported by the Inter Press Service include more oceanic dead
zones (areas where there is too little oxygen in the sea to support life) and the
decline of important coastal plants and forests, such as mangrove forests that play
an important role in carbon absorption. This is on top of the already declining ocean
biodiversity that has been happening for a few decades, now.

Scientists now believe that ocean acidification is unparalleled in the last 300 million
years, raising the possibility that we are entering an unknown territory of marine
ecosystem change.

Increasing ocean stratification

As climate change warms the oceans (even just an increase of about 0.2C per decade,
on average), the warmer water (which is lighter) tends to stay on top of what is then
a layer of colder water.

Phytoplankton Bloom in the North Atlantic. Source: NASA Earth Observatory.

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This affects tiny drifting marine organisms known as phytoplankton. Though
small, Phytoplankton are a critical part of our planetary life support system. They
produce half of the oxygen we breathe, draw down surface CO2, and ultimately
support all of our fisheries, says Boris Worm of Canada’s Dalhousie University and
one of the world’s leading experts on the global oceans (quoted by Inter Press
Service — IPS.)

In the same news report, IPS explains that phytoplankton can only live in the top
100 or 200 meters of water, but if it is getting warmer, they eventually run out of
nutrients to feed on unless the cold, deeper waters mix with those near the surface.

Ocean stratification has been widely observed in the past decade and is occurring in
more and larger areas of the world’s oceans, IPS also adds.

Researchers have found a direct correlation between rising sea surface temperatures
and the decline in phytoplankton growth around the world.

As NASA summarizes, stratification cuts down the amount of carbon the ocean can
take up.

Back to top

Increasing oceanic dead zones

The past half-century has seen an explosive growth in aquatic dead zones, areas too
low in dissolved oxygen to support life.

Fertilizer and sewage run-off cause huge growth of plankton. However, these then
quickly die and are consumed by bacteria that deplete waters of oxygen. For
example, the Gulf of Mexico has a 22,000 square kilometer dead zone every spring
due to run-off from the Mississippi River.

Coral reefs threatened by climate change

Around the world, coral reefs have been dying largely due to climate change.

dead-looking, coral.Healthy coral is very colorful and rich with marine life.

At the beginning of September, 2009, the Australian agency looking after the Great
Barrier Reef released an outlook report warning the Great Barrier Reef is in trouble.

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But it is not just the Great Barrier Reef at risk. All of them are at risk, says Charlie
Veron, an Australian marine biologist who is widely regarded as the world’s foremost
expert on coral reefs.

The future is horrific, he says. There is no hope of reefs surviving to even mid-century
in any form that we now recognize. If, and when, they go, they will take with them
about one-third of the world’s marine biodiversity. Then there is a domino effect, as
reefs fail so will other ecosystems. This is the path of a mass extinction event, when
most life, especially tropical marine life, goes extinct.

Coral reefs provide many ecosystem services to humans as well, for free. This site’s
page on coral reefs goes into these issues in more depth.

Back to top

Lizards threatened by climate change

What the BBC described as a global-scale study published in the journal Science found
that climate change could wipe out 20% of the world's lizard species by 2080.

Global projection models used by the scientists suggested that lizards have already
crossed a threshold for extinctions caused by climate change.

The fear of lowland species moving to higher elevations has long been predicted as an
effect of climate change. This has been observed with lizard populations too, as the
leader of the research team told the BBC: We are actually seeing lowland species
moving upward in elevation, slowly driving upland species extinct, and if the upland
species can’t evolve fast enough then they’re going to continue to go extinct.

Why are lizards so sensitive to climate change? The BBC summarizes:

Lizards, the researchers say, are far more susceptible to climate-warming extinction
than previously thought. Many species live right at the edge of their thermal limits.

Rising temperatures, they explained, leave lizards unable to spend sufficient time
foraging for food, as they have to rest and regulate their body temperature.

Victoria Gill, Climate change link to lizard extinction, BBC, May 14, 2010

Back to top

Other examples

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The above areas of biodiversity affected is by no means exhaustive. Other areas affected
by climate change include terrestrial animals, and forests, water sources and related
ecologies, and so on. For more information on those areas, see this site’s sections on

 Biodiversity
 Climate Change and Global Warming
 Water and Development

ENERGY ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT

Environmental impact of energy

Energy and environmental problems are closely related, since it is nearly impossible to
produce, transport, or consume energy without significant environmental impact. The
environmental problems directly related to energy production and consumption
include air pollution, climate change, water pollution, thermal pollution, and solid
waste disposal. The emission of air pollutants from fossil fuel combustion is the major
cause of urban air pollution. Burning fossil fuels is also the main contributor to the
emission of grenhouse gases. Diverse water pollution problems are associated with
energy usage. One problem is oil spills. In all petroleum-handling operations, there is a
finite probability of spilling oil either on the earth or in a body of water. Coal mining
can also pollute water. Changes in groundwater flow produced by mining operations
often bring otherwise unpolluted waters into contact with certain mineral materials
which are leached from the soil and produce an acid mine drainage. Solid waste is also
a by-product of some forms of energy usage. Coal mining requires the removal of large
quantities of earth as well as coal.
Environmental impact of the energy industry
The environmental impact of the energy industry is significant, as energy and natural
resource consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an
environmental impact.[3] Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was
with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9
million years.[4] In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of
various renewable energy sources.
Rapidly advancing technologies can potentially achieve a transition of energy generation, water and
waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices
using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology.

ISSUES

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 1. Climate change
The scientific consensus on global warming and climate change is that it is caused by anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions, the majority of which comes from burning fossil
fuels with deforestation and some agricultural practices being also major contributors.[7] A 2013
study showed that two thirds of the industrial greenhouse gas emissions are due to the fossil-fuel
(and cement) production of just ninety companies around the world (between 1751 and 2010, with
half emitted since 1986).[8][9]
Although there is a highly publicized denial of climate change, the vast majority of scientists
working in climatology accept that it is due to human activity. The IPCC report Climate Change 2007:
Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability predicts that climate change will cause shortages
of food and water and increased risk of flooding that will affect billions of people, particularly those
living in poverty.[10]
One measurement of greenhouse gas related and other Externality comparisons between energy
sources can be found in the ExternE project by the Paul Scherrer Institut and the University of
Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission.[11] According to that study,
[12]
hydroelectric electricity produces the lowest CO2 emissions, wind produces the second-
lowest, nuclear energy produces the third-lowest and solar photovoltaic produces the fourth-lowest.
[12]

Similarly, the same research study (ExternE, Externalities of Energy), undertaken from 1995 to 2005
found that the cost of producing electricity from coal or oil would double over its present value, and
the cost of electricity production from gas would increase by 30% if external costs such as damage to
the environment and to human health, from the airborne particulate matter, nitrogen
oxides, chromium VI and arsenic emissions produced by these sources, were taken into account. It
was estimated in the study that these external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1–2% of
the EU's entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and this was before the external cost of global
warming from these sources was even included.[13] The study also found that the environmental and
health costs of nuclear power, per unit of energy delivered, was €0.0019/kWh, which was found to
be lower than that of many renewable sources including that caused by biomass and
photovoltaic solar panels, and was thirty times lower than coal at €0.06/kWh, or 6 cents/kWh, with
the energy sources of the lowest external environmental and health costs associated with it
being wind power at €0.0009/kWh.[14]

2. Biofuel use
Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living
biological material and is different from fossil fuels, which are derived from long-dead biological
material. Various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing.
3. Bio-diesel[
High use of bio-diesel leads to land use changes including deforestation.[15]
4. Firewood
Unsustainable firewood harvesting can lead to loss of biodiversity and erosion due to loss of forest
cover. An example of this is a 40-year study done by the University of Leeds of African forests,
which account for a third of the world's total tropical forest which demonstrates that Africa is a
significant carbon sink. A climate change expert, Lee White states that "To get an idea of the value of
the sink, the removal of nearly 5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by intact
tropical forests is at issue.

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According to the U.N. the African continent is losing forest twice as fast as the rest of the world.
"Once upon a time, Africa boasted seven million square kilometers of forest but a third of that has
been lost, most of it to charcoal.

5. Fossil fuel use[

The three fossil fuel types are coal, petroleum and natural gas. It was estimated by the Energy
Information Administration that in 2006 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.8%,
coal 26.6%, natural gas 22.9%, amounting to an 86% share for fossil fuels in primary energy
production in the world.[17]
In 2013 the burning of fossil fuels produced around 32 billion tonnes (32 gigatonnes) of carbon
dioxide and additional air pollution. This caused negative externalities of $4.9 trillion due to global
warming and health problems (> 150 $/ton carbon dioxide).[18] Carbon dioxide is one of
the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing
the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which climate scientists agree will
cause major adverse effects.
6. Coal
The environmental impact of coal mining and burning is diverse.[19] Legislation passed by the U.S.
Congress in 1990 required the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue a plan
to alleviate toxic pollution from coal-fired power plants. After delay and litigation, the EPA now has
a court-imposed deadline of March 16, 2011, to issue its report.
7. Petroleum
The environmental impact of petroleum is often negative because it is toxic to almost all forms of
life. The possibility of climate change exists. Petroleum, commonly referred to as oil, is closely linked
to virtually all aspects of present society, especially for transportation and heating for both homes
and for commercial activities.
8. Gas
Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel, producing less carbon dioxide per joule
delivered than either coal or oil,[20] and far fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels. However, in
absolute terms, it does contribute substantially to global carbon emissions, and this contribution is
projected to grow. According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report,[21] in 2004 natural gas produced
about 5,300 Mt/yr of CO2 emissions, while coal and oil produced 10,600 and 10,200 respectively
(Figure 4.4); but by 2030, according to an updated version of the SRES B2 emissions scenario, natural
gas would be the source of 11,000 Mt/yr, with coal and oil now 8,400 and 17,200 respectivelyIn
addition, natural gas itself is a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide when released
into the atmosphere but is released in smaller amounts.

9. Electricity generation[
The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large
amounts of electrical power. This power is normally generated at power plants that convert some
other kind of energy into electrical power. Each such system has advantages and disadvantages, but
many of them pose environmental concerns.

10. Reservoirs
The environmental impact of reservoirs is coming under ever increasing scrutiny as the world
demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases. Dams and
the reservoirs can be used to supply drinking water, generate hydroelectric power, increasing the

65
water supply for irrigation, provide recreational opportunities and for flood control. However,
adverse environmental and sociological impacts have also been identified during and after many
reservoir constructions. Whether reservoir projects are ultimately beneficial or detrimental—to both
the environment and surrounding human populations— has been debated since the 1960s and
probably long before that. In 1960 the construction of Llyn Celyn and the flooding of Capel
Celyn provoked political uproar which continues to this day. More recently, the construction
of Three Gorges Dam and other similar projects throughout Asia, Africa and Latin America have
generated considerable environmental and political debate.

11. Nuclear power

Nuclear power activities involving the environment; mining, enrichment, generation and geological disposal.

The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle, operation, and the
effects of nuclear accidents.
The routine health risks and greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are significantly
smaller than those associated with coal, oil and gas. However, there is a "catastrophic risk" potential
if containment fails,[23] which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by over-heated fuels melting
and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment. The most long-lived
radioactive wastes, including spent nuclear fuel, must be contained and isolated from humans and
the environment for hundreds of thousands of years. The public is sensitive to these risks and there
has been considerable public opposition to nuclear power. Despite this potential for disaster, normal
fossil fuel related pollution is still considerably more harmful than any previous nuclear disaster.
The 1979 Three Mile Island accident and 1986 Chernobyl disaster, along with high construction
costs, ended the rapid growth of global nuclear power capacity.[23] A further disastrous release of
radioactive materials followed the 2011 Japanese tsunami which damaged the Fukushima I Nuclear
Power Plant, resulting in hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns classified as a Level
7 event. The large-scale release of radioactivity resulted in people being evacuated from a 20 km
exclusion zone set up around the power plant, similar to the 30 km radius Chernobyl Exclusion
Zone still in effect.

12. Wind power

The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil
fuels, is relatively minor. According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-cycle global warming
potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of between 12 and 11 (gCO
2eq/kWh) depending, respectively, on if offshore or onshore turbines are being assessed. [24]
[25]
Compared with other low carbon power sources, wind turbines have some of the lowest global
warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated.[26]
While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are
compatible with it, as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made
unavailable for use.
There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial
structures. The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant, depending on specific
circumstances. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and protection of peat bogs, affect the
siting and operation of wind turbines.
There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on people who live very close to
wind turbines. Peer-reviewed research has generally not supported these claims.[30]

66
Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape are significant
Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes.

Mitigation[
Energy conservation[
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation can
be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy
consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources.
Energy conservation can result in increased financial capital, environmental quality, national
security, personal security, and human comfort.[32] Individuals and organizations that are
direct consumers of energy choose to conserve energy to reduce energy costs and promote economic
security. Industrial and commercial users can increase energy use efficiency to maximize profit.
The increase of global energy use can also be slowed by tackling human population growth, by
using non-coercive measures such as better provision of family planning services and by
empowering (educating) women in developing countries.

Energy policy[
Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental) has decided to address
issues of energy development including energy production, distribution and consumption. The
attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment,
guidelines for energy conservation, taxation and other public policy techniques.

WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL LAW?
International Environmental Law (IEL) is concerned with the attempt to control
pollution and the depletion of natural resources within a framework of sustainable
development. It is a branch of public international law - a body of law created by states
for states to govern problems that arise between states.
IEL covers topics such as population, biodiversity, climate change, ozone depletion,
toxic and hazardous substances, air, land, sea and transboundary water pollution,
conservation of marine resources, desertification, and nuclear damage.

Key Declarations & Treaties

Declarations
Two major declarations on international environmental law are:

1. The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human

Environment (the 1972 Stockholm Declaration) (UN Doc.
A/CONF/48/14/REV.1 (1972). This declaration represented a first major
attempt at considering the global human impact on the environment, and an

67
 international attempt to address the challenge of preserving and enhancing the
human environment. The Stockholm Declaration espouses mostly broad
environmental policy goals and objectives rather than detailed normative
positions. The UN website provides introductory information, procedural history
and preparatory documents associated with the Declaration, as well as the full
text of the Declaration.
2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Doc.
A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I)) was a short document produced at the 1992 United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as the
Rio Earth Summit. The Rio Declaration consists of 27 principles intended to
guide future sustainable development around the world.

Treaties
Customary law and general principles relating to the environment, such as the
'precautionary principle' and sustainable development, are evolving but it is arguable
whether any have yet become normative rules. The speed with which awareness of
global environmental problems has reached the international political agenda has
meant that customary law has tended to take second place to treaty law in the evolution
of legal norms, and treaties have been the main method by which the international
community has responded to the need to regulate activities which threaten the
environment. There are hundreds of bilateral and multilateral environmental treaties
creating states' rights and obligations. The UN Environment Program (UNEP) and
the UN Commission on Sustainable Development have negotiated many of these
treaties.
A full list of international environmental law treaties can be found on Wikipedia. This
is arranged alphabetically and also by subject.
A few major treaties are listed below, but the full text of all IEL treaties can be found on:

 ECOLEX, a free online gateway to environmental law treaties; and

 ENTRI (Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators) - the Treaty
Locator allows sophisticated searching of the full text of all treaties. ENTRI also
contains treaty status information.

Treaties generally concern one of the following broad subjects: toxic and hazardous
substances, nuclear damage, ocean and marine sources, ozone and protection of the
atmosphere, pollution, biodiversity and the protection and conservation of species and
wildlife, sustainable development, and trade and the environment. The Globalex
Guide on International Environmental Legal Research provides a useful table of these
subjects together with links to the agreements and relevant agencies. Descriptions of the
major environmental treaties by subject can also be found on the ILO website.

68
Many of the major treaties have their own websites, containing convention
documentation such as backgrounds to the conventions, draft articles and travaux
preparatoires, convention protocols and national reports.
The UN Audiovisual Library of International Law website lists the following major
IEL treaties, and provides the full text of the treaties and travaux, together with useful
introductory summaries:

 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal, 1989
 Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2000
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 (UNFCCC)
o UNFCCC website
 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, 1997
o Kyoto Protocol website
 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa,
1994 (UNCCD)
o UNCCD website
 Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International
Watercourses, 1997

Treaties to which Australia is a party - free full-text treaties

The Australian Treaty Database on the DFAT website can be searched by subject and
lists all environmental treaties to which Australia is a party, as well as information
about the treaty process and adoption into domestic law.
The Australian Treaty Series on AustLII contains Environment and Resources Treaties,
which can be searched or browsed by subject.

Multilateral Environmental
Agreements
Overview
The main instruments available under international law for countries to collaborate on a broad range
of global environmental challenges are international conventions and treaties on environment and
natural resources also known as Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs).

69
 MEAs are agreements between states which may take the form of “soft-law”, setting out non legally-
binding principles which parties are obligated to consider when taking actions to address a
particular environmental issue, or “hard-law” which specify legally-binding actions to be
undertaken toward an environmental objective.

Amongst the global environmental issues that MEAs are designed to respond to include: loss of
biological diversity, adverse impacts of Climate Change, depletion of the ozone layer, hazardous
waste, organic pollutants, marine pollution, trade in endangered species, destruction of wetlands,
etc.

The EAC Partner States have signed and ratified several International Conventions and Treaties
including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC); the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB); the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, and the United Nations
Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD) among others.

Biosafety in EAC
All the East African Community (EAC) Partner States have ratified the Cartagena Protocol, an
international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living
modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on
biological diversity, while also taking into account risks to human health. The EAC Partner States
are at different stages of establishing national biosafety frameworks.

To harmonise biosafety policies, national and regional consultations on biosafety were finalised in
Partner States in November 2013. National and Regional priorities on biosafety were identified and a
road map for developing the EAC Biosafety Policy Framework prepared. Mechanisms to enhance
regional information sharing including the establishment of a regional biosafety clearing house to
facilitate decision making, promote compliance and capacity building are ongoing.

National focal points for biosafety are in place and these are located at the Council for Science and
Technology, Vice President’s office and at the Ministry of Water and Environment in Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda respectively. In addition, the countries have developed systems to handle
requests for introduction of GMOs into the environment, a mechanism for monitoring, inspection
and enforcement as well as streamlining the roles and responsibilities of the concerned institutions.
Other involved institutions include the Phytosanitary bodies, Ministries of Agriculture, Health,
Trade and Industry, National Bureaux of Standards, National Agricultural Research Systems among
others.

Regional biosafety consultations held in November 2013 identified priorities to guide the
development of a regional biotechnology and biosafety framework:

 Formulation of a harmonised regional biotechnology and biosafety policy to inform decision making
on GMOs

70
 Establishment of a regional biotechnology and biosafety unit at the EAC
 Need for resource mobilisation to support capacity building - human, infrastructure and
institutional
 Strategies for public education, participation, awareness in biotechnology and biosafety
 Develop a framework for a harmonised regional approach to global negotiations in biotechnology
and biosafety
 Establishment of a Panel of Experts (PoE) to guide biosafety decision making and give risk
assessment opinions
 Establishment of EAC Centres of Excellence in biotechnology and biosafety

Rio Conventions
In 2002, the EAC Heads of State Summit took a decision that EAC should negotiate regional and
multilateral issues as a bloc. The draft Framework for Joint Participation in and Implementation of
Regional and Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs) was finalised. The aim of the
Framework is to guide the EAC Partner States in the implementation of various multilateral
environmental agreements that the Partner States are party to.

The process of institutionalising EAC’s Joint Participation in International Conventions and Treaties
on Environment and Natural Resources Management is ongoing. To implement the outcome of the
Rio Summit on Sustainable Development: The Future We Want, an EAC Post-Rio+20 Plan of Action
was developed and approved by the EAC Council of Ministers. Technical preparations, including
development of regional position papers in readiness for international policy discourse on Biological
Diversity, Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction under the UN CBD, the UNFCCC and the
Hyogo Framework for Action on Disaster Risk Reduction are ongoing. Development of the strategy
to combat poaching and illegal Trade in wildlife and wildlife products is underway.

As an accredited observer organisation to the UNFCCC since December 2012, the EAC Secretariat
supports the effective preparations for the regional and international policy forums, particularly the
UNFCCC. The Secretariat organises annual national and regional preparatory meetings to identify
Climate Change priorities and develop Climate Change position papers to inform national and
regional engagement during the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC and Meeting of Parties to the
Kyoto Protocol.

In collaboration with COMESA, SADC and the African Union Commission through the African
Ministerial Conference on the Environment, EAC has been working to consolidate a unified African
position on Climate Change as a basis for the Africa Group of Negotiators under the UNFCCC. As a
result, the capacity of African Negotiators to articulate Africa's position within the UNFCCC has
been strengthened.

Environmental issues in Kenya

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Environmental issues in Kenya include deforestation, soil
erosion, desertification, water shortage and degraded water quality, flooding, poaching,
and domestic and industrial pollution.[1]

1. Water resources
Water resources in Kenya are under pressure from agricultural chemicals and urban
and industrial wastes, as well as from use for hydroelectric power.[2] The anticipated
water shortage is a potential problem for the future. For example, the damming of
the Omo river by the Gilgel Gibe III Dam together with the plan to use 30% to 50% of
the water for sugar plantations will create significant environmental problems. It is
estimated that up to 50% of Lake Turkana's water capacity will be lost. Had there been
no planning of the irrigation of sugar plantations, the dam itself might have had a net
positive effect to the environment, due to the emission-less power generation of the
dam.[3]
Water-quality in Kenya has problems in lakes, (including water hyacinth infestation
in Lake Victoria), have contributed to a substantial decline in fishing output
and endangered fish species.[4][5]

2. Animal poaching
There are a wide variety of wildlife species in Kenya, whose habitats are threatened by
encroachment of man and the poachers that live in rural Kenya. Michael Werikhe aka
Rhino Man, pioneered Kenyan wildlife conservation. Werikhe walked thousands of
kilometres and raised millions of dollars to fund White Rhino conservation projects.
The Blue Wildebeest is currently abundant, but like other more endangered species
feels the pressure of habitat reduction. This wildlife consists of lions, elephants,
gazelles, and rhinos.
Between 1970 and 1977, Kenya lost more than half of its elephants.[6] Though elephant
hunting has been banned for 40-years in Kenya, poaching has not reduced. Given the
poverty of many of the people, and the high value of elephant tusks, they are shipped
overseas and sold on the black market. Although Kenya has many national parks and
reserves protecting wildlife, elephant populations are still at risk, a problem which is
made worse by corruption and some officials supplementing their income with
permitting poaching.[7]
In 2020 February, Poachers in Kenya Killed two White Giraffes.[8] The Female White
Giraffe and her calf were found dead in Garissa County which is the North east part of
the country.[9] This left the country and the world with only one white male giraffe.
Recently, as the Chinese sales of projects in Africa increase at a high annual growth rate,
their contractors are encountering new challenges regarding wildlife protection during
project construction. Using the Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway project
constructed by the China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC).[10]

72
 3. Deforestation
Forestry output has also declined because of resource degradation.
Overexploitation over the past three decades has reduced the country's timber
resources by one-half. At present only 3% of the land remains forested, and an
estimated 50 square kilometres of forest are lost each year.[12] This loss of forest
aggravates erosion, the silting of dams and flooding, and the loss of biodiversity.
[13]
Among the endangered forests are Kakamega Forest, Mau Forest and Karura Forest.
In response to ecological disruption, activists have pressed with some success for
policies that encourage sustainable resource use.
The 2004 Nobel Peace Prize went to the Kenyan environmentalist, Wangari Maathai,
best known for organizing a grassroots movement in which thousands of people were
mobilized over the years to plant 30 million trees in Kenya and elsewhere and to protest
forest clearance for luxury development.[15] Imprisoned as an opponent of Moi, Maathai
linked deforestation with the plight of rural women, who are forced to spend untold
hours in search of scarce firewood and water.[16]
Widespread poverty in many parts of the country has greatly lead to over-exploitation
of the limited resources in Kenya. Cutting down of trees to create more land for
cultivation, charcoal burning business, quarrying among other social and occupational
practices are the major threats of environmental degradation due to poverty in rural
Kenya. Regions like Murang'a, Bondo and Meru are affected by this environmental
issue.[17]
Kenya had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.2/10, ranking it
133rd globally out of 172 countries.[18]

4. Littering and solid waste collection

Littering and the illegal dumping of rubbish is a problem in both urban and rural
Kenya. Almost all urban areas of Kenya have inadequate rubbish collection and
disposal systems.

5. Flooding
There is the risk of seasonal flooding during July to late August months. In September
2012, thousands of people were displaced in parts of Kenya's Rift Valley Province as
floodwaters submerged houses and schools and destroyed crops.[20] It was especially
dangerous as the floods caused latrines to overflow, contaminating numerous water
sources. The floods can also cause mudslides and two children were killed in September
2012 following a mudslide in the Baringo District, which also displaced 46 families.[20]

73
CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY GOALS: 45
EXAMPLES & DEFINITIONS
Are you spearheading a new sustainability initiative for your company?
Looking for ideas to refresh your existing strategy?

We scoured the internet for examples and definitions of corporate

environmental sustainability and compiled them here.

SUSTAINABILITY DEFINED
Ask anyone to define sustainability and you’ll probably get a different
answer every time.

While some focus on the environmental side of sustainability, others include

economics, communities, infrastructure, and health.

For example, the UN’s sustainable development goals encompass a broad

spectrum of environmental goals such as clean energy and climate action as
well as goals for economic growth, hunger, poverty, health, education,
equality, peace, and justice.
Companies often categorize sustainability into three
pillars: Environment, Social, and Economic.
SUSTAINABILITY DEFINITIONS
1. The ability to be maintained at a certain rate or level. –Oxford Dictionaries
2. To create and maintain the conditions under which humans and nature can exist
in productive harmony to support present and future generations. –Environmental
Protection Agency
3. Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. -United Nations

74
This article focuses on corporate environmental sustainability.

Whether you are starting from ground zero with a corporate sustainability
plan, or looking to refresh your existing program, keep reading for plenty of
examples and inspiration!

WHY SUSTAINBILITY
If you’re starting a corporate sustainability program from ground zero, you’ll
need to justify your time and resources. Here are four reasons to invest in
corporate sustainability:

 Better for the environment.

 Improve your bottom line.
 Your employees benefit from healthier and safer working conditions.
 Can be positioned as a competitive advantage.
LOCAL INITIATIVES
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY DEFINITIONS &
EXAMPLES
To organize the examples, we broke them down into three categories,
or hierarchies. Click on any of the buttons below to jump to that section.
Goals
Pollution Prevention Resource Conservation Zero Waste to Landfill
Waste Reduction / Minimization Zero Discharge Reduce Carbon Footprint, Zero Emissions
Tactics

75
Lean Manufacturing Alternative Energy Responsible Consumption Waste Management
Reuse and Recycling Advocacy Innovation
Third Party Certifications and Rating Systems
PEER TRUE Six Sigma LEED ISO 5001 ISO 14001
1. POLLUTION PREVENTION (P2)

Pollution can occur in the air, water, or soil. Pollution prevention, sometimes
referred to as P2, refers to reducing or eliminating waste at the source. Goals
such as waste reduction and reducing carbon footprint ultimately support a
much broader objective of pollution prevention.

Examples:
1. Modify your production processes to emit less waste or emissions
2. Use non-toxic or less-toxic substances
3. Implement conservation techniques (use less energy and water at your facility)
4. Reuse materials, such as production scrap or shop towels, rather than putting
them into the waste stream
5. Reduce packaging
2. RESOURCE CONSERVATION

Resource conservation refers to the practice of using resources such as water,

energy, and raw materials efficiently and ethically.

Examples:
6. Install low-flow faucets and water efficient toilets
7. Reduce landscape water use
8. Engage employees to be more conscientious
9. Install automatic light shut off
10. Use energy efficient light bulbs
11. Reduce scrap material during production
Real World Examples:
12. Bosh: According to the Bosh website, they have a goal to reduce waste and
water consumption by 2% every year

76
 13. Graphics Packaging: Graphics Packaging has a goal to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, reduce the use of non-renewable energy, reduce water effluent at
mills, and increase recovery of paper and paperboard by 2020.
3. ZERO WASTE TO LANDFILL

Having a zero waste to landfill goal means you plan to eliminate all discharge
to landfill. It means you are not shipping any wastes for treatment at a
landfill.

While zero waste and zero waste the landfill are often used interchangeably,
zero waste to landfill is a component of zero waste. When a facility acquires
the zero waste to landfill (ZWTL) status, it means that absolutely no
manufacturing waste from the facility goes to landfill sites.

Some issues with a zero to landfill goal is that a company could incinerate
their waste and still claim zero landfill. Unfortunately, Waste to Energy
(WTE) can produce large amounts of ash that must still be landfilled.

Real World Examples

14. New York City: OneNYC 2050 is a strategy to secure the city’s future
against the challenges of today and tomorrow. With bold actions to confront our
climate crisis, achieve equity, and strengthen our democracy, their goal is to build a
strong and fair city. Many cities and even states also have zero waste goals, such
as Minneapolis,Washington DC, Washington, San Francisco, San Diego, Dallas,
and Austin
15. Nestle: According to their sustainability site, Nestle has a goal to reach
100% Zero Waste by 2030.
4. WASTE MINIMIZATION / WASTE REDUCTION

Waste reduction is the method used to achieve zero waste.

According to the EPA, waste minimization refers to the use of source

reduction and/or environmentally sound recycling methods prior to energy
recovery, treatment, or disposal of wastes.

77
If zero waste is too ambitious of a goal, you can start with a goal of waste
reduction or waste minimization.

Example
16. Switch to a laundering service for your shop towels, mops, gloves, oil
absorbents, and filter bags.
Real World Example
17. Amcor: In January 2018, Amcor announced a commitment to develop all
packaging to be recyclable or reusable by 2025. They also pledged to significantly
increase their use of recycled materials and drive more recycling of packaging
around the world.
Thousands of manufacturers achieve waste reduction with reuse laundering programs
for towels, mops, gloves, and oil absorbents.
The video below shows the environmental impact in just one year from reusable oil
absorbents.
5. ZERO DISCHARGE

Zero discharge means to eliminate discharge pollutants from a point source

(such as a building or processing plant) to local waterways.

Zero discharge can refer to a plant eliminating all pollutants (for

example, Gold Inc. has zero discharge from their processing plant) or a
specific pollutant (for example, Bronze Inc. has zero copper discharge into
receiving water from their operations).

Part of zero discharge includes being a good water steward. According to the
Water Council, good water stewards understand their own water use,
watershed context and shared risk in terms of water governance, water
balance, water quality, and important water-related areas.

Examples
18. Recycle industrial wastewater by treating any reusable water or other
material from wastewater and transferring any potential pollutants to a solid phase
(sludge).
19. Reduce the amount of water needed during production

78
Real World Example
20. Levi Strauss: To help preserve fresh water supplies for drinking and other
necessary uses, Levi Strauss & Co. developed a standard to encourage the
preservation of fresh water through water recycling.
6. ZERO EMISSIONS

Reducing your carbon footprint is to reduce your carbon dioxide emissions,

which contribute to global warming.

Examples
21. Reduce waste (this is one way you can reduce your carbon footprint)
22. Buy energy efficient items with the ENERGY STAR® logo or items that
are EPEAT registered for the office.
23. Consider using EPA’s Waste Reduction Model (WARM), which was
designed to help solid waste planners organize and track greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
24. Invest in renewable energy
25. Purchase flexible fuel fleet vehicles, or low emissions vehicles
Real World Examples
26. GM: According to their 2017 sustainability report, GM has an unwavering
commitment to an all-electric, zero-emissions future, regardless of any
modifications to future fuel economy standards. They are investing in multiple
technologies that offer increasing levels of vehicle electrification. They have
committed to using 100 percent renewable energy by 2050.
27. Komatsu Mining: As part of their Environmental Sustainability Program,
they are continuously reviewing all of our facilities’ operations to reduce our global
carbon footprint.
28. Ball Corp: Ball Corp’s goal is to cut the carbon footprint of their beverage
cans by 25 percent
7. LEAN MANUFACTURING

Lean manufacturing is a systematic method for waste minimization within a

manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. These wastes refer to

79
defects, excess processing, overproduction, waiting, inventory, moving,
motion, and non-utilized talent.

A reduction in excess processing and defects, in particular, can have a

substantial impact on environmental sustainability.

Real world example

29. Viking Plastics: In 2011, Viking Plastics embarked on a journey of
continuous improvement and culture transformation, following the “2-Second
Lean” model. They educated all of their employees — in all job descriptions — on
the “eight wastes” targeted for elimination by lean manufacturing organizations.
8.ALTERNATIVE / RENEWABLE ENERGY

Alternative energy refers to all non-fossil-fuel-based energy sources and

processes. Examples include solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, wave power,
nuclear, hydropower.

Real world example:

30. Toyota: According to their sustainability website, Toyota is evaluating
applications of solar, geothermal and stationary hydrogen fuel cells, as well as the
purchase of green power either directly from a utility company or through
renewable energy credits. They are also experimenting with other types of
renewable and alternative energy, such as geothermal systems and landfill gas.
9. RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION

Responsible consumption means using our resources and energy efficiently.

Responsibility lies in the hands of everyone – manufacturers, distributors,
retailers, and consumers.

Examples
31. Encourage carpooling or riding a bike to work
32. Utilize rerouting and logistics to minimize fuel consumption
33. Use less packaging in your product
10. RESPONSIBLE WASTE MANAGEMENT

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Responsible waste management falls into the hands of every person, and
company, that generates waste. It means that waste is properly segregated
and handled accordingly. According to the EPA’s waste management
hierarchy, source reduction and reuse are the preferred methods, followed by
recycling, energy recovery, and finally, treatment and disposal.

Examples
34. Designate colored recycling bins for different wastes and make them
accessible to all employees
35. Evaluate all waste, and find a way to move it up the waste hierarchy.
11. REUSE & RECYCLING

Recycling means turning an item into raw materials which can be used again,
usually for a completely new product. Reuse, in contrast, refers to using an
object as it is without breaking it down.

Reuse is preferred over recycling because recycling consumes more energy.

Examples
36. Switch to launderable, reusable oil absorbents. Oil Absorbent Reuse: How
to Start a Program at your Facility
37. Using a towel rental service instead of one-time-use wipes.
For more ideas, check out these 25 ways to reduce, reuse, and recycle
industrial waste.
12. ADVOCACY

Advocacy is the act or process of supporting a cause or proposal. Advocacy

can be a powerful way for companies to effect real change in environmental
sustainability.

Examples
38. Educate peers about corporate sustainability
39. Educate consumers about responsible consumption
40. Lobby for new policies or regulations
41. Donate to non-profit organizations that support sustainability

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 13. INNOVATION

Innovation can accelerate and even revolutionize environmental sustainability

initiatives. It can come in the form of product or process innovation and is a
key part of achieving sustainability goals.

Examples
42. Upgrade to new equipment that results in fewer defective parts (and,
therefore, less waste)
43. Modify product packaging so that it can be easily recycled.
14. PEER

Whereas LEED refers to the building sector, PEER refers to the power sector.
PEER stands for Performance Excellence in Electricity Renewal. It’s a rating
system that evaluates a power system’s performance for reliability, safety,
efficiency, grid service, innovation, and regional priority.

15. TRUE

TRUE (Total Resource Use and Efficiency) helps organizations understand

how materials flow through their facilities and identify redesign opportunities
so that all products are reused.

TRUE-certified projects must meet a minimum of 90 percent waste diversion

for 12 months from landfills, incinerators (waste-to-energy) or the
environment.

TRUE is administered by GBCI and serves as a compliment to the Leadership

in Energy and Environmental Design green building rating system created by
the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC).

16. SIX SIGMA

Six Sigma is a set of tools and techniques to help improve processes within an
organization.

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The primary goal of the Six Sigma certification is to validate individuals who
possess the skills to identify errors or defects in a business process and
eliminate them.

The Six Sigma certification comes in various skill levels: Yellow Belt, Green
Belt, Black Belt, and Master Black Belt. These certifications can be obtained
through an accreditation body like the American Society for Quality (ASQ).

17. LEED AND GREEN BUILDINGS

If your focus is on energy efficiency, waste reduction, and water conservation,

you may want to consider LEED, which stands for Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design. LEED is a widely used green building rating system.
LEED applies strictly to a building or neighborhood, not a company. LEED
buildings save energy, water, resources, generate less waste and support
human health.

Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI) is the exclusive provider of third-

party certification and professional credentials for LEED.

Real World Example

44. Colgate Palmolive: LEED buildings helps reduce Colgate’s environmental
impact and overall exposure to water and climate change related issues.
18. ISO 5001:2018

ISO 50001 supports organizations to use energy more efficiently, through the
development of an energy management system.

ISO 14001

ISO 14001:2015 specifies the requirements for an environmental management

system that an organization can use to improve environmental performance.
ISO 14001:2015 helps companies manage environmental responsibilities in a
well-defined, systematic approach.

INSTITUTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL

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RELATIONS
NATURE

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