Fis3701 Mo001 2023

FIS3701/MO001/4/2019
Materials Online 001/4/2019
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
FIS3701
Semesters 1 and 2
Department of Life and Consumer Sciences

IMPORTANT
INFORMATION:
Please activate your myUnisa and myLife e-mail addresses, and

access the myUnisa module site (FIS3701/19/S1 or
FIS3701/19/S2, depending on the semester i n w h i c h you are
registered) and your group site regularly.
1
university
Define tomorrow. of south africa
Open Rubric
© 2017 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
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FIS3701/MO001/4/2019
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CONTENTS
Page
Preface v
Welcome message vi
Learning unit 0: Welcome and Introduction ix
Learning unit 1: T he main functions of the nervous system and the
function of its basic unit, the neuron 1
Learning unit 2: The sensory system: synapse functioning 10
Learning unit 3: The sensory system: receptor functioning 18
Learning unit 4: The sensory system: somatic sensations 26
Learning unit 5: The sensory system: senses 32
Learning unit 6: The motor system: the spinal cord 44
Learning unit 7: T he motor system: cortical and brainstem functioning52
Learning unit 8: The motor system: the cerebellum and basal ganglia60
Learning unit 9: T he motor system: the autonomic nervous system 66
Learning unit 10: Anatomy of the cerebral cortex 74
Learning unit 11: Intelligence, learning and memory 83
Learning unit 12: Behavioural and motivational mechanisms of the brain90
Learning unit 13: Brain activity 95
Discussion forums and topics 104
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PREFACE
Dear Students
Welcome to the module Physiology of the Nervous System (FIS3702).
This is an online module, but you could also use this printed document (MO001)
to study for this module. This document is essentially a printed version of
everything you will find on the module website on myUnisa. It is a convenient
document that you will be able to refer to at any time, page through and make
notes on. However, we still encourage you to use the module website, as this
has several advantages. For example, you can easily access any part of your
study material by clicking on the links in the table of contents of the learning
units, and you can interact with your lecturer and fellow students on the
module’s Discussion Forum.
This document starts with the message on the Welcome page of your module
website. It then goes on to the text of the learning units of the module. Be
sure to read learning unit 0, as it contains important information about the
module. Also remember to read Tutorial Letter 101, which contains essential
details about the module and its assessment.
At the end of this MO001 document, there is a list of the Discussion Forum
topics on the module site.
I wish you all the best with your studies.
Your lecturer
Dr SL Lebelo
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v FIS3701/1
WELCOME MESSAGE
Dear Students
Welcome to the module Physiology of the Nervous System, which is offered

in the Department of Life and Consumer Sciences. I am Dr S Lebelo, and I
will be your lecturer for this module. I trust that this module will deepen your
understanding of nervous system physiology and help you further your studies
in general.
After you have completed the module, you should be able to explain anatomical
and physiological aspects of the nervous system, and relate these to human
sensory perception, movement, intelligence, behaviour and motivation. In
addition, you will be able to identify various possible pathologies related to
the functional anatomy of the nervous system. The knowledge and skills you
will acquire in this module underlie current research and new developments
in health sciences and the pharmaceutical industry.
This module is offered online, but as an alternative you will also receive a
printed study pack. You will find more details on how to study this module in
learning unit 0 and Tutorial Letter 101.
If you are reading this online, you will see the different options that are available
on this site on the left-hand side of the screen. The material that you should
study is contained in the learning units. Tutorial Letter 101, as well as other
tutorial letters and past examination papers, are stored under Official Study
Material. You may periodically receive some Announcements, for example
to remind you of a due date for an assignment. We may use the Discussion
Forum during the course of your studies, and you can use it to communicate
with other students. The Schedule will remind you of important dates in the
semester, for example due dates for assignments. More details about these
different tools will be provided in learning unit 0.
After you have read this page, please read Tutorial Letter 101 (if you have not
done so already). Then you should proceed to the learning units. Be sure to
read learning unit 0, as it contains important information.
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vi
Please note that there may be two sites you should use in studying this module.
The first is the module site, where you will find the learning units and where
you can communicate with your lecturer. The second is your e-tutor site. The
name of the e-tutor site is the same as the name of the module site, except
that it has “-1E” or “-2E” added at the end, depending on the semester. On
the e-tutor site, you will be able to communicate with your e-tutor and fellow
students on the Discussion Forum.
If you have any queries about the module, you are welcome to contact me
by e-mail or telephone. You may also make an appointment to see me in my
office at the Unisa Science Campus in Florida.
I wish you all the best in your studies.
Dr SL Lebelo
Tel: (27) 11 471 3644

E-mail: lebelol@unisa.ac.za
Fax: (27) 11 471 2796
Office: Office 209, Calabash Building, Unisa Science Campus, Florida
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LEARNING UNIT 0
Welcome and Introduction
0.1 GETTING STARTED

Welcome to Physiology of the Nervous System (FIS3701), a module that is
offered in Unisa’s Department of Life and Consumer Sciences. I would like to
take this opportunity to wish you success with your academic year.
This is an online module, which means that you will find everything you need
to complete the module on this site and on your e-tutor site, if you have one.
Check these sites regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional
resources uploaded throughout the semester. Rapid communications throughout
the semester have been made possible by myUnisa. On myUnisa, you can
•• submit assignments (Please note: It is advisable that you submit your

assignment online as this will ensure that you receive rapid feedback
and comments.)
•• access your study material
•• access Unisa Library functions
•• chat to your lecturer or e-tutor and fellow students, and participate in the
online Discussion Forum
•• obtain access to a variety of learning resources
Please take some time to familiarise yourself with the site so that you get to know
where the different tools and resources are. I will give you more information
about this later in this learning unit.
Although I would like to encourage you to study this module online, we also
recognise that it might be impossible for some of you to get online at all,
while some others of you might only be able to get online infrequently. For
this reason, you can also use the printed study pack that you will receive to
study for this module.
Your study material for this module includes
•• your prescribed textbooks

•• these learning units
•• Tutorial Letter 101
•• any other tutorial letters you may receive during the year
•• any additional information provided on the module site and e-tutor site (if
you have one) on myUnisa
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•• any additional electronic communications you may receive, such as
announcements from your lecturer or e-tutor
Details of your prescribed book are given in Tutorial Letter 101. You will receive
Tutorial Letter 101 in print, but you can also access it on this site. You can do
this by clicking on Official Study Material in the menu on the left.
Tutorial Letter 101 is just one of the tutorial letters you will receive during the
year. It is extremely important that you read this tutorial letter carefully.
You will also receive Tutorial Letter 201 during the course of the semester,
shortly after all the assignment due dates. This tutorial letter is closely linked
to Tutorial Letter 101 and will provide you with a guide to the examination.
Please note that there MAY be two sites for FIS3702. The first is the module
site, where you will find the learning units and where you can communicate
with your lecturer. In your list of modules, this usually has a name in the
following format:
Module code-year-semester, e.g. FIS3702-17-SI
The second site is your e-tutor site, where you can communicate with your
e-tutor and fellow students (if you have an e-tutor). This site has the same
name, but with “-1E” or “-2E” added at the end, depending on the semester,
for example:
FIS3702-17-SI-1E
Your e-tutor is there to support your learning, and you can post any questions
to him or her in the Discussion Forum, under the appropriate forum or topic
for general questions. In another forum you will be able to communicate with
your fellow students.
On the e-tutor site you should respond to discussion questions that are given
in the learning units. Your e-tutor may provide you with an opportunity to
engage in additional discussions or to do specific online tasks or activities.
Please participate fully, as this will assist you in your learning. Both the lecturer
and the e-tutor may also send you announcements from time to time.
This learning unit gives an overview of and some general information about
this module. I will also tell you more about how you can study in this module,
how to use myUnisa and how the assessment in the module works.
Click on Next to go to the next screen, where you will find contact details.
0.2 CONTACT DETAILS

This section contains my contact details and the details of the academic
department that offers this module. It also includes the contact details of the
University and information about student support services at Unisa.
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Please note that whenever you contact the University, whether in writing or
telephonically, you should always mention the module code and your student
number.
Lecturer and department
Lecturer: Dr SL Lebelo
Telephone number (during office hours 8:00–16:00): 011 471 3644

E-mail address: lebelol@unisa.ac.za
Postal address:
The Lecturer (FIS3701)
Private Bag X6
Florida
1710
The department offering this module is the Department of Life and Consumer
Sciences.
Telephone number (departmental secretary): 011 471 2230

Fax number: 011 471 2796
University
Should you need to contact the University about matters unrelated to the
content of this module, consult the publication Study @ Unisa, which you
have received with your study material. This brochure contains information
on how to contact the University (e.g. to whom you can write for different
queries, important telephone and fax numbers, addresses, and details of the
opening and closing times of particular facilities).
You can also use the following contact details:
•• Unisa website http://www.unisa.ac.za or http://mobi.unisa.ac.za.

•• info@unisa.ac.za for general enquiries.
•• International students are urged to use info@unisa.ac.za.
•• study-info@unisa.ac.za for application and registration enquiries.
•• assign@unisa.ac.za for assignment enquiries.
•• exams@unisa.ac.za for examination enquiries.
•• despatch@unisa.ac.za for study material enquiries.
•• finan@unisa.ac.za for student account enquiries.
•• myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za for assistance with myUnisa.
•• myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za for assistance with myLife e-mail accounts.
•• SMS: 32695 (South Africa only).
You will receive an auto response SMS with the various SMS options.
•• Fax: 012 429 4150.
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0.3 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES
For information about the various student support systems and services available
at Unisa (e.g. student counselling, tutorial classes and language support),
consult Study @ Unisa.
•• Fellow students
It is always a good idea to have contact with fellow students. You can do
this via the Discussion Forum on myUnisa. You can also use the Discussion
Forum to find out whether there are students in your area who would like to
form study groups.
•• Library
Study @ Unisa lists all the services offered by the Unisa library.
To log in to the library website, you are required to provide your login details,
that is, your student number and your myUnisa password. This will enable you to
•• request library material

•• view and renew your library material
•• use the library’s e-resources
•• Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)

DCCD supports prospective and registered students before, during and after
their Unisa studies. There are resources on their website (http://www.unisa.
ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=15974), and they offer
printed booklets about the following topics:
•• career advice and developing employability skills

•• study skills
•• academic literacy (reading, writing and quantitative skills)
•• assignment submission
•• examination preparation
Note that the DCCD can also assist you in improving your personal wellness.
See their website at http://www.unisa.ac.za/default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&
ContentID=16277.
•• Student Health And Wellness

Your physical health is an important factor in your learning success. Obtaining
an educational qualification is challenging and may at times involve stress, and
it is therefore vital that you should try to maintain a healthy lifestyle to ensure
that you will cope physically with the demands of your studies.
If you suspect that you may suffer from a chronic condition, or if you know
that you suffer from such a condition but are unsure about medical options
and treatment, you could approach Unisa for further information and support.
See Unisa’s Student Health and Wellness website, which you can access from
Unisa’s main website: click on About, Service Departments, Student Affairs
and then on Student Health and Wellness. Here you will find details of Unisa’s
health and wellness clinics, and also some health and wellness resources.
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Note that if you do have a health-related condition such as HIV/AIDS, or if you
have a close family member with this or another health condition, then you
need to take cognisance of this in planning your studies. It will be unwise to
cram tasks, as this creates enormous stress which negatively impacts on your
performance as a student as well as on your health. Planning your studies is
essential, because you need to work consistently and make progress.
It would be wise to know your health status (HIV/AIDS, blood pressure,

diabetes, cholesterol, etc). If you are informed by medical tests, and receive
the necessary treatment and support, you can prolong and improve the quality
of your life and your success in your studies.
If you would like to obtain basic information about the prevention of, testing
for, and treatment of HIV/Aids, please consult the following web links:
•• www.aidsconsortium.org.za (Click on Publications; under AC Pamphlets,

click on HIVTreatment Wise.)
•• http://www.aids.org/topics/aids-factsheets/
•• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/documents/public_info/L (Click on Living
with HIV/Aids.)
You could also approach the DCCD about counselling in this regard.
•• The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities

(ARCSWiD)
You will find more information about this Centre on their webpage, which
you can access from Unisa’s main website by clicking on About, Service
Departments, Student Affairs and ARCSWiD. You can also contact the Centre
at 012 441 5470/1.
0.4 PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES

After you have completed this module, you should be able to explain the
anatomical and physiological aspects of the nervous system, and relate these to
human sensory perception, movement, intelligence, behaviour and motivation.
In addition, you should be able to identify various possible pathologies related
to the functional anatomy of the nervous system.
The module is also aimed at sparking your interest in the field of health and
life sciences, and to provide a stepping stone for students who want to pursue
a career in nervous system physiology or related disciplines.
More specifically, the outcomes of this module are that you, after completing
the module, should be able to
•• describe the organisation of the nervous system and outline its main functions
•• describe the anatomy of the cerebral cortex and explain its functions
•• describe the sensory system (synapse and receptor functioning, somatic
sensations and senses)
•• describe the motor system (spinal cord, cortical and brainstem functioning,
cerebellum and basal ganglia)
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•• describe the motor system (the autonomic nervous system)
•• discuss the concepts of intelligence, learning and memory
•• describe behavioural and motivation mechanisms of the brain
The next section explains how the content of the module is structured.
0.5 HOW THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE IS ORGANISED

The content of this module is structured as follows:
Firstly, we discuss the main functions of the nervous system. This will be dealt
with in learning unit 1. In learning unit 2 to learning unit 5, we look at the
sensory system of the nervous system. From learning unit 6 to learning unit
9 we deal with the motor system of the nervous system. The anatomy of the
cerebral cortex is studied in the learning unit 10. Learning unit 11 examines
intelligence, learning and memory. Learning unit 12 deals with behavioural
and motivational mechanisms of the brain. The final learning unit, learning
unit 13, focuses on the brain activity.
You can refer to the table of contents to see the names of each of the learning
units.
Now that you have a better idea of how the module is structured, let us look
at what your studies will involve.
0.6 LEARNING RESOURCES

Your main learning resources for this module are these learning units, your
prescribed books, and the other elements of the module site and e-tutor site (if
you have one) such as discussions. These resources are supported by tutorial
letters.
The prescribed books to be used in conjunction with the online material are
Hall, JE. 2016. Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology. 13th edition.
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. ISBN: 978-1-4557-7005-2.
Widmaier, E, Raff, H & Strang, K. 2014. Vander’s human physiology: the

mechanisms of body function. 13th edition. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education. ISBN: 978-1-259-08082-1.
More details about the textbooks are given under Prescribed Books on the
left of this screen, and in Tutorial Letter 101.
The textbooks are comprehensive guides to the subject field. You will not be
required to study the textbooks in their entirety, as I will tell you exactly what
you need to study while you are working through the learning units. You need
to study the chapters that are mentioned at the beginning of each learning
unit and any recommended reading sections. If you find a topic particularly
interesting, then feel free to do further reading on that topic.
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The study guide refers to the textbooks to as Hall (2016) and Widmaier et al
(2014).
Please note: The learning units may contain links to websites and online
video clips. Since the internet is dynamic, a link may sometimes be outdated
or might have been moved when you try to access it. In such a case, you can
do your own internet search to find similar sites or videos. To do this, go to
www.google.com or a similar search engine and type in keywords related to
the topic.
Also note: In these learning units, there may be references to “your e-tutor
site”. If you do not have an e-tutor, the relevant information will be on the
module website on myUnisa.
0.7 STUDY PLAN

Use the Study @ Unisa brochure for general time management and planning
skills.
This is a semester module over 15 weeks and requires at least 120 hours of
study time; this means that you need to study at least 8 hours per week for
this module.
The following is a recommended time schedule that you could use as a guideline
for studying this module.
ACTIVITY HOURS
Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and learning unit 0 2
Skimming learning units and textbook, forming a thorough 2

general impression of the whole
First reading of learning units 1 to 13 and textbook (1 hour per 13

learning unit)
In-depth study of learning units 1 to 13, making mind maps and 78

summaries, and doing learning activities (6 hours per learning
unit)
Completing two assignments (Note: Assignment 01 should 10

typically take less time than Assignment 02.)
Examination revision 13
Writing the examination 2
Total 120
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Here follows an example of how you can schedule your study plan. Note that
this schedule starts in January (or July for the second semester) and covers 15
weeks. If you registered later, you need to adapt the schedule and make sure
that you catch up.
Week Activity (each week represents eight hours of study

time)
1 (January/ •• Read and re-read Tutorial Letter 101 and learning unit 0.
July) •• Skim the learning units and textbook to form a thorough
general impression of the whole.
•• Begin reading through the learning units and textbook,
and identify all key areas.
2 •• Read through the remaining learning units and textbook,

and identify all key areas.
3–6 •• In-depth study of learning units 1 to 5. (Make mind maps

and summaries, and do learning activities, including any
online discussions.)
•• Complete and submit Assignment 01. (Please note,
depending on how you will submit the completed
assignment, allow sufficient time for the assignment to
reach Unisa before the due date.)
7–10 •• In-depth study of learning units 6 to 9. (Make mind maps

and summaries, and do learning activities, including online
discussions.)
•• Complete and submit Assignment 02. (Please note,
depending on how you will submit the completed
assignment, allow sufficient time for the assignment to
reach Unisa before the due date.)
11–13 •• In-depth study of learning units 10 to 13. (Make mind

maps and summaries, and do learning activities, including
online discussions.)
14–15 •• Revision and preparation for the examination.
0.8 HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE?

Distance learning is not easy and you should not underestimate the time and
effort involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan how
you will approach and complete this module. You can use the study plan in the
previous section as a guideline to draw up a reasonable study schedule that can
guide you through the whole module. Remember to take into consideration
the due dates of the assignments as given in Tutorial Letter 101 for this module.
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xvi
The assignments in this module take the form of written work, and they
should give you an idea of how well you are making progress in achieving
the learning outcomes.
Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:
•• Skim through the learning unit and draw your own basic mind map of its
contents. Then expand this map as your knowledge and understanding of
the learning unit increases. If you have internet access, you can learn more
about making mind maps on the following websites:
–– http://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-Mind-Map
–– http://www.mind-mapping.co.uk/make-mind-map.htm
•• Make your own summary of every learning unit.
•• Complete all the activities in every learning unit and do any online tasks
that might be assigned to you on your e-tutor site, if you have one.
•• Should you feel that you need further information about or clarification of a
topic, remember that you could do your search the internet for explanations,
images or videos related to the topic. Go to www.google.com or https://
images.google.com, or similar search engines, and type in keywords related
to the topic.
•• Do a reflection exercise at the end of every learning unit. The learning units
contain some reflection questions that you should answer.
•• Maintain contact with your e-tutor (if you have one) and your fellow students
throughout the semester. Share your questions, concerns and insights with
them. Learning is more effective when it is a social and collaborative activity!
Should there be any questions that your e-tutor cannot answer, you are also
welcome to contact the lecturer.
As you work, build up your own study and examination preparation portfolio.
This portfolio will not be assessed, but it will be an extremely valuable tool that
will help you when you do your assignments and revise for the examination.
What is a portfolio? A portfolio is a folder or file in which you gather and compile
additional and/or summarised information during the year as you work through
the learning material.
Your portfolio should comprise the following:
•• answers to each activity in each learning unit

•• a mind map or summary of each learning unit
•• your marked assignments (or a copy you made prior to submitting your
assignment)
•• your reflections on each learning unit
•• where relevant, any extra reading material taken from the internet, additional
books, medical and/or scientific journals
•• a new vocabulary of words or glossary of new terms with definitions in
your own words
Compile and revise the contents of your portfolio to ensure that you achieve
the learning outcomes of this module.
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0.9 myUNISA
I have already outlined the advantages of online learning in section 0.1 of this
learning unit. The sections that follow explain how you should use myUnisa.
You will learn how the myUnisa menu options work, and we discuss the rules
or etiquette of online communications. Finally, you are given the opportunity
to try your own hand at using one of the most important tools on myUnisa,
namely the Discussion Forum.
0.9.1 myUnisa menu options

You need to be able to use the various menu options on this course site. They
will enable you to participate actively in the learning process.
Click on the following links to see where the various options are located:
•• Learning Units: The learning units are your main learning resource in this
module, and contain the content and learning activities that you need to
work through to achieve the module outcomes.
•• Official Study Material: Tutorial Letter 101 and past examination papers
are stored here.
•• Announcements: From time to time I will use this facility to give you important
information about this module. You should receive e-mail notifications of
new announcements placed on myUnisa.
•• Schedule: This tool gives you access to important dates and details about
events, such as examination dates and deadlines for your assignments. You
need this information to help you manage your time and plan your own
schedule.
•• Course Contact: If you want to send me e-mails in connection with this
module, use this tool.
•• Additional Resources: I may use this folder to provide any additional
learning support material for this module. I will send you an e-mail alert
or announcement to inform you that I have added something to this folder.
•• Discussion Forum: This tool allows us to hold discussions as if we were
in a contact setting. On your e-tutor site (if you have one), there may be a
number of discussion questions that you must answer. You can also post
any specific queries to the e-tutor (on the e-tutor site) or the lecturer (on
the main module site). There is also be a forum where students can discuss
issues among themselves, or just support one another.
•• Assignments: This tool allows you to submit your assignments electronically
and to monitor your results. If you can, please submit your assignments via
myUnisa. If you do not know how to do this, consult Tutorial Letter 101.
0.9.2 myUnisa etiquette

myUnisa is the University’s online platform where lectures and students meet,
interact and participate in an ongoing process of learning and teaching. When
you interact online, always remember to be mindful of and respectful towards
your fellow students and your lecturers. The rules of polite behaviour on the
internet are referred to as netiquette – a term that means “online manners”.
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Go to the following websites to learn more about netiquette:
•• http://networketiquette.net/
•• http://www.studygs.net/netiquette.htm
•• http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/communication/
netiquette.html
Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, everyday

online communications with colleagues, lecturers and friends. In particular,
remember to be courteous to your fellow students when using the Discussion
Forum tool.
0.10 ASSESSMENT
Your work in this module will be assessed by the following:
•• two written assignments, which will be used to calculate a year mark that
counts 30% towards your final mark
•• one written examination of two hours, which counts 70% towards your
final mark
Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about the assessment in this
module. Be sure to read the following information in the tutorial letter:
•• how your assignment and examination marks will be calculated

•• the due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
•• how you should submit your assignments
•• examination periods, admission and marks
Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.
Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also
access an electronic version by using the link on this page.
Best wishes
Dr SL Lebelo
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LEARNING UNIT
1 1
The main functions of the nervous system

1
and the function of its basic unit, the

neuron
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Think about all the things that you do daily, all the physiological processes
that make you an active human being, the coordination of all the activities in
your body, especially movements, and the amount of information you store
in your brain. What controls all these processes?
As you probably realise, the system that is responsible for controlling all these
activities is the nervous system. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous
system controls various activities in the body, such as muscle contractions, the
cardiovascular system, the digestive system (visceral organs), the reproductive
system, the respiratory system and the renal system. The nervous system also
plays a major role in storing information that we gather for future use. When
you prepare for an examination, the information you get from various sources
is stored while you study and then recalled when you get to the examination
room. If you have studied effectively, the information remains stored in your
brain after the examination. Apart from receiving a large amount of information
from the various sensory organs, the nervous system also integrates this
information to elicit certain specific reactions.
You can follow the link below to watch a video that gives an overview of
the fundamental elements of the nervous system: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=IEGphXyKJgI
You probably already know a great deal about the nervous system. How many
of the structures in the illustration below do you know?
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FIGURE 1.1
A diagram of the human nervous system
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:SVG_human_nervous_system)
How did you do? I think you have probably recognised most of the structures
and have a very good idea of their various functions.
This learning unit aims to familiarise you with the organisation of the nervous
system, neurons and the basic functions of synapses to equip you with a good
foundation for the learning units that follow.
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2
LE ARNING UNIT 1: The main func tions of the ner vous system and the func tion of its basic unit, the neuron
Please note: Your lecturer or e-tutor will post some insight questions on the
myUnisa Discussion Forum to stimulate your thinking, and to give you the
opportunity to share interesting ideas with your fellow students and to learn
from one another.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to
•• discuss the organisation of the nervous system and identify its three main
functions
•• explain the structure and functions of the neuron and synapse with regard
to conduction and the actions of the nervous system
1.3 PRESCRIBED READING

Study the following sections in your prescribed textbooks:
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier:577–580.

Higher Education:173–189.
1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

In this learning unit we discuss the three main functions of the nervous system
(NS), namely the sensory, motor and integration functions.
The nervous system is the main system responsible for maintaining body
homeostasis, therefore its chief functions are to monitor, integrate and respond
to information in the environment. Figure 1.2 illustrates the general organisation
of the nervous system.
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FIGURE 1.2
Schematic representation of the organisation of the nervous system
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system#/media/File:NSdiagram.svg)
Anatomically, the nervous system is subdivided into two parts, namely the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves
(see figures 1.1 and 1.2). The PNS, in turn, has a sensory division and a motor
division. The motor division comprises the autonomic nervous system and the
somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions,
namely the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous
system (see figure 1.2).
Please note: The major functional divisions of the PNS, which are the sensory
(afferent) division and the motor (efferent) division, operate as follows:
•• The sensory (afferent) division conveys impulses to the central nervous

system, while the motor (efferent) division conveys impulses from the
central nervous system.
•• The efferent division includes the somatic (voluntary) system, which serves
skeletal muscles, and the autonomic (involuntary) system, which innervates
smooth and cardiac muscles and glands.
1.5 LEVELS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

The nervous system is divided anatomically into the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (mainly cranial and
spinal nerves).
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4
The three main levels of the central nervous system are
•• the spinal cord level, which is especially important with regard to reflex
actions
•• the lower brain level, which controls subconscious functions, for example
arterial pressure, respiration, balance, nutritional reflexes and emotional
behaviour
•• the higher brain or cortical level, which is responsible for memory processes,
the specific determination of incoming information and consciousness
1 1.6 A c tivit y 1.1: Organisation and levels of the

ner vous s ystem
1. Complete the following diagram. Write the names of parts in the
coloured blocks and their functions in the white blocks.
2. Tabulate the three main levels of the CNS with their functions.
1.7 NEURONS
In this section and the next, we discuss the anatomy and basic functions of
neurons and synapses.
The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system. It is a specialised conductor
cell that receives and transmits electrochemical nerve impulses. A typical
neuron has a cell body and long “arms” that conduct impulses from one body
part to another body part (see figure 1.3). The “arms” that transmit impulses
to the cell body are called dendrites, and those that transmit impulses away
from the cell body are called axons.
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FIGURE 1.3
Basic structure of a neuron
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron_typical_structure.jpg)
Neurons in the body can be classified according to structure and function.

According to structure, neurons may be multipolar neurons, bipolar neurons
or unipolar neurons:
•• Multipolar neurons have one axon and several dendrites. These are common
in the brain and spinal cord.
•• Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendrite. These are seen in the
retina of the eye, the inner ear and the olfactory (smell) area.
•• Unipolar neurons have one process (“arm”) that extends from the cell body.
The one process divides, with one part acting as an axon and the other part
functioning as a dendrite. These are seen in the spinal cord.
Figure 1.4 below shows a typical anterior motor neuron in the anterior horn of
the spinal cord in more detail. It is composed of three major parts: soma (the
main body of the neuron); axon (extends from the soma into the peripheral
nerve that leaves the spinal cord); and the dendrites (branching projections of
the soma that extend into the surrounding areas of the cord).
FIGURE 1.4
A diagram showing a typical anterior motor neuron, presynaptic terminals on the
neuronal soma (cell body) and dendrites
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron.svg)
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1.8 SYNAPSES
The synapse is a functional junction between neurons. The information-
transmitting neuron is the presynaptic neuron; the information-receiving neuron
is the postsynaptic neuron.
There are two major types of synapses:
•• Electrical synapses. These synapses allow ions to flow directly from one
neuron to another; and the cells are electrically coupled.
•• Chemical synapses. These are sites of neurotransmitter release and binding.
Figure 1.5 below shows the basic structure of a chemical synapse.
FIGURE 1.5
Structure of a chemical synapse
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_
Magnification_of_a_synapse.jpg)
2 1.9 Ac tivit y 1. 2: Neurons and s ynapses

1. Make your own sketch to illustrate the various parts of a typical neuron.
Label the sketch clearly.
2. Identify the different types of neurons in the sketches below, with
reasons.
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(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neurons_uni_bi_multi_pseudouni.svg)
3. Describe the functional anatomy of synapses.
1.10 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 1. 2
The types of neurons illustrated in question 2 are
1. the unipolar neuron

2. the bipolar neuron
3. the multipolar neuron
These different types of neurons are described in section 1.7. Please reread
their descriptions and compare these descriptions with the illustrations
in question 2.
You should have mentioned the following in your description of the

functional anatomy of synapses:
•• Electrical synapses consist of gap junctions that allow current to flow

between adjacent cells.
•• Chemical synapses and neurotransmitter molecules are stored in
synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic axon terminal, and when released
transmit the signal from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic neuron.
1.11 REVISION QUESTIONS

1. List three main functions of the nervous system.
2. Discuss three main levels of the central nervous system.
3. What is multiple sclerosis?
4. Name the functions of the following:
4.1 node of Ranvier

4.2 myelin sheath
4.3 dendrites
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5. What do you think will be the effects of alcohol on the functioning on the
nervous system?
1.12 REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING

1. Think about what you have learnt in this unit and write down the main
new insights you have gained.
2. Was there anything you found particularly easy to learn in this learning
unit? Why was that easy to learn?
3. Was there anything you found particularly difficult? Why? What can you
do to overcome these difficulties?
Remember that you can learn more about learning strategies by visiting
the website of Unisa’s Directorate Counselling and Career Development
at http://www.unisa.ac.za/default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&Content
ID=96773.
4. As you might have realised while working through this learning unit, your
nervous system is enormously complex. Do you feel satisfied that you
know enough about the workings of the nervous system? What else might
you need to know?
1.13 ADDITIONAL LEARNING

You can watch the following video clips for additional explanations of the
nervous system:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqvJZ1STLos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uaAwIN1gPm4
If you have watched the first video clip, you may want to consider the following
question:
The lecturer suggests that the traditional distinction between the somatic
and the autonomic nervous systems might not be as clear-cut as is generally
believed. What argument does he use to support this view?
1.14 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you learnt about the organisation of the nervous system.
Different sections and components were presented and the main functions
were discussed. In addition, the basic unit of the nervous system (a neuron)
and synapse were also described. In the rest of the learning material we discuss
the different sections of the nervous systems and their physiological functions
in detail.
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LEARNING UNIT
2 2
2 The sensory system: synapse functioning
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 1 you were introduced to the functions of the nervous system,
the organisation of the system and the structure of the neuron. In this learning
unit we take a closer look at the synapse, and why it is significant in the
transmission of information.
To transmit information, there should be a link between the neurons introduced

in learning unit 1. It is important to note that neurons receive information from
sensory organs, and send the information to motor organs. By definition, a
synapse is a small gap between the axon terminals of one neuron and the
dendrite of another neuron. Nerve impulses are transferred from one neuron
to another by means of the synapses.
This learning unit aims to familiarise you with the types of synapse function
of the central nervous system between the neurons to equip you with a good
foundation for the learning units that follow.
Please note: Your e-tutor or the primary lecturer will post some insight questions
on the myUnisa Discussion Forum to stimulate your thinking, and to give you
the opportunity to share interesting ideas with your fellow students and to
learn from one another.

•• distinguish between the different types of synapses and explain the role of
Ca2+ ions during neurotransmitter secretion
•• list common neurotransmitters in the brain
•• explain the effect of neurotransmitters on the postsynaptic membrane
•• describe specific characteristics of synaptic conduction, such as summation
and fatigue
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: T h e s e ns o r y s y s te m: s y n a p s e f u n c t i o ni n g

Study the following sections in your prescribed textbooks:

2.4 THE STRUCTURE AND TYPES OF SYNAPSES

The part of the synapse that belongs to the initiating neuron is called the
presynaptic membrane, and the part that belongs to the receiving neuron is
the postsynaptic membrane. The space between the two membranes is called
the synaptic cleft.
Presynaptic terminals contain numerous synaptic vesicles and these vesicles

contain neurotransmitters. These chemical substances cause postsynaptic
changes in the receiving neuron. There are a number of neurotransmitters
in the brain; the common ones are acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin and
norepinephrine. Your prescribed books contain lists of these important
chemicals. Please go through those lists to obtain an understanding of their
chemical structures.
Figure 2.1 shows a structure of chemical synapse and illustrates the major
elements in chemical synaptic transmission.
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FIGURE 2.1
Structure of chemical synapse and illustration of the major elements in chemical
synaptic transmission
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse#/media/File:Chemical_synapse_
schema_cropped.jpg)
There are two basic types of synapses, namely electrical synapses and chemical
synapses. The central nervous system mainly contains chemical synapses (see
figure 2.1). The neurotransmitter stimulates receptor proteins in the membrane
of the next neuron to excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron or to change
its sensitivity. More than 50 different types of neurotransmitters have been
discovered, and developments in this field are taking place constantly.
Follow the link below to watch a video clip and to learn more about the
function of the synapse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWrnz-CiM7A
Did you enjoy studying this section? You should now understand how all the
information signals are transferred or distributed among the neurons at their
synapses.
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3 2.4.1 Ac tivit y 2.1: Synapses

1. Describe the general structure of synapses.
2. If a synapse involves direct physical contact between cells, it is called
…, but if the synapse involves a neurotransmitter, it is called …
2.4. 2 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 2.1
1. The major structural components of a synapse, the site where a

neuron communicates with another cell, are a presynaptic cell and
a postsynaptic cell, whose plasma membranes are separated by a
narrow synaptic cleft.
2. If a synapse involves direct physical contact between cells it is called
an electrical synapse, but if the synapse involves a neurotransmitter,
it is called a chemical synapse.
2.5 THE ROLE OF CA2+ IONS DURING NEUROTRANSMITTER SECRETION

Almost all the synapses used for signal transmission in the central nervous
system are chemical synapses. When the neurotransmitter reaches the axon
terminals, it causes vesicles to release their contents into the synapse to travel
across the synapse gap to the receptor protein in the membrane of the next
neuron to excite the neuron, inhibit it or modify its sensitivity in some other
way. When the neurotransmitter reaches the receptor sites, it acts as a key to
it and unlocks it for ions on the outside and on the inside on the next neuron.
When an action potential depolarises the presynaptic membrane, the voltage-

gated calcium channels open and allow large numbers of calcium ions to
flow into the terminal. The quantity of released transmitter substance from
the terminal into the synaptic cleft is directly related to the number of calcium
ions that enter (see figure 2.2). The precise mechanism by which calcium ions
cause this release is not known, but it is believed that when the calcium ions
enter the presynaptic terminal, they bind with release sites (these are special
protein molecules on the inside surface of the presynaptic membrane). In turn,
this binding causes the release site to open through the membrane, allowing
a few transmitter vesicles to release their transmitter into their cleft after such
single action potential.
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FIGURE 2.2
Release of neurotransmitters
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Synapses#/media/File:Synapse_
diagram_picture.jpg)
2.6 THE EFFECT OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS ON THE POSTSYNAPTIC

MEMBRANE
The membrane of the postsynaptic neuron contains large numbers of receptor
proteins. These receptors are complex proteins with (1) a binding component
that protrudes outward from the membrane into the synaptic cleft, and (2)
an ionophore component that passes all the way through the postsynaptic
membrane to the interior of the postsynaptic neuron.
4 2.6.1 Ac tivit y 2. 2: Neurotransmit ters

1. What effect would blocking voltage-gated calcium channels at a
cholinergic synapse have on synaptic communication?
2. Characterise a neurotransmitter by mentioning where it is synthesised,
which processes it undergoes and what effects it has.
2.6. 2 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 2. 2
1. If the voltage-gated calcium channels at a cholinergic synapse were

blocked, Ca2+ could not enter the presynaptic terminal and trigger
the release of ACh into the synapse, so no communication would take
place across the synapse.
2. How can you characterise a neurotransmitter?
•• A neurotransmitter is synthesised in the neuron.

•• It can be found in the presynaptic membrane.
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14
•• It is released in the synaptic cleft to cause a change in the

postsynaptic membrane.
•• Its effect on a neuron is the same whether released exogenously
(e.g. as a drug) or endogenously (from the presynaptic terminal).
•• Once released, it is specifically removed from the synaptic cleft
either by reuse or by degradation by an enzyme.
It is important to note that all neurotransmitter undergo the processes of

synthesis, storage, release, binding and inactivation.
2.7 SUMMATION
Depending on the kind of neurotransmitter released, the effect can either
be excitatory or inhibitory. The local excitatory depolarisation can cause
additive changes to the postsynaptic membrane potential. This process is
called summation.
There are two types of summation, namely spatial summation and temporal
summation.
•• Spatial summation occurs when multiple synapses in nearby locations are

stimulated simultaneously.
•• Temporal summation occurs when the same channel is repeatedly opened
(e.g. when the presynaptic cell receives many impulses in a row), thereby
altering the membrane potential further before it has time to return to normal.
5 2.7.1 Ac tivit y 2. 3
(Please note: These are discussion questions that you should answer in
the Discussion Forum on your e-tutor site.)
Study the diagram below carefully and answer the questions that follow:
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Synapses#/media/File:Sinapsi-mut-ca.
svg)
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1. What is the physiological role of the structure labelled 4?

2. Why do we have mitochondria in this diagram?
3. If a patient is given a medication that reduces the secretion of 3, what
will the consequences be?
2.7. 2 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 2. 3
Study pages 161 to 165 of Widmaier et al (2014) to answer the above

questions. Also discuss your answers with other students in the Discussion
Forum.

1. Discuss the physiological anatomy of synapses.
2. Distinguish between the two main types of neurotransmitters with regard

to synthesis, absorption and recirculation.
3. Distinguish between the spatial summation and the temporal summation

of postsynaptic potential.
4. Describe the mechanism of fatigue in synapses.

1. Do you feel satisfied that you know enough about the functioning of the
synapses? If not, what do you still need to clarify?
2. Think about the mood you were in early this morning and how it might
have changed in different ways during the day. What might the relationship
be between your changing mood and the neurotransmitters in your brain?

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions of the
synapse. The first two clips are simpler overviews of what we have studied,
while the last two go into more detail:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5zFgT4aofA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWrnz-CiM7A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ykaUO3x4Vc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TevNJYyATAM
Can you now use the explanation offered in the last video clip to distinguish
between spatial summation and temporal summation in your own words?
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16
2.11 CONCLUSION
You need to understand the work covered in learning unit 2 before you
can proceed with the rest of the learning units. Please make sure that you
understand the concepts and mechanisms discussed here. You should now
have a better understanding of the mechanisms of depression, Alzheimer’s
disease, Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia, which are discussed in later
learning units.
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LEARNING UNIT
3 3
3 The sensory system: receptor functioning

Without looking around, can you describe the positions of your hands and
feet at this moment? Are you breathing easily or is your nose blocked or your
throat sore? Do you feel hungry or full, or neither? What can you smell, hear
and see?
We are seldom consciously aware that information like this is being sent from
our bodies to our brains all the time so that we are aware of the current state
of our bodies and our surroundings, and can respond appropriately. How does
our nervous system achieve this feat?
In this learning unit we discuss the basic mechanisms by which receptors

transform sensory stimuli into nerve impulses, and how this information is
processed in the nervous system. Inputs into the nervous system are supplied
by sensory receptors that detect sensory stimuli such as pressure, sound, light,
pain, cold and heat.
There are five different types of receptors: mechanoreceptors; thermoreceptors;

nociceptors; electromagnetic receptors; and chemoreceptors. You will learn
more about each of these in this learning unit.
Please note: Your e-tutor or the primary lecturer will post some insight
questions on the myUnisa Discussion Forum to stimulate your thinking,
and to give you the opportunity to share interesting ideas with your fellow
students and to learn from one another.

After you have completed this study unit, you should be able to
•• distinguish between the different types of receptors based on their structures

and functions
•• explain the mechanism of a receptor potential and apply this information
to the working mechanism of all receptors
•• explain what “the modality of a sensation” means
•• analyse and explain adaptation as a basic mechanism in a receptor
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: T h e s e ns o r y s y s te m: r e ce p to r f u n c t i o ni n g

Study the following sections in your prescribed books:

3.4 WHAT IS A SENSORY RECEPTOR?

The term “sensory receptor” refers to a structure that is sensitive to various
stimuli from external and internal environments. It transforms the physical
energy of the stimulus, or the presence of a chemical bound to the receptor,
into coded information transmitted to the central nervous system as a series
of nerve impulses.
The mechanism for transformation of physical energy into nerve impulses

is called sensory transduction. Information is sent to the nervous system by
sensory transduction.
Therefore, sensory receptors are responsible for our ability to see, hear,
taste, and smell, and to sense touch, pain, temperature and body position.
They also provide the unconscious ability of the body to detect changes in
blood volume, blood pressure and the levels of salts, gases and nutrients in
the blood.
Receptors have various sensitivity levels. Each receptor is highly sensitive to the
specific stimulus for which it has been designed. In other words, receptors are
non-reactive to normal intensities of other sensory stimuli; the rods and cones
in the eye, for example, are highly reactive to light, but almost completely non-
reactive to heat, cold, pressure on the eyeball or chemical changes in the blood.
The receptors can be clearly classified in various categories. Go to page

596 of Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016) and study table 47.1, which shows the
classification of receptors.
Also go to page 192 of Vander’s human physiology (Widmaier et al 2014) and

study figure 7.1. This figure shows the two types of sensory receptors and how
they are stimulated.
6 3. 5 Ac tivit y 3.1: Typ es and func tions of re ceptors

1. Complete the following table to show the classification of the
sensory receptors:
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19 FIS3701/1

Main sensory Subcategory Receptors in the subcategory

receptor type
Mechanoreceptors Skin tactile sensibilities
Deep tissue sensibilities
Hearing
Equilibrium
Arterial pressure
Thermoreceptors
Nociceptors
Electromagnetic
receptors
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20
Chemoreceptors
2. What would happen to an individual if the information from

proprioceptors in the legs were prevented from reaching the CNS?
(Please note: Question 2 is a discussion question that you should
answer in the Discussion Forum on your e-tutor site.)
3. Label the diagram below and name the function of each structure:
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FIGURE 3.1
Receptor structure
(Source: h ttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sensory_receptors#/media/
File:Blausen_0807_Skin_RuffiniCorpuscle.png)
3.6 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 3.1
The basic information needed to answer question 1 is found on page

596 in Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016). Question 2 had to be discussed in the
Discussion Forum on the e-tutor site, and no further feedback is needed
here.
3.7 RECEPTOR POTENTIAL

For a receptor to be stimulated, a receptor potential has to be elicited. Receptor
potentials have a threshold in stimulus amplitude that must be reached before
a response is generated. See figure 47-2 in Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016). A
receptor potential is a graded response to a stimulus that may be depolarising
or hyperpolarising. (Please consult your prescribed books to refresh your
memory about the meanings of depolarising and hyperpolarising.)
By definition, a receptor potential is a response of a specialised non-neuronal

receptor cell when stimulated. Stimulation of sensory receptors is followed
by a sequence of reactions, collectively called transduction (as previously
mentioned), leading to the initiation of nerve impulses (receptor potentials),
which are transmitted along a nerve tissue towards (or within) the central
nervous system. Please visit the following website for addition information
on signal transduction: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1Signal_
Transduction_Pathways_Model.jpg.
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The critical step in this pathway, which results directly or indirectly from the
activation of the receptor molecules, is the opening or closing ion channels.
This causes a change in the movement of sodium ions, which alter the voltage
inside the receptor cell. The amplitude of this receptor potential varies with the
intensity of the stimulus. This then leads to the firing of nerve impulses, either
in the sensory cell itself or in an adjacent nerve cell. The sensory stimulus
is thus translated into a series of impulses whose frequency varies with the
stimulus strength. See figure 47-3 in Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016).
7 3. 8 Ac tivit y 3. 2: Re ceptor p otential

Describe a receptor potential.
Please discuss this question with your e-tutor on the Discussion Forum.
3.9 ADAPTATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS

Continuous or repetitive stimuli cause the intensity of the subjective sensation
to decrease gradually. Also, the number of action potentials produced after
the beginning of continual stimulation decreases. Eventually, some receptor
types do not respond at all.
The sensitivity of a sensory receptor usually depends on how much it has

recently been stimulated. Hence, if a receptor is exposed to a constant stimulus
(such as pressure on the skin), the rate of nerve impulses quickly falls to a much
lower level, or even ceases altogether. This phenomenon, called adaptation,
causes receptors to be more sensitive to change than to steady stimulation.
Receptors adapt at different rates. We have those that adapt quickly and those
that adapt slowly or not at all. The following examples give an indication of
how various receptors adapt to stimuli:
•• Olfactory receptors adapt in less than a minute.

•• The Pacinian corpuscle adapts in less than 200 milliseconds. Muscle spindles
adapt very slowly.
•• Mechanoreceptors do not adapt.
The stimulus is therefore usually measured as a percentage of its deviation

from the background signal rather than as its absolute intensity.
Think about the following:
•• When you call someone on her cell phone, you sometimes hear noises
in the background. After some time you cease to notice the constant
background noise.
•• You enter a room and smell that someone is wearing perfume. After a
short while, you no longer smell the perfume because you have become
desensitised to its strong fragrance.
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23 FIS3701/1

•• When you enter a darkened room after you have been in bright sunlight,
you cannot see a thing at first. After some time in the dark room, you start
noticing that you can see objects in the room.
As you can see from these examples, our sensory receptors are sensitive to
small changes in signal strength, but tune out constant signals. In this way our
sensory systems “economise” in their use of nerve impulses.
3.10 MODALITY OF SENSATION: THE LABELLED LINE PRINCIPLE

The different kinds of sensations, such as pain, sight and sounds, are called
modalities of sensation. When these sensations are transmitted by the nerve
fibres, there is no essential difference between them: the nerve fibres all
transmit only pure impulses. It is only when these impulses reach the brain
that we experience them as different kinds of sensations. It is important to
note that the region in the brain where the nerve ends, determines the kind
of modality we sense. Sensory information that arrives in the central nervous
system is routed to a specific brain area. For example, the sensations of touch,
pressure and pain are routed to the primary sensory cortex. This means each
nerve fibre is responsible for a specific modality only, and this is called labelled
line principle.
8 3.11 Ac tivit y 3. 3: Adaptation

(This is a discussion question that you should answer in the Discussion
Forum on your e-tutor site.)
What is adaptation? Think of daily experiences (not those mentioned in this

learning unit) and use them to explain adaption as a physiological process.

1. What is meant by the “modality of a sensation”?
2. Discuss the adaptation of receptors using Pacini’s corpuscles as an example.

Apply this knowledge of sensory coding to all receptors.
3. Name three types of mechanoreceptors.
4. Name any three types of sensory receptors and identify the nature of the
stimulus that excites each type.

1. Think about what you learnt in this learning unit. Have you gained any
new insights into the role of the nervous system in your life?
2. What did you learn about the ways you connect to your environment?
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24
3. Do you feel satisfied that you fully understand the information about
receptors in this learning unit? If not, please contact your e-tutor.

Please watch the following video clips for additional discussions on the sensory
receptors:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TAzTFgPSPiU (watch up to about 3:53

minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wl1q0_tI_9I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bS6RU45zFs
3.15 CONCLUSION
You need to understand the concepts and mechanisms discussed in this learning
unit before you continue to the next one. You should also understand the
sensitivity of receptors, the transformation of energy, the adaptation of stimuli
and the modality of sensation.
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LEARNING UNIT
4 4
4 The sensory system: somatic sensations

In this learning unit we discuss the transmission of sensations from the skin,
muscle, bones, tendons and joints. These sensations are initiated owing to the
activation of a number of distinct receptors that respond to changes in heat,
cold, touch, pressure, limb position, limb movement or pain. In addition to the
sensations, we have sensations that originate in the visceral organs.
Information from the somatic receptors enters the CNS and synapses on
neurons that ascend and travel primarily to the somatosensory cortex via the
brain stem and thalamus. To refresh your memory about the organisation of
the nervous system, please study figure 4.1. (This figure will also be included
in the coming learning units.)
FIGURE 4.1
Schematic diagram of the organisation of the nervous system
(Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/NSdiagram.png)
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26
L E AR N I N G U N I T 4: T h e s e ns o r y s y s te m: s o m at i c s e ns at i o ns

•• describe various types of touch-pressure receptors

•• identify the characteristics of the two sensory paths that conduct impulses
to the sensory cortex and relate them to the types of impulse that are
conducted along these paths
•• identify the position of the two areas of the somatosensory cortex and
describe the anatomical position and functions of both
•• explain two-point discrimination and lateral inhibition mechanisms
•• distinguish between two types of pain
•• explain the cortical control of sensory sensitivity
•• explain referred pain and the inputs of the paths involved (using a heart
attack and a headache as examples)
4.3 PRESCRIBED READINGS


4.4 TOUCH-PRESSURE RECEPTOR TYPES

We experience a multitude of different stimuli (e.g. deep pressure, vibration) as
a result of the processing of information from multiple receptor types located
in the skin, such as the following:
•• Meissner’s corpuscles. These receptors are located in the skin and adapt
quite rapidly. They are sensitive to light, fluttering touch, such as tickling
with a feather.
•• Pacinian corpuscles. They are found in the dermal layers of the skin and
have relatively large endings that are widely spaced. These receptors respond
to vibrations and deep pressure, and are rapidly adapting.
•• Merkel’s discs. Merkel’s discs are located in the dermis and each consists
of a nerve terminal and a flattened non-neural epithelial cell. These discs
detect light and sustained touch and texture, such as the sensation a person
experiences when reading Braille. They are slowly adapting.
•• Ruffini endings. These are found in the dermal layers of the skin and have
relatively large endings that are widely spaced. They respond to deep,
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27 FIS3701/1

sustained pressure and stretch of the skin, such as during massage. Ruffini
endings are slowly adapting.
•• Hair follicle receptors. These receptors are only found in hairy skin. They
can be either rapidly adapting or slowly adapting.
4.5 SENSORY PATHWAYS FOR TRANSMITTING SOMATIC SIGNALS INTO

THE CENTRAL SYSTEM
Almost all the sensory information from the somatic segments of the body
enters the spinal cord through the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves. However,
from the entry point into the cord and then to the brain, the sensory signals are
carried through one or two alternate pathways: (1) the dorsal column-medial
lemniscal system or (2) the anterolateral system. Study the functions of these
pathways on page 609 of Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016).
The dorsal column lemniscal system transmits two-point discriminatory

information. Figure 48-10 (Hall 2016) illustrates the two-point discriminatory
mechanism. The capability to distinguish the presence of the two points
of stimulation is strongly influenced by another mechanism called lateral
inhibition. The importance of lateral inhibition is that it blocks lateral spread
of the excitatory signals, and therefore increases the degree of contrast in the
sensory pattern perceived in the cerebral cortex. In the case of dorsal column
system, lateral inhibitory signals occur at each synaptic level, namely (1) the
dorsal column nuclei of the medulla, (2) the ventrobasal nuclei of the thalamus,
and (3) the cortex.
The somatosensory cortex is an important sensory receiving area in the brain

for somatic signals. This is a strip of cortex that lies in the parietal lobe of the
brain just posterior to the central sulcus which separates the parietal and frontal
lobes. The specific ascending pathways from the eyes connect to a different
primary cortical receiving area, the visual cortex, which is in the occipital
lobe. The specific ascending pathways from the ears go to the auditory cortex,
which is in the temporal lobe.
There are two separate sensory areas in the anterior parietal lobe called
somatosensory areas I and II. Somatosensory area I has a high degree of
localisation of the different parts of the body, whereas localisation is poor in
somatosensory area II. Study the functions of the somatosensory areas on page
613 of Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016).
9 4.6 Ac tivit y 4.1: Touch re ceptors

Tabulate information on the touch receptors. Use the following column
headings:
a) Location
b) Adaptation
c) Function
Discuss your table with your e-tutor.
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28
4.7 PAIN
Pain is regarded as a primary protective mechanism meant to bring the individual
to conscious awareness that tissue in the body is damaged. Nociceptors respond
to stimuli that cause tissue damage. Stimuli such as excessive mechanical strain,
excessive heat and chemicals released from nearby cells have the potential to
cause tissue damage.
There are four categories of nociceptors, namely mechanoreceptors, thermal

receptors, chemoreceptors, and polymodal receptors. Nociceptors have either
free endings or encapsulated end organs.
Pain impulses originate at nociceptors and are transmitted to the CNS via afferent
fibres. Some signals are transmitted over small, myelinated A-delta fibres and
are propagated through the fast pain pathway. Others are transmitted through
small unmyelinated C fibres and are propagated through the slow pathway.
•• Pain suppression in the brain and spinal cord

The brain has the capability to suppress the input of pain signals to the nervous
system by activating a pain control system called the analgesia system. The
analgesia system consists of three major components: (1) the periaqueductal
gray and periventricular areas of the mesencephalon and upper pons which
surround the aqueduct of Sylvus and portions of the third and fourth ventricles,
(2) the raphe magnus nucleus, a thin midline nucleus located in the lower pons
and upper medulla and (3) a pain inhibition complex located in the dorsal
horns of the spinal cord.
•• Referred and visceral pain

Referred pain is a phenomenon that is witnessed when a person feels pain
in a part of the body that is fairly remote from the tissue causing pain. For
example, pain in the visceral organs can be referred to an area on the body
surface. Visceral pain refers to pain from the different viscera of the abdomen
and chest. Study the various types of headaches on page 629 of Guyton and
Hall (Hall 2016).
10 4. 8 Ac tivit y 4. 2: Pain
1. Patients with certain nerve disorders are unable to feel pain. Why is
this disadvantageous?
2. Explain what is meant by the term “headache” and distinguish between
the various types of intracranial headaches.
1. Pain is a conscious warning that tissue damage is occurring or is about

to occur. If a patient cannot feel that, he or she could remain unaware
of serious damage to the tissues.
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29 FIS3701/1

2. Study pages 629 to 630 in Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016) to answer the
question.
4.10 POSTURE AND MOVEMENT

Receptors responsible for body position are called the proprioceptors. Generally
information about posture is not sent to the higher centres of the brain, but
is processed in the spinal cord via reflexes. There are three categories of
proprioceptors:
•• Muscle spindles. These monitor length and rate of stretch of muscles.

•• Golgi tendon organs. These adjust force by monitoring muscle tension.
They are located at the junction between a skeletal muscle and its tendon.
In a Golgi tendon organ, the dendrites branch repeatedly and wind around
the densely packed collagen fibres of the tendon.
•• Receptors in joint capsules. Joint capsules are richly innervated by free
nerve endings that detect pressure, tension and movement at the joint.
Proprioceptors do not adapt to constant stimulation. Each receptor continuously

sends information to the CNS.

1. Tissue damage is a cause of pain. Analyse this statement and apply it to
given facts.
2. Explain the mechanisms involved in referred pain and the causes of visceral
pain.
3. Explain how visceral pain is localised (visceral and parietal pathways).
4. Distinguish between the different types of headaches as an example of

referred pain.
5. Migraine is described by some researchers as a form of epilepsy. Do you

agree? Explain your answer.

Now that you have worked through learning unit 4, how do you feel about
the nature of the connections between you and your environment? Explain
your answer.

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions on the
sensory receptors:
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30
ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnzjJNYyqMI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MKd_3UVNVgg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_HbDCaN9ZM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMZdkac4YLk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CM_aM-0uVOM
4.14 CONCLUSION
You need to understand the work covered in learning unit 4 before you
can proceed to learning unit 5. Please make sure that you understand the
concepts and mechanisms discussed here. You should now also have a better
understanding of the sensitivity of receptors, the transformation of energy, the
adaptation of stimuli and modality of sensation.
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LEARNING UNIT
5 5
5 The sensory system: senses

We experience reality through our senses. We see objects, beautiful flowers,
listen to the birds singing in summer, taste delicious foods and smell the
fragrance of flowers. How do we perceive these sensations? How are signals
propagated to the central nervous system? Are our sense organs at times tired
or do they adapt to these sensations?
The answers to all these questions are answered in this learning unit. We study
the functioning of the eye, ear, tongue and nose, which are responsible for
sight, hearing, taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction).
The senses of gustation and olfaction make use of chemoreception. Specialised

cells act as receptors for certain chemical compounds. As these compounds
react with the receptors, an impulse is sent to the brain and is registered as a
certain taste or smell. Gustation and olfaction are chemical senses because
the receptors they contain are sensitive to the molecules in the food we eat
and the air we breathe.

•• describe and explain the refraction of light rays and the function of the eye
•• explain certain mechanisms such as refraction problems and astigmatism
•• discuss the role of the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the
retina in making hyperpolarisation and colour vision possible
•• analyse and explain how sound is received, processed and sent to the
central nervous system for hearing perception
•• distinguish between the primary sensations of taste
•• identify and sketch the structures involved in the perception of smell
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32
L E AR N I N G U N I T 5: T h e s e ns o r y s y s te m: s e ns e s


5.4 THE SENSE OF VISION

In the sections that follow, we discuss the anatomy and physiology of the eye,
the perception of objects, and visual disorders.
5.4.1 The anatomy of the eye

The eye is an elongated ball about 2,5 cm in diameter and is protected by a
bony socket in the skull. The eyeball has an exterior wall that consists of three
layers or coats, namely the sclera, the choroid and the retina. Figure 5.1 is a
schematic diagram of the human eye. Study figure 5.1 and make sure that you
know the meanings of all the labels. Also see figure 7.22 in Widmaier et al
(2014). We concentrate on the innermost layer of the eye, which is the retina.
FIGURE 5.1
Schematic diagram of the human eye
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Human_eye)
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33 FIS3701/1

The retina is the light-sensitive part of the eye. It contains
•• the cones (responsible for colour vision)

•• the rods (responsible for the perception of light and dark)
The rods and cones are called photoreceptors because they absorb light.
There are four different photopigments in the retina. There is one in the rods
(rhodopsin) and three photopsins (also called iodopsins) in each of the three
types of cones (blue, green and red).
Each photopigment contains an opsin (conjugated protein) and a chromophore.

Opsins are conjugated integral membrane proteins that are bound to a
chromophore molecule. Chromophore molecules are actually the light-sensitive
part of the photopigment. They are a retinal (vitamin A) derivative.
As already mentioned, the opsins differ in each of the four photopigments.

Because each type of opsin is bound to the chromophore in a specific way
and filters light differently, each of the four photopigments absorbs light
optimally at different wavelengths in the visual spectrum. So, for example, one
photopigment absorbs wavelengths in the range of red light the best, while
another absorbs green light best.
5.4.2 Ho do we perceive objects?

Light rays enter the cornea through the pupil and then the lens, which is
convex in shape.
Then the light rays fall on the retina. The retina processes and converts the
incident light ray into neuronal signals using photoreceptors. These neuronal
signals are transmitted through the optic nerve. Study the section entitled
“Photochemistry of vision” on pages 649 to 653 in Guyton and Hall (Hall
2016). The section is important for your examinations.
The optic nerve takes the signal to the occipital (visual) cortex. The visual
cortex interprets the signals as images.
5.4.3 Visual disorders

The following are some of the most important visual disorders that may occur:
•• Astigmatism. Astigmatism is the unevenness of the curvature cornea.

•• Glaucoma. This disorder results from an abnormal increase of the intraocular
pressure. (Normal intraocular pressure is 10–20 mm Hg.)
•• Colour blindness. This is the condition that renders a person unable to
perceive differences between some or all colours.
•• Night blindness. This condition makes it extremely difficult for an individual
to see in the dark.
•• Myopia. This refers to nearsightedness.
•• Hyperobia. This refers to farsightedness.
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34
11 5.4.4 Ac tivit y 5.1: V ision

1. Explain what is meant by the refraction of light. Use a sketch to illustrate
your answer.
2. What is the function of the convex lens in the eye?
3. What is the total refractive power of the eye?
4. Distinguish between myopia and hyperopia. What causes these
conditions?
5. Define astigmatism.
6. Complete the table below.
Rods Cones
Structure
Function
7. Describe the process of phototransduction in the retina.

8. Answer the following question in the Discussion Forum on the e-tutor
site:
Discuss the photochemistry of colour vision by the cones.
1. You should have drawn a simple sketch such as sketch (a) in figure 7.23
in Widmaier et al (2014), and explained that refraction is the bending
of light waves. You should have mentioned the mediums that are
involved (e.g. air, water), and the directions and angles of refraction.
2. The convex lens converges light rays so that they fall on the retina.
Then the photoreceptors can be stimulated.
3. 60 diopters.
4. A person with myopia, also called nearsightedness, is unable to see
distant objects clearly, while a person with hyperopia or farsightedness
can see distant objects, but has poor near vision. In myopia, the eyeball
is too long in relation to the focusing power of the lens, so the images
of distant objects focus at a point in front of the retina. In hyperopia,
the eyeball is too short in relation to the lens, and thus images of near
objects are focused behind the retina.
5. Astigmatism is the defect in vision that occurs when the lens or cornea
does not have a smoothly spherical surface.
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35 FIS3701/1

6. The table below shows one possible answer to the question. Your
answer could have looked different, but you should have included
all the main points.
Rods Cones
Structure ± 125 million on the periphery of the ± 6 million, of which most occur
retina in each eye. centrally in the retinas of both eyes.
The highest concentration of cones
occurs in the macula (macula lutea,
meaning “yellow spot”) or fovea
centralis.
Usually thinner and longer than cones. Cone shaped.
Synapse with bipolar neurons. Synapse with bipolar neurons.
Contain rhodopsin as the sensitive Contains one of three photo-

photopigment in the outer segment. pigments – photopsins or iodopsins
(blue, green or red) – in the outer
segment.
Vitamin A is important for the Vitamin A is important for the

formation of rhodopsin. formation of photopsins.
Function Very light sensitive and distinguish Sensitive to colour and function in
between light and dark. bright light.
Responsible for sharp and accurate
vision, especially when focused on
the fovea.
7. See figure 7.28 in Widmaier et al (2014) and figures 51.6 and 51.7 in
Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016). The following is a summary of the process:
•• In the dark, cGMP in the rod or cone cell binds to cation channels
in the surrounding membrane and opens them.
•• When light hits the rod or cone, the retinal photopigment absorbs
the light and is activated. (The photopigment in a rod is rhodopsin,
and in a cone another type of opsin.)
•• This stimulates transducin.
•• Transducin activates cGMP-phosphodiesterase, which is an enzyme.
•• cGMP-phosphodiesterase causes a reduction in cGMP.
•• When cGMP is reduced, the cation channels close.
•• With the cation channels close, the rod cell becomes hyperpolarised,
in other words there is more negativity than is normal inside the
cell.
•• As a result of the hyperpolarisation of the rod or cone, a signal
is transmitted to the nervous system which enables the visual
information to be transmitted to the brain.
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36
You can read more about this process in the prescribed books, for
example on pages 649 to 651 of Guyton and Hall (Hall 2016). Watch the
following video clip for more information: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=CqN-XIPhMpo
8. You should ask your e-tutor for feedback on this question in the
Discussion Forum on the e-tutor site.
5.5 THE SENSE OF HEARING

In the sections that follow we discuss the anatomy of the ear, the perception
of sound and hearing disorders.
5.5.1 Anatomy of the ear
FIGURE 5.2
Anatomy of the Human ear
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_the_Human_Ear_en.svg)
The human ear has three divisions, namely the outer, middle and inner ear.
Study figure 5.2 and make sure that you know what all the labels refer to.
We focus on the inner ear, which contains the organ of hearing and the
vestibular apparatus. The cochlea is responsible for hearing and the vestibular
apparatus is responsible for our balance when we movements. Within the
cochlea are three fluid filled compartments. The organ of Corti, with hair cells,
is also found in the inner ear. The hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated
by particular frequencies of sound, based on their location in the cochlea.
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37 FIS3701/1

5.5.2 How do we perceive sounds?

Sound waves that enter the external auditory canal move the tympanic
membrane, which sets off a sequence of movements in the following structures:
the bones of the middle ear, the membrane in the oval window, the basilar
membrane and the round window membrane. See figure 7.39 in Widmaier
et al (2014). The movement of the oval window creates waves of pressure in
the upper compartment of the cochlea, the scala vestibuli. This pressure is
dissipated in two ways:
•• displacement of the round window

•• deflection of the basilar membrane
The organ of Corti, which rests on top of the basilar membrane, contains hair
cells that are receptors for sound, as has been indicated. See figure 7.40 (c) in
Widmaier et al (2014) and figure 5.3 below.
FIGURE 5.3
Cross-section of the cochlea
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cochlea-crosssection.png)
About 16 000 hair cells are arranged in four parallel rows along the length
of the basilar membrane. There is one row of inner hair cells that serve as
real auditory sensory receptors, and three rows of outer hair cells. On top
of each hair cell, there are about 100 hairs known as stereocilia, which are
actin-stiffened microvilli. The outer hair cells change length in response to
changes in the membrane potential, a process that is called electromotility.
As sound waves vibrate the basilar membrane, the stereocilia are bent back
and forth, the membrane potential of the hair cells changes accordingly and,
as this happens, bursts of neurotransmitter are released into nearby neurons.
In this way the sound signal is transmitted to the brain.
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38
5.5.3 Hearing disorders

There are two forms of hearing loss.
•• Conduction deafness. Conditions in the outer and middle ear block the
vibrations of the tympanic membrane to the oval window. Possible causes
include a wax plug and trapped water. A torn or burst eardrum (tympanum)
or conditions that hamper the movement of the ossicles can also cause more
serious conduction deafness.
•• Nerve deafness. This condition can be caused by conditions in the cochlea
or in the neural pathways. For example, very loud noises can break off the
stereocilia from the hair cells and no further potential changes can take
place, or certain antibiotics (neomycin, gentamycin and chloramphenicol)
can weaken hair cells, and they may die off.
Conduction deafness can be treated in various ways, but nerve deafness cannot
be reversed, and early diagnosis and treatment of infections and the avoidance
of loud noises are important. Cochlear implants can be done if total nerve
deafness is not present.
12 5. 5.4 Ac tivit y 5. 2: Hearing

1. Complete the following table:
Component of the auditory Brief explanation of what it Brief explanation of its

system is and where it is located function
External auditory canal
Tympanic membrane
Malleus, incus and stapes
Oval window
Cochlear duct
Scala vestibuli
Scala tympani
Round window
Organ of Corti
Inner hair cells in the organ of Corti
Outer hair cells in the organ of Corti
Tectorial membrane
Vestibulocochlear nerve
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39 FIS3701/1

2. Based on your answers above, draw a diagram and write a brief

paragraph to explain how sound is transmitted through the ear and
sent to the nervous system.
5.6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TONGUE
FIGURE 5.4
Anatomy of the tongue
(Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/2407_Tongue.jpg)
The receptors on the tongue are called chemoreceptors. There are taste buds
on the tongue. A taste bud consists of about 50 taste receptor cells. These
taste receptors cells are modified epithelial cells with many surface folds, or
microvilli, and have a lifespan of ten days.
Each taste bud has a small opening. This is called a taste pore, and through the
taste pores fluids in the mouth come into contact with the surface of receptor
cells on the taste bud. There are five types of taste sensations: salty; sour; bitter;
sweet; and umami. Taste sensation is sensed as follows:
Binding of a taste-provoking chemical (tastant) and a receptor cell

produces a receptor potential  this creates an action potential in
afferent fibers  this is transmitted to the cortical gustatory area, a region
in the parietal lobe adjacent to the “tongue” area of the somatosensory
cortex. Taste signals are also sent to the hypothalamus and limbic system
(Sherwood 2010).
Epithelial cells surrounding the taste buds differentiate first into supporting
cells and then into receptor cells.
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40
5.7 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NOSE
Human olfactory system
1 Olfactory bulb 2 Mitral cells

3 Bone 4 Nasal epithelium
5 Glomerulus 6 Olfactory receptor cells
FIGURE 5.4
The human olfactory system
(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Olfactory_system.svg)
There are three cell types involved in olfaction: olfactory receptors, supporting
cells and basal cells.
•• Supporting cells are responsible for the secretion of mucus, which coats
the nasal passages.
•• Basal cells are precursors for new olfactory receptor cells, which are replaced
about every two months.
•• The olfactory cells are the cells responsible for smelling.
The olfactory mucosa is located in the ceiling of the nasal cavity. The axons
of the receptor cells collectively form the olfactory nerve. The cells have cilia
which contain the binding sites for attachment of odiferous molecules (odorants).
Odorants can reach receptors via quiet breathing and sniffing.
Each olfactory bulb is lined with small ball-like neural junctions known as
glomeruli. Glomeruli synapse with mitral cells and carry information to the
limbic system and cerebral cortex. Fibres leaving the olfactory bulb travel in
two ways:
•• They follow the subcortical route to the regions of the limbic system,
especially the lower medial sides of the temporal lobes (primary olfactory
cortex).
•• They follow the thalamic-cortical route for conscious perception and the
fine discrimination of smell.
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41 FIS3701/1

An odorant activates multiple receptors and glomeruli in response to its various

odour components. Odour discrimination is based on different patterns of
glomeruli being activated by various scents. The cortex is able to distinguish
about 10 000 different scents.
The olfactory system is adaptive and adaptation occurs in the CNS. The
postulated mechanism of this process is as follows:
•• Centrifugal nerve fibres pass from the olfactory regions of the brain backwards
along the olfactory tract.
•• They terminate on special inhibitory cells in the olfactory bulb.
•• After the onset of olfactory stimulus, CNS develops a strong feedback
inhibition to suppress the relaying of the smell signals through the olfactory
bulb.
•• Odour-clearing enzymes have been reported in the olfactory mucosa.
13 5. 8 Ac tivit y 5. 3: Taste and smell

1. Name four types of papillae found on the tongue.
2. Name the five taste sensations that humans normally experience.
3. Draw a table to show the different structures that are involved in the
perception of smell. Also name the function of each structure.
1. Fungiform papillae, filiform papillae, foliate papillae, and circumvallate

papillae.
2. Salt, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami.
3. Compare your table to figure 5.4 and the information the prescribed
textbooks.

1. Explain colour-blindness. Study the ISHIHARA colour chart and use it to
assess your colour vision.
2. Describe the course of the visual neuron pathways from the retina.
3. What is the relationship of these pathways to the hypophysis (pituitary

gland) and the suprachiasmic nucleus?
4. Define strabismus. Is there a link between this eye condition and

physiological blindness?
5. Explain the role of the tympanic membrane and impedance matching of

the ossicular (bony) system in sound conduction.
6. Explain the important role and function of the organ of Corti.

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42
7. Explain the structure of a taste bud and distinguish between the primary
sensations of taste (sour, sweet, salt, bitter and umami, which is the Japanese
word for “savoury” or “deliciousness”).
8. Briefly describe the anatomy of the olfactory structures.

1. Imagine that students in a room next to yours are playing music and talking
loudly, a noise that initially bothers you very much as you try to study.
After some time, it is as though the noise has faded – you don’t hear it
so clearly anymore and you can concentrate on your studies. What has
happened here? Use the concept “sensory adaptation” in your explanation.
2. What do you think happens in your sensory systems when you taste
different wines during a wine-tasting event? From what you have studied,
can you explain some physiological concepts related to the event?
3. Was there anything you found particularly difficult in this learning unit?
Why was it difficult? What can you do to overcome these difficulties?
Remember that you can contact your e-tutor for assistance if necessary.
special senses? If not, what more would you like to learn or revise, and
how will you go about doing this?

Watch the following video clips as revision of the concepts in this learning unit:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RE1MvRmWg7I (Eye anatomy and function)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIPE3in2EcQ (Phototransduction)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46aNGGNPm7s (Hearing)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J96ZAZDgiLQ (Hearing)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dfC1nkZpouw (Smell)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d2NZo6xXWo0 (Smell)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avaK_h_xOTY (Taste)
5.13 CONCLUSION
This learning unit dealt with specialised sensory systems. We explored the role
of the special sense organs and how they transmit signals to the brain. The
sensory processes that are activated by these systems are probably the most
important means by which humans receive information from the environment
and make sense of the world in which they live. It is therefore crucial to
understand their basic functioning.
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43 FIS3701/1

LEARNING UNIT
6 6
6 The motor system: the spinal cord

In this learning unit you will learn about the spinal cord and its functions in the
nervous system. The spinal cord is a long, fragile tube-like structure that begins
at the end of the brainstem and continues down almost to the bottom of the
spine (spinal column). The spinal cord consists of nerves that carry incoming
and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It is also
the centre for reflexes, such as the knee-jerk reflex.
Figure 6.1 below shows the tracts of the spinal cord. Note that this figure is
only meant to give you an idea of where the various main tracts are located;
you do not need to know the names of the various tracts in each category.
FIGURE 6.1
Diagram of the showing tracts of the spinal cord
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spinal_cord_tracts_-_English_it.svg
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44
L E AR N I N G U N I T 6: T h e m o to r s y s te m: t h e sp i n a l co r d

•• describe the basic structural and functional organisation of the spinal cord
and discuss simple motor activities
•• explain the crossed extensor reflex and relate this information to what you
already know about the nervous system
•• describe the muscle stretch reflex, Golgi-tendon reflex, flexor reflex and
withdrawal reflex

•• Hall, JE. 2016. Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology. 13th edition.
•• Widmaier, E, Raff, H & Strang, K. 2014. Vander’s human physiology: the
6.4 STRUCTURE OF THE SPINAL CORD

Like the brain, the spinal cord is covered by three layers of tissue (meninges).
The spinal cord and meninges are contained in the spinal canal, which runs
through the centre of the spine.
In most adults, the spine is composed of 26 individual back bones (vertebrae).

Just as the skull protects the brain, the vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The
vertebrae are separated by disks made of cartilage, which act as cushions,
reducing the forces generated by movements such as walking and jumping.
The spinal cord consists of grey and white matter. The butterfly-shaped centre
of the cord consists of grey matter. The front “wings” (called horns) contain
motor nerve cells, which transmit information from the brain or spinal cord to
muscles, stimulating movement. The back horns contain sensory nerve cells,
which transmit sensory information from other parts of the body through the
spinal cord to the brain. The surrounding white matter contains columns of
nerve fibres that carry sensory information to the brain from the rest of the
body (ascending tracts) and columns that carry impulses from the brain to the
muscles (descending tracts). See figure 6.1.
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FIGURE 6.2
Cross section of the spinal cord
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1313_Spinal_Cord_Cross_Section.jpg
6.5 ORGANISATION OF THE SPINAL CORD MOTOR FUNCTIONS

Reading: To complete this section, study pages in 695 and 696 of Hall (2016).
Figure 55-1 on page 695 of Hall (2016) shows the typical organisation of the
cord grey matter in a single cord segment. Sensory signals enter the cord almost
entirely through the sensory roots, also known as posterior or dorsal roots.
Signals travel to two different destinations. One branch terminates in the grey
matter and another branch transmits signals to higher levels of the nervous
system, to the brainstem or cerebral cortex (see figure 6.2).
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46
FIGURE 6.3
Schematic diagram representing the spinal cord
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Spinal_cord#/media/File
Note: Each segment of the spinal cord has millions of neurons in its grey matter.
Besides the sensory relay neurons, we have two other types of neurons, namely
anterior motor neurons and interneurons.
•• Anterior motor neurons are located in each segment of the anterior horns
of the cord grey matter. They give rise to the nerve fibres that leave the
cord and directly innervate the skeletal muscle fibres.
There are two types of anterior motor neurons, namely alpha motor neurons
and gamma motor neurons. Study these neurons in your textbook (Hall
2016).
•• Interneurons are small, highly excitable neurons found in the dorsal horns,
the anterior horns and the intermediate areas between them.
14 6.6 A
c tivit y 6.1: Struc ture and organisation of the
spinal cord
1. Draw your own labelled sketch to show the structure of the spinal
cord.
2. Explain the organisation of the spinal cord for motor functions.
3. Identify three spinal meninges.
4. Which root of the spinal nerve interferes with motor function?
5. Where is the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the spinal cord located?
6. A person suffering from polio has lost the use of his leg muscles. In
which area of his spinal cord would you expect the virus-infected
motor neurons to be?
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7. Which portion of the spinal cord would a disease of myelin sheaths

affect?
6.7 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 6.1
1. Compare your sketch to figure 6.2 in section 6.4. You should have
included all seven labels in that sketch.
2. You should have mentioned where sensory signals enter the cord,
and the two places they travel to. You should also have distinguished
between the different types of neurons present (anterior motor
neurons and interneurons, with the former subdivided into alpha
motor neurons and gamma motor neurons), and given the location
and functions of each.
3. Dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.
4. The ventral root of a spinal nerve, which contains both visceral and
somatic motor fibres, interfere with motor function.
You can find the answers to questions 5 to 7 in both your prescribed books.
6.8 MUSCLE SENSORY RECEPTORS

Muscle function is controlled by the spinal cord. There is also feedback of
sensory information from muscles to the spinal cord. Muscles and tendons
have special types of sensory receptions, namely muscle spindles and Golgi
tendon organs.
•• Muscle spindles send information about the muscle length or rate of change
of length to the nervous system.
•• Golgi tendon organs are located in the tendons and transmit information
about tendon tension or the rate of change of tension.
The basic function of the muscle spindles is the muscle stretch reflex. When
a muscle is stretched, the motor nerve originating in a muscle spindle sends
signals to the dorsal root of the spinal cord. A branch of this fibre goes to the
anterior horn of the cord grey matter and synapses. Anterior motor neurons
then send signals back to the same muscle from which the sensory muscle
spindle originates.
Stretch reflexes can be divided into two categories, namely the dynamic stretch
reflex and the static stretch reflex. Consult your textbook for more details on
the difference between these two aspects.
The Golgi tendon organ is responsible for the Golgi tendon reflex. The
organ detects muscle tensions. It has both a dynamic response and a static
response. It reacts intensely when the muscle tension suddenly increases (the
dynamic response), but settles down within a fraction of a second to a lower
level of steady firing that is almost directly proportional to the muscle tension
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48
(the static response). Signals from the tendon organ are transmitted through
large, rapidly conducting type Ib nerve fibres. These fibres, like those from
the primary spindle ending, transmit signals both into local areas of the cord
and, after synapsing in a dorsal horn of the cord, through long fibre pathways
such as spinocerebellar tracts into the cerebellum and through other tracts to
the cerebral cortex.
6.9 FLEXOR REFLEX AND THE WITHDRAWAL REFLEXES

Any type of cutaneous sensory stimulus (i.e. stimulus of the skin) of a limb is
likely to cause the flexor muscles of the limb to contract, and so withdraw
the limb from the stimulus. This is called the flexor reflex. The flexor reflex is
most powerfully elicited by the stimulation of pain endings.
If some part of the body other than the limbs is similarly stimulated, it also
withdraws from the stimulus. That phenomenon is called the withdrawal reflex.
In less than approximately 0,5 seconds after a stimulus elicits a flexor reflex
in one limb, the opposite limb begins to extend. This is called the crossed
extensor reflex. (Study figure 559 in Hall [2016].) Extension of the opposite
limb can push the entire body away from the object that is causing the painful
stimulus in the withdrawn limb.
15 6.10 Ac tivit y 6. 2: Ref le xes

1. Explain how the muscle stretch reflex takes place. What is its function?
2. What is the function of the Golgi tendon reflex? In simple terms,
explain what happens when this reflex takes place.
3. Discuss the following question in the Discussion Forum on your
e-tutor site:
What is the difference between the muscle stretch reflex and the Golgi
tendon reflex?
4. Distinguish between the flexor reflex, crossed extensor reflex and
withdrawal reflex.
1. Use your prescribed books to answer this question in a fair amount

of detail. In summary, you should have mentioned the following:
When a muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is stretched and its
nerve activity increases. This increases alpha motor neuron activity,
causing the muscle fibres to contract and thus to resist the stretching.
A secondary set of neurons also causes the opposing muscle to relax.
The reflex functions to maintain the muscle at a constant length.
2. The Golgi tendon reflex protects our muscles from damage when,
for example, we try to lift a load that is too heavy. For example, if a
weightlifter tries to lift a weight that is too heavy for him or her, the
reflex causes the person to drop the weight.
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3. If a force becomes too heavy for a tendon, the Golgi tendon organ
sends a signal to the central nervous system via an afferent neuron.
When the CNS receives the signal, efferent neurons are activated and
the Golgi tendon organ inhibits further contraction by causing muscle
relaxation, so that the dangerous action is stopped.
4. The flexor reflex takes place in a limb to which a stimulus is applied.
The crossed extensor reflex takes place in the other limb, shortly after
the first limb has received the stimulus. The withdrawal reflex takes
place in parts of the body other than the limbs.

1. Explain the basic organisation of the spinal cord with regard to motor
functions. Focus in particular on the two basic types of neuron, namely
•• anterior motor neurons

•• interneurons
2. How can spinal cord reflexes cause muscle cramps?
3. Explain the effects or results of a weak muscle extensor reflex.
6.13 Reflecting on your learning

1. Give at least two examples from your own life of times when your reflexes
saved you from danger or difficulty. What would you say is the value of
your reflexes? And why do you think reflexes generally are processed by
the spinal cord only, and do not involve the brain?
2. Do you feel satisfied that you know enough about the role of the spinal
cord in the motor system? If not, what more should you learn or revise,
and how would you go about doing this?

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions on the
organisation of the spinal cord for motor functions and reflex actions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXWsQrl1N7s (external anatomy of the

spinal cord)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4H_2JRRzha4 (internal anatomy of the
spinal cord)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qUtUNc_0pLI (spinal pathways)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7T4NI_2qDEM (muscle stretch reflex and
Golgi tendon reflex)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RLe9koPfVoo (flexor reflex)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaXVUtS8Y4I (crossed extensor reflex)
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50
6.15 CONCLUSION
The work covered here lays the basis of the chapters that follow, so please
make sure that you understand the functions of the spinal cord. Now that you
have completed this learning unit, you should understand reflexes in the body.
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LEARNING UNIT
7 7
The motor system: cortical and brainstem

7
functioning

Have you ever wondered which structure or structures in the brain are
responsible for voluntary movements? Yes, there are many structures that
are involved in movement. Some of these structures are directly or indirectly
involved in the coordination of the movements:
•• The spinal cord, brainstem, basal ganglia, and cerebellum are all involved
in sending specific signals to the muscle.
•• The cerebral cortex plays a critical physiological role in planning and
controlling voluntary movements, functioning in both the highest and
middle levels of the motor control hierarchy. Many neutrons responsible
for descending pathways for motor control come from the motor cortex
situated in the frontal lobes.
The motor cortex is divided into three subareas which all play a role in motor
functions. These subareas are the primary motor cortex, the premotor area
and the supplementary motor area.
To get a beter understanding of the contents of this learning unit, study figure
56-1 in the textbook by Hall (2016). This figure deals with the motor and
somatosensory functional areas of the cerebral cortex. Also study figure 7.1
below, which shows the physiologic anatomy of the brainstem. Go through
the labels and make sure that you understand their specific functions.
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52
L E AR N I N G U N I T 7: T h e m o to r s y s te m: co r t i c a l a n d b r a i ns te m f u n c t i o ni n g
FIGURE 7.1
The physiologic anatomy of the brainstem
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0114_BrainstemAnatomy.png

•• discuss the structural and functional composition of the cerebral cortex

with regard to motor movement
•• distinguish the cerebral cortex from other structures involved in motor
movement
•• distinguish between the pyramidal (corticospinal) and extrapyramidal
(indirect corticospinal) pathways for motor movement
•• discuss the contribution of the vestibular apparatus to motor movement, and
relate this information to your existing knowledge of the control exercised
by the brainstem and the cerebellum over balance
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7.4 THE MOTOR CORTEX

The motor cortex is subdivided into three areas, namely the primary motor
cortex, the premotor area and the supplementary motor area.
•• The primary motor cortex is located in the first convolution of the frontal
lobes anterior to the central sulcus (see figure 56.1 in Hall [2016]).
•• The premotor area lies a few centimetres anterior to the primary cortex. It
extends inferiorly into the Sylvian fissure and superiorly into the longitudinal
fissure.
•• The final subarea, the supplementary motor area, is located in the longitudinal
fissure, but extends a few centimetres onto the superior frontal cortex.
Collectively, these three areas are involved in the planning, control and
execution of voluntary movements. The primary motor cortex in particular
contains different areas that control different muscle areas of the body. The way
in which these areas in the primary motor cortex are distributed or arranged
is called the topographical representation of the muscle areas in the motor
cortex. See your prescribed textbooks for more details on this.
7.5 SOME SPECIALISED AREAS OF MOTOR CONTROL IN THE HUMAN

MOTOR CORTEX
There are a number of specialised areas in the cerebral cortex that are involved
in controlling specific motor functions. The following four areas are very
important for that purpose:
•• Broca’s area (motor speech area)

This area lies anterior to the primary motor cortex and immediately above the
Sylvian fissure. This area makes it possible for an individual to speak whole
words, which is why it is called the speech area.
•• Voluntary eye-movement field

This area is primarily involved in the control of eye and eyelid movements. It
controls physiological activities such as blinking.
•• Head rotation area

This area is involved in the rotation of the head. Again it is responsible for
eye movement.
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54
•• Area for hand skills

This area is located in the premotor area immediately anterior to the primary
cortex. It is involved in the coordination of hand movements.
7.6 TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS FROM THE MOTOR CORTEX TO THE

MUSCLES
Motor signals are transmitted directly from the cortex to the spinal cord through
the corticospinal (pyramidal) tract, and indirectly through multiple accessory
pathways that involve the basal ganglia, cerebellum and various nuclei of the
brainstem.
The corticospinal tract is the most important pathway from the motor cortex.
For the structure of this tract, see figure 56-4 in Hall (2016). The tract originates
from the primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, supplementary cortex and
somatosensory areas posterior to the central sulcus. It ends in the brain stem,
forming the pyramids of the medulla.
In this tract we find a population of large myelinated fibres originating from

giant pyramidal cells called the Betz cells. The fibres of the Betz cells transmit
nerve impulses to the spinal cord at a very rapid rate.
The term extrapyramidal motor system is used to refer to those parts of the
brain and brain stem that contribute to motor control but are not part of the
direct pyramidal system. These include pathways through the basal ganglia,
brain stem and vestibular nuclei. However, the pyramidal and extrapyramidal
systems are extensively interconnected and interact to control movement.
16 7.7 Ac tivit y 7.1

1. List the various structures of the nervous system that are involved in
voluntary movements.
2. Describe the structure of the motor cortex.
3. Explain what the following image shows.
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FIGURE 7.2
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1421_Sensory_Homunculus.jpg
4. A patient suffers a head injury that damages the primary motor cortex.
Where is this area located?
5. After suffering a stroke, a patient is unable to speak. He can understand
what is said to him and he can understand written messages, but he
cannot express himself verbally. Which part of the brain has been
affected by the stroke?
7. 8 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 7.1
1. The spinal cord, brainstem, basal ganglia, cerebellum and cerebral

cortex.
2. To answer this question, you should have mentioned the three areas
of the motor cortex and indicated more or less where in the brain
they are located.
3. The image shows a map (or topographical representation) of the
different muscle areas of the body within the primary motor cortex.
The area of the motor cortex labelled with a particular body area is
involved in controlling the muscles in that area. For example, in the
image, the area of the primary cortex marked “arm” is involved in
controlling the muscles of the arm.
4. Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum.
5. Broca’s area, anterior to the primary motor cortex.
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56
7.9 THE ROLE OF THE BRAINSTEM IN CONTROLLING MOTOR FUNCTION

The brainstem consists of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon (midbrain).
Return to figure 7.1 to have another look at these structures. The brainstem
is considered to be an extension of the spinal cord into the cranial cavity,
because it contains motor and sensory nuclei that perform motor and sensory
functions for the face and head regions. In the same manner the spinal cord
performs these functions from the neck down. The brainstem performs the
following functions:
•• control of respiration and cardiovascular system

•• partial control of gastrointestinal function
•• control of equilibrium
•• control of eye movements
•• control of many stereotyped movements of the body
The brainstem’s reticular nuclei and vestibular nuclei play an important

role in controlling the whole body’s movement and equilibrium, and thus in
supporting the body against gravity.
The reticular nuclei are divided into two major groups (see figure 56-7 in Hall
[2016]):
•• pontine reticular nuclei, located slightly posteriorly and laterally in the pons,
and extending into the mesencephalon.
•• medullary reticular nuclei, which extend through the entire medulla, lying
ventrally and medially near the midline
These two sets of nuclei function mainly antagonistically to each other, with
the pontine reticular nuclei exciting the axial muscles of the body which
support the body against gravity, and the medullary reticular nuclei relaxing
these same muscles. The axial muscles include the muscles of the vertebral
column and the extensor muscles of the limbs.
The vestibular nuclei are located in both the pons and the medulla. They work
together with the pontine reticular nuclei to control the antigravity muscles.
They selectively control the excitatory signals to the antigravity muscles to
maintain equilibrium in response to signals they receive from the vestibular
apparatus. The role of the vestibular apparatus is discussed in the next section.
7.10 VESTIBULAR SENSATION AND MAINTENANCE OF EQUILIBRIUM

In learning unit 5 you have learnt that the inner ear contains both the cochlea
and the vestibular apparatus. The cochlea is responsible for hearing and the
vestibular apparatus is responsible for balancing during our movements. (Return
to learning unit 5 to refresh your memory of the structure of the inner ear.)
The vestibular apparatus detects sensations of equilibrium. It is encased in a

system of bony tubes in the temporal bone and is called the bony labyrinth.
This in turn contains membranous tubes and chambers called the membranous
labyrinth. Apart from the cochlea, the membranous labyrinth consists of three
semicircular canals and two large chambers, the utricle and the saccule, which
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57 FIS3701/1

all play a role in maintaining equilibrium. Please study figures 56-9 and 56-10
in Hall (2016).
The semicircular canals detect rotational movements. When the head is

rotated, fluid in the semicircular canals moves. The movement of fluid pushes
on a structure called the cupula, which contains hair cells that convert the
mechanical movement into electrical signals. These signals are sent to the
central nervous system by way of the vestibular nerve.
The utricle and the saccule each contain a sensory area called the macula.
These detect the orientation of the head during linear (straight) movements. Each
macula contains many hair cells with cilia that extend into a gelatinous layer,
in which calcium carbonate crystals are embedded. When the head is upright,
hair cells in the utricle are vertical, and those in the saccule are horizontal.
When the head is moved, the crystals in the gelatinous sheet move as well,
and the weight of the gelatinous sheet on the cilia causes them to bend. This
movement is converted into electrical signals which are sent to the vestibular
nerve and the central nervous system, and which provide information about
the position of the head. The central nervous system can then in turn transmit
signals to the muscles that make it possible to maintain the stability of the head
and body during linear movements.
Read the relevant sections in your textbooks for a more detailed explanation
of how the vestibular system works.
17 7.11 Ac tivit y 7. 2
1. This is a discussion question that you should answer in the Discussion
Forum on your e-tutor site.
Which area of the midbrain controls reflexive movements of the eyes,
head, and neck in response to visual stimuli?
2. Name the main components of the diencephalon.
3. Which component of the diencephalon is stimulated by changes in
body temperature?
4. This is a discussion question that you should answer in the Discussion
Forum on your e-tutor site.
Explain the role of the brainstem in supporting the body against
gravity.
5. Discuss the contribution of the vestibular apparatus to motor
movement.
You will receive feedback on this question in the Discussion Forum on

your e-tutor site.
1. You should have mentioned the semicircular canals, the utricle and the
saccule, and briefly described how each is structured, and the types of
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58
movements they detect. You should then also have briefly indicated
how movements stimulate the hair cells, and how this process leads
to the transmission of signals to the central nervous system.
2. Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
3. Hypothalamus
4. You will receive feedback on this question in the Discussion Forum.
5. You will receive feedback on this question in the Discussion Forum.

1. Discuss the most important motor pathway from the motor cortex, namely
the corticospinal or pyramidal pathway. What other pathways run from
the motor cortex?
2. What is a Betz cell?
3. Define the extrapyramidal or indirect corticospinal system.
4. Explain the role of the reticular and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem in
supporting the body against gravity.

As a child, you may have played a game where you and your friends spun
each other round and round. Do you remember how you felt immediately
after that? And how you felt five minutes later? Try to explain these sensations
in the light of your new knowledge of the way in which the nervous system
controls movement and equilibrium.

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=polbpqVP6W0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEgaaJWRf7g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MxDP1B5mKWA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lztjklqjw08
7.16 CONCLUSION
This learning unit has dealt with the way motor functions (movement and
balance) are controlled by the nervous system. As you have seen, the cerebral
cortex, brainstem and various other parts of the nervous system all collectively
play a role in this, and enable your body to move, stay stable and protect itself
against the forces of gravity.
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LEARNING UNIT
8 8
The motor system: the cerebellum and

8
basal ganglia

In learning unit 7 you have learnt about the roles of some areas of the cerebral
cortex that are involved in the stimulation of muscle contraction. In this learning
unit we discuss two other structures that play a significant role in motor function.
These structures are the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
The cerebellum provides timing signals to the cerebral cortex and spinal
cord for precise execution of the different phases of a motor programme, in
particular the timing of the agonist/antagonist components of a movement. It
also coordinates movements that involve several joints and stores the memories
of these movements so that they can be retrieved later.
The basal ganglia help to plan and control complex patterns of muscle
movement. The basal ganglia control relative intensities of separate movements,
directions of movements, and sequencing of multiple successive and parallel
movements for achieving specific complicated motor goals.
Figure 8.1 shows the brain structures. Please pay special attention to the
cerebellum.
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60
L E AR N I N G U N I T 8 : T h e m o to r s y s te m: t h e ce r e b e llu m a n d b as a l g a n g lia
FIGURE 8.1
Different brain structures
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0115_BrainStructures.png?fastcci_
from=366669&c1=366669&d1=15&s=200&a=list
FIGURE 8.2
Basal ganglia and related structures of the brain
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Basal_ganglia#/media/File:Basal_
Ganglia_and_Related_Structures.svg
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61 FIS3701/1


•• explain the role of the cerebellum and the basal ganglia in the control of
motor movement, and to integrate this information with your knowledge
of other motor control structures
•• explain the effect of the neurotransmitters secreted in the basal ganglia and
integrate this information with your existing theoretical knowledge
•• explain the role of all components of the motor control system in the basic
execution of motor patterns


8.4 THE CEREBELLUM AND ITS MOTOR FUNCTIONS

The cerebellum is vital during rapid muscular activities such as running, typing,
playing piano and even talking. The cerebellum continuously receives updated
information about the desired sequence of muscle contractions from the brain
motor control areas. It also receives continuous sensory information from the
peripheral parts of the body, relating to sequential changes in the status of the
body, its position, rate of movements and forces acting on it.
Overall, the main function of the cerebellum is to compare the actual movements
of the body with the intended movements. If there is a mismatch between
these two, the cerebellum transmits corrective signals to the motor system
to adjust the activation of the muscles involved. The cerebellum also helps
to plan the next sequential movement while a first movement is still being
carried out, which makes it possible for a person to move smoothly from one
movement to the next.
The cerebellum’s motor control functions are coordinated at three levels:
•• vestibulocerebellum, which provides neural circuits for most of the body

equilibrium movements.
•• spinocerebellum, which provides neural circuits that control the movements
of the distal portions of the limbs, especially the hands and fingers.
•• cerebrocerebellum, which receives virtually all its input from the cerebral
motor area and adjacent premotor and somatosensory cortices of the
cerebrum. It transmits its output information in an upward direction back
to the brain, functioning in a feedback manner with the cerebral cortical
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62
sensorimotor system. (Please consult your prescribed book, Hall [2016] for
details on these levels.)
18 8 . 5 Ac tivit y 8 .1
1. Explain the functions of the cerebellum.
2. Name the three levels at which the cerebellum coordinates motor
control functions and briefly explain the function of each.
8 .6 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 8 .1
1. Maintenance of balance, enhancement of muscle tone, and

coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity.
2. The answer to this question appears in the previous sections of this
learning unit and in the prescribed textbooks.
8.7 BASAL GANGLIA AND THEIR MOTOR FUNCTIONS

The basal ganglia (also called “basal nuclei”) are another accessory motor
system that functions in association with the cerebral cortex and corticospinal
motor control system.
The basal ganglia are formed by the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus,
substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus (see figure 8.2 in section 8.1).
The basal ganglia receive most of their input signals from the cerebral cortex
itself and return almost all their out signals to the cortex. They form a link in
some of the looping circuits through which activity in the motor system is
transmitted, from the sensorimotor cortex to the basal ganglia, from there to
the thalamus and then back to the cortex where the circuit started. Some of
these circuits facilitate movement and others suppress movement. This explains
why damage to the basal ganglia after a stroke or trauma can lead to either
contracted muscles or flaccid (drooping) paralysis, depending on which of the
circuits are damaged.
Two of the most important circuits that pass through the basal ganglia are the
putamen circuit and the caudate circuit. The putamen circuit is involved in
the control of complex patterns of motor activity, for example writing letters
of the alphabet and cutting paper with scissors. (Can you give other examples
of such patterns of motor activities?) The caudate circuit, on the other hand, is
involved in the cognitive control of motor activity, using sensory input to the
brain as well as information stored in memory. Consult Hall (2016) for more
information about these circuits.
Specific neurotransmitters are involved in the basal ganglia and aid the
functioning of the basal ganglia. They include the following:
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63 FIS3701/1

•• dopamine
•• gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
•• acetylcholine
•• norepinephrine
•• serotonin
•• enkephalin
19 8 . 8 Ac tivit y 8 . 2
1. Name the components of the basal ganglia.
2. Name three neurotransmitters that are important for the functioning
of the basal ganglia.
Answer questions 3 and 4 in the Discussion Forum on your e-tutor
site on myUnisa (or the module site, if you do not have an e-tutor).
3. We have discussed aspects of motor system control in learning units
6, 7 and 8. In the light of you have learnt, compile a table in which
you give the main components of the overall motor control system
and the main function(s) of each.
4. A drunk driver is stopped by traffic officers and requested to walk in a
straight line to their car. He has to cover a distance of five metres. He
fails dismally and is arrested. As a third-year neurophysiology student,
explain to your classmates what really happened in this test. Refer to
the various components of the motor control system that you have
mentioned in your answer to question 3 above.
8 .9 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 8 . 2
1. Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra and

subthalamic nucleus
2. Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine
Feedback on questions 3 and 4 will be given in the Discussion Forum on
your e-tutor site or the module site.

1. How do the basal ganglia change the timing and intensity of the execution
of movements? Take the caudate and putamen pathways into account.
2. Briefly discuss the effect of the neurotransmitters that are secreted in the
basal ganglia system.
3. What do you understand by the functional unit of the cerebellar cortex?
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64

1. Think about the movements you carry out daily, for example getting up,
brushing your teeth, running to get a taxi and driving a car. How are the
cerebellum and the basal ganglia involved in these movements?
2. What do you think will happen to someone after he or she has drank a
few bottles of beer? Do you think his or her movement will be affected?
cerebellum and basal ganglia? What should you do are not satisfied?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xf1okjCwdOg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8NShK3miHI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82oIHBGDoiI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=noBTt1tsAMs
8.13 CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this learning unit you should understand the
physiological roles of the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Aspects of the motor
system have been discussed in learning units 6, 7 and 8. You should revise
all three these units together to form an integrated understanding of how the
nervous system controls motor function overall.
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65 FIS3701/1

LEARNING UNIT
9 9
The motor system: the autonomic nervous

9
system

You have already seen figure 9.1 below in the first learning unit. This figure
contains detailed information about the organisation of the nervous system. Do
you see where the autonomic nervous system fits in? Please take five minutes
to refresh your memory.
FIGURE 9.1
Schematic representation of the organisation of the nervous system
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system#/media/File:NSdiagram.svg
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 9 : T h e m o to r s y s te m: t h e au to n o m i c n e r vo us s y s te m
The autonomic nervous system is part of the nervous system that controls the
visceral functions of the body, such as blood pressure, digestion, urination and
the rate of breathing. (The term “viscera” refers to the organs of the body.) This
system works automatically (autonomously), without a person’s conscious effort.
The autonomic nervous system innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
most exocrine glands and some endocrine glands. Some of these activities are
fully controlled while others are only partially controlled. The figures below
show the layout of the autonomic nervous system and its components:
FIGURE 9.2
The autonomic nervous system and all its components
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system#/media/File:Gray839.
png
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FIGURE 9.3
Sections and functions of the autonomic nervous system.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/The_Autonomic_Nervous_
System.jpg

•• distinguish anatomically and functionally between the two main subsections

of the autonomic nervous system, namely the sympathetic nervous system
and the parasympathetic nervous system
•• explain the role of the receptors that are involved in these systems, and
discuss the association between these receptors and expected reactions
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•• discuss the supportive role of the adrenal medulla, and explain how it is
associated with the functioning of the autonomic nervous system
•• analyse the stress reaction, and discuss the association between this reaction
and physical reactions


9.4 ANATOMY OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system is activated mainly by centres located in the
spinal cord, brainstem and hypothalamus. The autonomic nervous system
innervates the internal organs, including the blood vessels, stomach, intestine,
liver, kidneys, bladder, genitals, lungs, pupils, heart, and sweat, salivary and
digestive glands. The system operates visceral reflexes.
The autonomic nervous system has two main divisions:
•• sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

•• parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
After the autonomic nervous system has received information about the body
and the external environment, it responds by stimulating body processes,
usually through the sympathetic division, or inhibiting them, usually through
the parasympathetic division.
An autonomic nerve pathway involves two nerve cells. One cell is located in
the brainstem or spinal cord. It is connected by nerve fibres to the other cell,
which is located in a cluster of nerve cells (called an autonomic ganglion).
Nerve fibres from these ganglia connect with internal organs. Most of the
ganglia for the sympathetic division are located just outside the spinal cord
on both sides of it. The ganglia for the parasympathetic division are located
near or in the organs they connect with.
The functions of the autonomic nervous system are to control internal body
processes such as the following:
•• blood pressure
•• heart and breathing rates
•• body temperature
•• digestion
•• metabolism (thus affecting body weight)
•• the balance of water and electrolytes (such as sodium and calcium)
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•• the production of body fluids (saliva, sweat and tears)

•• urination
•• defecation
•• sexual response
Many organs are controlled primarily by either the sympathetic or the

parasympathetic division (see figures 9.2 and 9.3). Sometimes the two divisions
have opposite effects on the same organ. For example, the sympathetic division
increases blood pressure, and the parasympathetic division decreases it. Overall,
the two divisions work together to ensure that the body responds appropriately
to different situations.
20 9. 5 Ac tivit y 9.1
1. Name the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. What is
the main function of each?
2. While out for a walk, Piet meets an angry dog. Which division of the
autonomic nervous system is responsible for the physiological changes
that occur in Piet as he turns and runs? Give a reason for your answer.
Compare your answer to the first question to the information in the
textbook. If you are not sure about the answer to the second question,
discuss it with your fellow students, e-tutor or lecturer on myUnisa.
9.6 PHYSIOLOGIC ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

(SNS)
Sympathetic nerve fibres originate in the spinal cord, along with spinal nerves,
between cord segments T1 and L2. (To see where this is, study the figure in
Widmaier et al [2014], which shows the dorsal view of the spinal cord.) They
then pass into the sympathetic chain.
The spinal nerves that pass to the tissues and organs are stimulated by
the sympathetic nerves. There are always a preganglionic neuron and a
postganglionic neuron.
9.7 PHYSIOLOGIC ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS

SYSTEM
The parasympathetic fibres leave the central nervous system through cranial
nerves III, VII, IX and X. There are additional parasympathetic fibres that also
leave the lowermost part of the spinal cord through the second and third sacral
spinal nerves and occasionally through the first and fourth sacral nerves.
About 75% of all parasympathetic nerve fibres are in the vagus nerves, passing
to the entire thoracic and abdominal regions of the body. The parasympathetic
nervous system, like the sympathetic system, has both preganglionic and
postganglionic neurons.
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9.8 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SYMPATHETIC AND

PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTIONS
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres secrete one or the other of
two synaptic transmitter substances, namely acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
The fibres that secrete acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic and those that
secrete norepinephrine are called adrenergic. All preganglionic neurons are
cholinergic in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems.
Either all or almost all of the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
nervous system are also cholinergic. Conversely, most of the postganglionic
sympathetic neurons are adrenergic. Study table 6-11 in Widmaier et al (2014)
and table 61-2 in Hall (2016). Also visit the following website for additional
information: http://s65.photobucket.com/user/sleepy_yuci/media/e-learning/
Cholinergic%20agonists/DA2C4FF2jpg.png.html
9.9 ADRENAL MEDULLA

The adrenal medulla is the innermost part of the adrenal gland. The adrenal
medulla releases about 80% epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine.
•• Norepinephrine causes constriction of most of the blood vessels in the

body, increased activity of the heart, inhibition of the gastrointestinal tract
and dilation of the pupils of the eyes. Epinephrine acts on beta receptors
and causes increased cardiac effects.
•• Epinephrine causes weak constriction of blood vessels. Epinephrine also
increases the metabolic rate significantly.
21 9.10 Ac tivit y 9. 2
1. How could you distinguish the sympathetic division from the
parasympathetic division on the basis of their anatomy?
2. How would a drug that stimulates acetylcholine receptors affect the
sympathetic nervous system?
3. An individual with high blood pressure is given a medication that
blocks beta receptors. How could this medication help correct that
person’s condition?
1. The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system includes

preganglionic fibres from the lumbar and thoracic portions of the spinal
cord, whereas the parasympathetic division includes preganglionic
fibres from the cranial and sacral portions.
2. Because preganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system
release acetylcholine (Ach), a drug that stimulates Ach receptors would
stimulate the postganglionic fibres of sympathetic nerves, resulting
in increased sympathetic activity.
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3. Blocking the beta receptors on cells would decrease or prevent

sympathetic stimulation of tissues containing those cells. Heart rate,
the force of contraction of cardiac muscle and the contraction of
smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels would decrease, and lead
to the lowering of the person’s blood pressure.
9.12 ALARM-STRESS REACTION

The following changes in the body characterise the alarm and stress response:
•• increased arterial pressure

•• increased blood flow to active muscles and decrease blood flow to organs
such as kidneys, stomach
•• increased rates of cellular metabolism throughout the body
•• increased blood glucose concentration
•• increased glycolysis in the liver and in muscle
•• increased muscle strength
•• increased mental activity
•• increased rate of blood coagulation

1. Discuss the role of the receptors in the effector organs. Refer specifically
to the
•• acetylcholine receptors
•• adrenergic receptors
2. What is the supportive value of the adrenal medulla with regard to the
sympathetic nervous system?
3. Explain the alarm reaction or stress reaction of the sympathetic nervous

system.

1. Think about the effect of the physiological functions of the autonomic
nervous on your daily activities. For example, which effects of the autonomic
nervous system have been activated in your body in the past ten minutes?
2. Explain control of the process of salivation by the autonomic nervous

system.
3. Was there anything in this learning unit you have found particularly difficult?
What can you do to overcome these difficulties?
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a_aLsFvNWs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BbTyVvvPoo0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r92dHDxJhYo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fh9cTO2hmM0
9.16 CONCLUSION
The work covered here is vital to your understanding of the nervous system
overall, as it explains how the nervous system controls our internal organs and
thus supports life. Please make sure that you are completely familiar with the
basic concepts that you have learnt in this learning unit.
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10LEARNING UNIT 10
10 Anatomy of the cerebral cortex

In a number of previous learning units, we have touched on components of the
cerebrum. You probably also have some general knowledge about it, or have
learnt some basic facts about it at school. Before you start with this learning
unit, you may want to summarise briefly what you already know.
The cerebrum is the largest component of the brain. Even though much
research has been done on this part of the brain, we actually still know very
little about its physiological functions.
The cerebrum is divided into right and left hemispheres. The corpus callosum
is the collection of white matter fibres that joins these two hemispheres. The
anatomy of the cerebrum is shown in figure 10.1 below.
FIGURE 10.1
The physiological anatomy of the cerebrum
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cerebrum#/media/File:Illu_cerebrum_lobes.jpg
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 10 : A n ato my o f t h e ce r e b r a l co r te x
Each of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the
parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe. The medial temporal
lobe structures are considered by some to be part of the so-called limbic lobe.
The cerebrum is discussed in more detail in the sections that follow.

•• describe the functional anatomy of the cerebral cortex

•• apply your knowledge of the functional anatomy of the cerebral cortex to
case studies and make deductions about possible pathologies
•• distinguish between the primary and secondary areas of the cerebral cortex,
and identify and describe the three most important association areas of
the brain
•• identify the higher intellectual functions of the Wernicke area with regard
to the processing of sensory information and apply them to the execution
of reactions in the brain
•• explain the term “dominant hemisphere”, analyse the functions of the
dominant hemisphere and link these functions to intelligence (verbal or
emotional)
•• explain the contribution of the prefrontal lobe to intelligence and integrate
this information with your existing knowledge
•• provide an integrated explanation of the communication ability of human
beings and discuss the pathology of speech defects in physiological terms


10.4 THE ANATOMY OF THE CEREBRUM

As mentioned in the introduction, the cerebrum consists of four main lobes
(see the image below).
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FIGURE 10.2
Lobes and sulci of the cerebrum
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LobesCaptsLateral.png
The frontal lobe is distinguished from the parietal lobe posteriorly (at the
back) by the central sulcus. Note that the term “sulcus” refers to a groove in
the surface of the brain. (You will also come across the term “gyrus”, which
refers to the folds of the brain.) The frontal lobe and parietal lobes are divided
inferiorly (below) from the temporal lobe by the lateral sulcus or fissure. The
parietal lobe is distinguished from the occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital
sulcus on the medial surface.
The cerebrum has three types of neurons, namely granular (also called stellate),
fusiform and pyramidal neurons.
The cerebrum is further divided into the telencephalon and diencephalon.

The telencephalon consists of the cortex, the subcortical fibres and the basal
nuclei. The diencephalon mainly consists of the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
The telencephalon of the cerebrum is disproportionately well developed in
humans as compared with other mammals. Please study pages 175 and 176
in Widmaer et al (2014).
The structures of the telencephalon and the diencephalon are discussed in

more detail in the following sections.
10.4.1 The telencephalon

The telencephalon consists of the cortex and subcortical fibres, and the basal
nuclei.
•• Cortex and subcortical fibres

The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cortex, which has a slightly grey
appearance, hence the term “grey matter”. The cortex has a folded structure;
each fold is termed a gyrus, while each groove between the folds is termed
a sulcus.
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Below the cortex are axons, which are long fibres that emanate from and
connect neurons. Axons are insulated by myelin, which increases the speed
of conduction. Myelin is what gives the white appearance to these fibres of
the brain, hence the term “white matter”.
•• Basal nuclei (basal ganglia)

The basal nuclei (formerly referred to as the basal ganglia) comprise the caudate
nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigra.
Pairs of these structures bear different names:
•• The putamen and globus pallidus combined form the lentiform nuclei.
•• The putamen and caudate nucleus combined form the striatum.
The striatum derives its name from the striped appearance given by the grey
matter connections bridging across the internal capsule.
The basal nuclei are closely integrated with the motor cortex, premotor cortex
and motor nuclei of the thalamus, and play a crucial role in the control of
movements.
10.4.2 The diencephalon

The diencephalon is positioned between the brainstem and the telencephalon,
and it is composed of the thalamus, the epithalamus, the subthalamus and
the hypothalamus.
•• Thalamus
The thalamus serves as a relay station for ascending input to the cortex and
receives information from each of the cardinal senses (except smell). It is
hypothesised that the thalamus serves a gating function in filtering information.
The thalamus consists of multiple nuclei.
The left and right sides of the thalamus are divided by the third ventricle. Each
side is then divided by the internal medullary lamina into a series of anterior
nuclei, ventrolateral nuclei and medial nuclei. Smaller nuclei are found in these
regions, numbering perhaps in excess of 100.
•• Epithalamus
The epithalamus is a small mass of tissue that includes the pineal gland and it
plays a role in the regulation of circadian rhythms by releasing the hormone
melatonin. Other structures of the epithalamus are the habenular commissure
and the posterior commissure.
•• Subthalamus
The subthalamus is located between the midbrain and the thalamus, and it
contains the subthalamic nucleus, the red nucleus and the substantia nigra.
Subthalamic structures are closely integrated with the basal nuclei and play a
role in the modulation of movement.
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•• Hypothalamus
The hypothalamic nuclei lie in the walls of the third ventricle anteriorly.
The hypothalamus is involved in mediating endocrine, autonomic, visceral
and homeostatic functions. The anterior nuclei include the preoptic, the
supraoptic and the paraventricular nuclei. The posterior nuclei include the
supramammillary nucleus, the mammillary nucleus, the intercalate nucleus
and the posterior nucleus. The middle nuclei include the infundibular, tuberal,
dorsomedial, ventromedial and lateral nuclei.
Parasympathetic control can be attributed to the anterior and medial nuclear

groups, whereas sympathetic control can be attributed to the posterior and
lateral nuclear groups. Satiety can be localised to stimulation of medial nuclei,
and hunger can be localised to stimulation of lateral nuclei. Other functions
of the hypothalamus include the regulation of body temperature, heart rate,
blood pressure and water balance.
The hypothalamus has close connections with the cingulate gyrus, frontal lobe,
hippocampus, thalamus, brainstem, spinal cord, basal nuclei and pituitary gland.
10.5 LIMBIC SYSTEM

The limbic system is a grouping of cortical and subcortical structures involved
in memory formation and emotional responses. The hypothalamus is a
major component of the limbic system. The limbic system allows for complex
interactions between the cortex, the thalamus, the hypothalamus and the
brainstem.
The limbic system is not defined by strict anatomic boundaries, but incorporates
several important structures. The limbic structures conventionally include the
amygdala, the hippocampus, the fornix, the mammillary bodies, the cingulate
gyrus and the parahippocampal gyrus. The limbic system is discussed in detail
in the next learning unit.
22 10.6 Ac tivit y 10.1

1. Name three types of neurons found in the cerebral cortex.
2. Draw your own basic sketch to show the various lobes and the main
sulci of the cerebrum. Label the sketch clearly. Then briefly describe
the cerebral hemispheres.
3. Compile a table to show the main components of (a) the telencephalon,
and (b) the diencephalon. Give the name of the component in the first
column and briefly describe it in the second column.
4. List the components of the limbic system and briefly explain the main
function of the system.
The answers to these questions appear in the preceding sections and the
textbooks. For a description of the cerebral hemispheres, study page 175
of Widmaer et al (2014).
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10.7 FUNCTIONS OF SPECIFIC CORTICAL AREAS

A number of important points about specific cortical areas are highlighted
below.
•• Primary and secondary areas

Studies have shown that different cortical areas have separate functions.
–– Primary motor areas have direct connections with specific muscles and
cause discrete muscle movements.
–– Primary sensory areas detect specific sensations (visual, auditory and
somatic) that have been transmitted to the brain from the sensory organs.
The secondary areas make sense out of the signals in the primary areas. For
example, secondary sensory areas analyse and interpret the meanings of
sensory signals such as shapes, textures, colour and light.
Figure 58-4 in Hall (2016) shows where the primary and secondary areas are
located.
•• Association areas
A number of large areas that do not fit into the categories of primary and
secondary areas are called association areas. They receive and analyse signals
simultaneously from multiple regions of the cortex. Important association areas
include the parieto-occipitotemporal association area, the prefrontal association
area, the limbic association area and the area for the recognition of faces.
Study the functions of each of these areas in your prescribed textbooks.

Note the distinction between the functions of Wernicke’s area in the parieto-
occipitotemporal area, and Broca’s area in the prefrontal association area.
•• Concept of the dominant hemisphere

The functions of Wernicke’s area and the angular gyrus, as well as the speech
and motor control areas, are usually much more highly developed in one
cerebral hemisphere than in the other. This hemisphere is called the dominant
hemisphere, and in 95% of people this is the left hemisphere.
Study the information about the concept of the dominant hemisphere in your
textbooks. Note the distinction between the functions of the two hemispheres.
Also note the intellectual functions associated with Wernicke’s area.
10.8 HIGHER INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PREFRONTAL

ASSOCIATION AREAS
Contrary to earlier beliefs, it has not been shown that the prefrontal cortex is
more important in higher intellectual functions than other parts of the brain.
However, the prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in intellectual functioning
by making the following possible:
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•• appropriate responses in social situations

•• the ability to carry through a sequence of thoughts, and to progress towards
goals
•• a working memory, which in turn makes the following possible:
–– elaboration of thought (increased depth and abstractness of thought)
–– prognostication (predicting what may happen)
–– future planning
–– delaying action in order to consider one’s response
–– solving complicated problems
–– controlling one’s behaviour to adhere to moral laws
•• Study the detailed discussion of this topic in Hall (2016).
10.9 COMMUNICATION AND THE PATHOLOGY OF SPEECH DEFECTS

The human cortex is involved in communication in two ways. Firstly, it receives
language inputs, involving the ears and eyes (the sensory aspect); and secondly,
it controls language output (the motor aspect), involving vocalisation and its
control.
Study figure 58-8 in Hall (2016), which shows the brain pathways for speaking
a heard word and for speaking a written word, as well as the explanation of
this in the text.
Also study the information provided on the following speech pathologies:
•• Wernicke’s aphasia and global aphasia

•• motor aphasia
•• inability to articulate clearly
23 10.10 Ac tivit y 10. 2

1. Answer this question in the Discussion Forum on your e-tutor site.
“The secondary areas of the cortex have this name because they
are less important than the primary areas.” Do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
2. Tabulate the main association areas of the cortex and their functions.
3. What are the principal functional differences between the right and
left cerebral hemispheres?
4. Briefly discuss the functions of Wernicke’s area.
5. Explain the contribution of the prefrontal lobe to intelligence.
Provide an integrated explanation of the communication ability of
human beings.
7. Discuss the pathology of speech defects in physiological terms.
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1. Discuss this question with your e-tutor and/or fellow students on

myUnisa.
2. You should have listed the parieto-occipitotemporal area, the prefrontal
association area, the limbic association area and the area for the
recognition of faces. You should also have given the main functions of
each. In doing this for the parieto-occipitotemporal area, you should
have mentioned spatial coordinate analysis, language comprehension
made possible by Wernicke’s area, processing of visual language made
possible by the angular gyrus and the naming of objects.
3. The left cerebral hemisphere contains general interpretive and
speech centres, and is responsible for language-based skills such as
writing, reading and speaking. The left hemisphere is also involved
in performing analytical tasks such as mathematical calculations and
logical decision-making. The left cerebral hemisphere is the dominant
hemisphere in 95% of human beings.
The right cerebral hemisphere analyses sensory information and
relates the body to the sensory environment. Interpretive centres
in this hemisphere permit for the identification of objects by touch,
smell, sight, taste or feel.
4. You should have mentioned the intellectual functions associated
with language or verbal symbolism, including the interpretation of
language, and the ability to read, to perform mathematical operations
and to think through logical problems.
5. Refer to Hall (2016) for a detailed discussion. In summary, you should
have mentioned the ability to respond appropriately in social situations,
to progress towards a goal and to have a working memory, with all
that is implied.
6. Discuss this question with your e-tutor and/or fellow students on
myUnisa.
7. To answer this question, you should explain the causes of Wernicke’s
aphasia and global aphasia, motor aphasia and articulation difficulties.

1. Distinguish between the primary and secondary areas of the cerebral
cortex.
2. Name the three different association areas of the brain and briefly list the
functions that are carried out by each.
3. Why is the Wernicke area important? Is it necessary for intelligence? Give

reasons for your answer.
4. Distinguish between the dominant and the non-dominant hemisphere.
5. Distinguish between the sensory and motor aspects of communication.
6. Is the prefrontal association area equally large in various mammals?
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7. Integrate the higher intellectual functions of the prefrontal association area

with those of the nearest cortical areas involved with intelligence.

1. Now that you have completed this learning unit, do you have greater
insight into the cortex, which is the biggest part of the brain? If so, which
major insights have you gained?
2. Do you now have a better understanding of how the various functions
of your body are coordinated? Does this change the way you think about
your body and your abilities? If so, how?
3. Which of your brain hemispheres would you say is the dominant one?
What are some of the implications of this in terms of your abilities?

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions of the
anatomy of the cerebral cortex:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2--LR8jHdOM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6ZerYJUprE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTQmlkNIkv0
10.15 CONCLUSION
The work covered here forms an important basis for a study of the functional
anatomy of the cerebral cortex. Now that you have completed this learning
unit, you should understand the different lobes of the cerebral cortex and
their physiological roles.
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LEARNING UNIT
11 11
11 Intelligence, learning and memory

You are all studying this exciting discipline called Physiology, but the manner
in which you understand the concepts differs. Some of you may quickly grasp
the concepts, while others need more time to understand them. Some of you
may get high marks in the examination and some may get average marks.
Have you ever wondered why this might be?
In answering this question, you probably all referred to at least one of

three key concepts: intelligence, learning and memory. Let’s define these
terms. Intelligence refers to the person’s ability to acquire, understand and
use knowledge. Learning can be defined as the acquisition and storage of
information as a result of past experience. Finally, memory is the process of
encoding information and storing it permanently to be retrieved at a later stage.
In this learning unit, we discuss the structures in the brain that are responsible
for these intelligence, learning and memory.

•• describe the structures of the cerebral cortex involved in intelligence and

learning.
•• discuss the physiological functions of the corpus callosum.
•• explain the role of synaptic facilitation and inhibition in the establishment
of memory and deduce what the effect of sensory deprivation from an
early age would be.
•• describe the various types of memories
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11.4 INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING

In this section, we first examine the role of the prefrontal cortex in intelligence.
A basic definition of learning is given and we explore the structures involved
in learning. Finally, we discuss the role of the corpus callosum in thoughts,
memories and learning.
11.4.1 Higher intellectual functions of the prefrontal association areas

It has been known for years that the prefrontal cortex is the primary structure
responsible for the higher intellect in human beings. The prefrontal areas are
the part of the brain that have been associated with the elaboration of thought,
meaning an increase in depth and abstractness of the different thoughts put
together from multiple sources of information.
This ability of the prefrontal areas to keep track of many bits of information
instantaneously as it is needed for subsequent thoughts, is called the brain’s
working memory, which may explain the many functions of the brain that
we associate with higher intelligence (Hall 2016). Prefrontal areas are divided
into separate segments for storing different types of temporary memory, such
as memory of the shape and form of objects, and memory of movement.
A combination of all these temporary bits of working memory gives us the
ability to
•• prognosticate (predict or forecast)

•• plan for the future
•• delay action in response to incoming sensory signals so that the sensory
information can be weighed until the best course of response can be chosen
•• consider the consequences of motor actions before they are performed
•• solve complicated mathematical, legal or philosophical problems
•• correlate all avenues of information in diagnosing rare diseases
•• control our activities in accordance with moral laws
11.4.2 Learning
In the context of nervous system physiology, learning is basically defined as
“the acquisition and storage of information as a consequence of experience”.
It is measured by an increase in the likelihood of a particular behavioural
response to a stimulus.
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 11: I nte lli g e n ce, l e a r ni n g a n d m e m o r y
Generally, rewards and punishments (pleasant and unpleasant sensations)

are crucial ingredients of learning, as are contact with and manipulation of
the environment. There are punishment and rewards centres in the limbic
system. Sensory stimuli that cause pain excite the limbic punishment centres,
and stimuli that cause pleasure and happiness excite limbic rewards centres.
The hippocampi (singular: hippocampus) and to a lesser degree the dorsal
medial nuclei of the thalamus, another limbic structure, have proved especially
important in determining the importance of incoming sensory signals, and thus
whether they may form the basis of a reward or a punishment.
You will learn more about the reward and punishment function of the limbic
system in learning unit 12.
11.4.3 Functions of the corpus callosum

The corpus callosum makes the information stored in the cortex of one
hemisphere available to corresponding cortical areas in the opposite hemisphere.
It transfers somatic and visual information from the right hemisphere into
Wernicke’s area in the left dominant hemisphere. The corpus callosum is
required for the two sides to operate cooperatively at the subconscious level.
24 11.4.4 Ac tivit y 11.1

1. Describe the structures of the cerebral cortex involved in intelligence
and learning.
2. Discuss the physiological functions of the corpus callosum.
Study your prescribed book by Hall (2016) to answer the two questions
above.
11.5 MEMORY: THE ROLES OF SYNAPTIC FACILITATION AND SYNAPTIC

INHIBITION
Memories are stored in the brain when there are changes in the basic sensitivity
of synaptic transmission between neurons as a result of previous neural activity.
The new or facilitated pathways are called memory traces. They are important
because once the traces are established, they can be activated reflectively by
the thinking mind to reproduce memories.
Various aspects of memory are discussed in more detail in the sections that
follow.
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11.5.1 Positive and negative memory sensitisation or habituation of

synaptic transmission
The brain has the capability to ignore information that is of no consequences.
This capability results from inhibition of the synaptic pathways for this type
of information. The resulting effect is called habituation, which is a type of
negative memory. Conversely, for incoming information that causes important
consequences such as pain and pleasure, the brain has a different automatic
capability of enhancing and storing the memory traces, which is positive
memory. This results from facilitation of the synaptic pathways, and the process
is called memory sensitisation. There are special areas in the limbic system
that determine whether the information is important or unimportant.
11.5.2 Classification of memories

Memories are subdivided into three categories:
•• Short-term memory: This category includes memories lasting for seconds

or minutes.
•• Intermediate memory: This class includes memories lasting for days or weeks.
•• Long-term memory: This group includes memories that can last for years
or even a lifetime.
Note: Please study these categories in detail.
In addition, memories can also be classified in terms of type of information

that is stored. There are two types of memories based on that criterion:
Declarative memory and skill memory
Declarative memory refers to memory of various details of an integrated

thought, such as
•• memory of surroundings
•• memory of the meaning of experience
•• memory of cause of experience
Can you think of other examples? Give five additional examples.
Skill memory is associated with motor activities of the person’s body, such as
skills developed for hitting a tennis ball, including automatic memories
•• of the sight of ball

•• to calculate the relationship and speed of the ball
Can you think of other examples? Give five additional examples.
11.5.3 Intermediate long-term memory

Intermediate long-term memories may last for many minutes or even weeks.
They will eventually be lost unless the memory traces are activated enough
to become more permanent. Research indicates that intermediate long-term
memories can result from temporary chemical or physical changes, or both, in
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86
either the synapse presynaptic terminals or the synapse postsynaptic membrane.

The effect of these changes can persist for a few minutes up to several weeks.
Study the molecular mechanism of intermediate memory on pages 747 to 748
in Hall (2016).
11.5.4 Consolidation of memory

For short-term memory to be converted into long-term memory that can be
recalled weeks or years later, it must become consolidated. That is, the short-
term memory, if activated repeatedly, initiates chemical, physical and anatomical
changes in the synapses that are responsible for the long-term type of memory.
The process requires five to ten minutes for minimal consolidation, and one
hour or more for strong consolidation.
11.5.5 Memory loss

The loss of memory is called amnesia. This condition is subdivided into two
categories: anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.
•• Anterograde amnesia results from damage to the limbic system and associated
structures, including the hippocampus, thalamus and hypothalamus. Patients
with this condition lose their ability to consolidate short-term declarative
memories into long-term memories.
•• Retrograde amnesia can be caused by an injury to the head. All memories
of everything that has happened before the blow are cleared.
25 11. 5.6 Ac tivit y 11. 2

1. Explain and distinguish between the different types of amnesia.
2. Describe the molecular mechanisms for the habituation and facilitation
of intermediate memory.
3. Distinguish between the three types of memories.
Explain the role of synaptic facilitation and inhibition in the establishment
of memory, and deduce what the effect of sensory deprivation from an
early age would be.
11. 5.7 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 11. 2
1. Amnesia is the loss of memory and it is subdivided into two categories:

anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia. Anterograde
amnesia results from damage to the limbic system and associated
structures, including the hippocampus, thalamus and hypothalamus.
Patients with this condition lose their ability to consolidate short-term
declarative memories into long-term memories. Retrograde amnesia
can be caused by an injury to the head. All memories of everything
that has happened before the blow are cleared.
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2. Study Hall (2016) to get the answer to this question.

3. The three main types of memory are:
Short-term memory: This category includes memories lasting for
seconds or minutes.
Intermediate memory: This class includes memories lasting for days
or weeks.
Long-term memory: This group includes memories that can last for
years or even a lifetime.

1. Explain the consolidation of memory.
2. How does the limbic system contribute to the memory process?
3. Synaptic facilitation and inhibition play a role in memory. Discuss these

concepts and make the difference or transition between the types of
memory clear.
4. Define procedural memory.

1. Think about what you have learnt in this learning unit and write down the
main new insights you have gained. Make a list and share it with other
students.
2. To what extent does the information provided in this learning unit agree
with the ideas you had about learning and memory formation before you
studied this learning unit? Has your understanding of the human learning
process changed at all, and if so, how?
3. What are the implications of this information for the way you learn? How
can you use this knowledge to improve your learning process?

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions on intelligence,
learning and memory:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5Ehe3KVGmY (a very good clip on

working memory)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zsXP8qeFF6A (working memory)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_YYQ3e9_cE (the effects of sleep on
learning and memory)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zx53Zj7EKQE (corpus callosum and
hemispheric dominance)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fV3jafglNo (memory formation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dxhab1gLSjc (memory facilitation)
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11.9 CONCLUSION
The work covered here forms an important basis for the learning units that
follow, so please make sure that you understand the concepts and mechanisms
that we have discussed. Now that you have completed this learning unit, you
should understand the physiological roles of the brain in intelligence, learning
and memory.
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LEARNING UNIT
12 12
Behavioural and motivation mechanisms of

12
the brain

Behaviour control is a function of the entire nervous system. Even the spinal
reflexes contain elements that influence behaviour. The awake and sleep cycle
is one of our most important behavioural patterns and is discussed in the
next learning unit. In this learning unit you will learn more about the levels of
control of activities in the brain.
In this learning unit we look closely at the mechanisms involved in controlling our
behaviour, emotions and motivation. Much of human behaviour is influenced
by habit, learning, intellect and emotions. In addition, motivation can lead
to hormonal, autonomic and behavioural responses. The concepts of reward
and punishment are inseparable from motivation. Rewards are things that
organisms work for or things that make the behaviour that leads to them occur
more often; in other words, positive reinforcement (Widmaier et al., 2014).
Punishment refers to the opposite of all those activities.
The functions of the nervous system related to the motivation drive, in particular
motivational control of the learning process, are carried out mainly by the
basal sections of the brain, that is, the limbic system. The English word limbic
is derived from the Latin word limbus, meaning border. The limbic system
surrounds the neural pathways involved in emotional behaviour and motivation
drive. The main elements of the limbic system are the hypothalamus and
related structures.
These areas control behaviour and also the internal conditions in the body,
such as body temperature, osmolality, eating and drinking needs, and body
mass. These internal functions are called vegetative functions, and their
control is related to behaviour. Endocrine functions are also controlled by the
hypothalamus, and influence behaviour and vegetative functions indirectly.
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L E AR N I N G U N I T 12: B e h av i o u r a l a n d m o t i v at i o n m e c h a nisms o f t h e b r a i n

•• describe the activating-driving systems of the brain

•• explain neuro-hormonal control of brain activity
•• explain the role of the limbic system, specifically the hypothalamus, in
controlling emotional behaviour, reward and punishment, motivation drive
and survival


12.4 ACTIVATING-DRIVING SYSTEMS OF THE BRAIN

Nerve signals in the brainstem activate the cerebral part of the brain in two
ways, namely
•• through direct neuronal mechanisms

•• through neurohormonal mechanisms
In the sections that follow we look at each of these in more detail.
12.4.1 Control of cerebral activity by continuous excitatory signals from

the brainstem
Note: Study figure 59.1 on page 752 of the prescribed textbook by Hall (2016).
The main component of the excitatory-activating system of the brain is the

excitatory area located in the reticular substance of the pons and mesencephalon.
This area is also known as the bulboreticular facilitatory area. Nerve signals
excite the thalamus, regions of the cerebral cortex and multiple cortical areas.
The peripheral sensory signals, for example pain signals, also excite the entire
brain.
Not only do excitatory signals pass to the cerebral cortex from the bulboreticular
excitatory area of the brainstem, but feedback signals also return from the
cerebral cortex back to this same area. Furthermore, signals regularly reverberate
back and forth between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, with the thalamus
exciting the cortex and the cortex then re-exciting the thalamus by way of
return fibres. Researchers suggest that the thinking process establishes long-
term memories by activating such a back and forth reverberation of signals.
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The system also involves the reticular inhibitory area located medially and
ventrally in the medulla.
12.4.2 Neurohormonal control of brain activity

This mechanism secretes excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter hormonal
agents into the substance of the brain. Four systems have been studied:
•• norepinephrine system
•• dopamine system
•• serotonin system
•• acetylcholine system
Note: Study figure 59.2 on page 753 of the prescribed textbook by Hall (2016).
Study these systems in detail on pages 752 and 753 of your prescribed book (Hall
2016) . Other examples of neurotransmitters and neurohormonal substances
secreted in the brain are neurotensin, angiotensin ii histamine, epinephrine
and enkephalins.
26 12.4. 3 Ac tivit y 12.1

1. “The thalamus is a distribution centre that controls activity in specific
regions of the cortex.” Discuss.
2. Name the four neurohormonal systems that you have studied.
12.4.4 Fe e dback on Ac tivit y 12.1
1. Discuss this question with your e-tutor on the Discussion Forum.

2.
•• norepinephrine system
•• dopamine system
•• serotonin system
•• acetylcholine system
12.5 LIMBIC SYSTEM

The limbic system is the neuronal circuitry that controls emotional behaviour
and motivational drives.
A major part of the limbic system is the hypothalamus and its related structures.
Study figure 59.5 on page 755 in Hall (2016). The hypothalamus has two-
way communicating pathways with all levels of the limbic system. In turn, the
hypothalamus and its allied structures send output signals in three directions,
namely
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92
L E AR N I N G U N I T 12: B e h av i o u r a l a n d m o t i v at i o n m e c h a nisms o f t h e b r a i n
•• backward and downward to the brainstem, mainly into the reticular areas
of the mesencephalon, pons and medulla, and from these areas into the
peripheral nerves of the autonomic nervous system
•• upward towards many high areas of the diencephalon and cerebrum,
especially to the anterior thalamus and the limbic portions of the cerebral
cortex
•• into the hypothalamus infundibulum to control or partially control most
of the secretory functions of both posterior and anterior pituitary glands
The hypothalamus has the following vegetative and endocrine control functions:
•• cardiovascular regulation
•• body temperature regulation
•• body water regulation
•• regulation of uterine contractility and milk ejection from the breasts.
•• gastrointestinal and feeding regulation
•• hypothalamic control of endocrine hormonal secretion by the anterior
pituitary gland
Limbic structures are also involved in pleasant and unpleasant sensations.

These affective qualities are also called reward and punishment. We have
centres in the brain which control these sensations. Reward centres are located
along the course of the medial forebrain bundle, especially in the lateral and
ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus. Punishment centres are found in the
central grey area surrounding the aqueduct of Sylvius in the mesencephalon,
and extending upward into the periventricular zones of the hypothalamus
and thalamus.
27 12.6 Ac tivit y 12. 2

1. Briefly outline the functions of the hypothalamus.
Explain, in your own words, the importance of having the punishment
centres and reward centres.
1. The functions of the hypothalamus are the following:

•• cardiovascular regulation
•• body temperature regulation
•• body water regulation
•• regulation of uterine contractility & milk ejection from the breasts
•• gastrointestinal & feeding regulation
•• hypothalamic control of endocrine hormonal secretion by the
anterior pituitary gland
2. Discuss your answers with fellow students. The e-tutor will advise
wherever necessary.
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1. Neuro-hormonal control is another way of eliciting brain activity. Explain.
2. Why are reward and punishment essential control mechanisms of the

brain?
3. What is the activation drive system of the brain?
4. Outline the main physiological functions of the hypothalamus, and discuss

how they relate to homeostatic control.
5. Briefly describe the limbic system.

1. What is your understanding of behaviour? Explain how the information
in this learning unit has influenced your understanding of the term.
2. Which concept in this learning unit has stood out above the rest? Why?
3. Do you feel satisfied that you know enough about the limbic system? What
should you do if you want more information?

http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s4/chapter01.html (This is a lecture on the

structure of the hypothalamus. Note that this site may take some time to
download, and also contains diagrams and animations.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDlDirzOSI8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ51Gsb98ec
https://www.jove.com/video/51281/studying-food-reward-and-motivation-
in-humans
12.11 CONCLUSION
This learning unit has introduced you to important information about the limbic
system and its functions in controlling behaviour. Now that you have completed
this learning unit, you should understand the role of the hypothalamus and its
related structures in the control of homeostasis.
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LEARNING UNIT
13 13
13 Brain activity

We are all aware of different stages of brain activity, including sleep, wakefulness,
excitement and mood changes such as depression and fear. These are all a
result of different activation or inhibiting forces in the brain.
Sleep is defined as a state of unconsciousness from which a person can be

woken by means of sensory or other stimuli. This must be distinguished from
a coma, from which a person cannot be woken. Various neurotransmitters
that affect sleep patterns are found in the urine, cerebrospinal fluid, blood and
brain tissue. The concentrations of two of the cytokines, namely interleukin
I and tumour necrosis factor (intercellular messengers that play a role in the
immune system) are linked to the sleep-awake cycle. These cytokine levels
increase during infection, which explains why a person wants to sleep more
when he or she is ill.
For many years, researchers have been investigating the physiological importance
of sleep. To date, the reasons why we sleep are still not clear. However, we
are aware that this biological phenomenon involves various stages of brain
activity. A simple question we can ask ourselves is: Why do we sleep? Many
different answers to this question can be given, but one response that will be
repeated is that if we do not sleep, we feel sluggish the following day. In this
learning unit we define sleep and describe various types of sleep.
Different states of brain activity (states of consciousness) are influenced by

specific neurotransmitters. Furthermore, clinical studies of patients with
dementia or various psychoses have shown that many of these conditions
arise as a result of a decrease in the functioning of a specific group of neurons
which secrete a specific neurotransmitter. In this learning unit we discuss the
synthesis and breakdown and the mechanisms of the various neurotransmitters
involved; this information provides the necessary background to a discussion
of certain pathologies.
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•• distinguish between types of sleep pattern

•• analyse and discuss the physiological effects of sleep
•• discuss the synthesis, secretion, functions, breakdown and pathology of
certain neurotransmitters, and link this information to pathologies
•• analyse and discuss the physiological effects of sleep, and discuss the
pathology associated with sleep deprivation


13.4 BRAINWAVE ACTIVITY

Brainwave activity is measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG), which can
also detect and register extreme neuronal discharges, such as epilepsy. The
EEG pattern changes profoundly during sleep and other brain activities, such
as drowsiness.
Before we discuss the concept of sleep in detail, it is important to distinguish

between the terms sleep, coma and brain death.
The term coma denotes an extreme decline in mental functioning as a result

of structural, physiological or metabolic changes in the brain. A person who
is in a coma typically has a constant inability to be woken or stimulated, even
with strongly stimulating influences, whereas an individual who is asleep can
be woken as indicated earlier on. What makes this difficult, is the fact that no
external behavioural patterns can be observed: the eyes are closed and sleep-
awake cycles are absent. A coma may be caused by extensive damage to the
cerebral cortex or brain activation mechanisms, disruptions of the connections
between the brainstem and the cortical areas, metabolic dysfunctions, brain
infections, an overdose of certain drugs such as sedatives and sleeping pills
and, in some cases, narcotics.
Brain death occurs when the brain no longer functions and has no possibility
of functioning again. The criteria for brain death are given in table 8-2 in
Widmaier et al (2014).
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96
L E AR N I N G U N I T 13: B r a i n a c t i v i t y
13.5 SLEEP
Sleep has effects on both the nervous system and the other functional systems
of the body. Sleep has been postulated to have the following functions:
•• neural maturation
•• facilitation of learning or memory
•• cognition
•• clearance of metabolic waste products generated by neural activity in the
awake brain
•• conservation of metabolic energy
Sleep deprivation affects these functions of the nervous system. Read more
about this in Hall (2016) under the heading “Physiological functions of sleep
are not yet known”.
•• Basic theories of sleep

Sleep is caused by an active inhibitory process. A centre located below the
midpontile level of the brainstem appears to be required to cause sleep by
inhibiting other parts of the brain.
–– Stimulation of some specific areas of the brain can cause sleep. Stimula-
tion of raphe nuclei in the lower half of the pons and in the medulla
causes sleep. Many nerve endings of fibres from the raphe neurons secrete
serotonin. It has been assumed that serotonin is a transmitter substance
associated with sleep.
–– Stimulation of some areas in the nucleus of the tractus solitarius also causes
sleep. This nucleus is the termination in the medulla and pons for visceral
sensory signals entering by way of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves.
–– Sleep can also be promoted by stimulation of the diencephalon, including
the rostral part of the hypothalamus (suprachiasmal area) and the thalamus.
•• Types of sleep
There are two types of sleep:
•• rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

•• slow-wave sleep or non-rapid eye movement sleep
REM sleep occurs in episodes that occupy 25% of the sleep time in young
adults, and this fraction declines progressively with aging. This type of sleep
is not restful. (Please study the characteristics of REM sleep in Hall [2014].)
Non-REM sleep is a deep, restful sleep, such as the type of sleep that a person
experiences during the first hour of sleep, after you have been awake for many
hours.
In a normal night of sleep, bouts of REM sleep lasting five to 30 minutes usually
appear on average every 90 minutes.
•• Other transmitter substances related to sleep

Two other transmitters are associated with sleep, namely muramyl peptide
and nonapeptide. Muramyl peptide is a low molecular-weight substance that
accumulates in the cerebrospinal fluid and urine in animals kept awake for
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several days. An injection of a very small amount of this substance into the third
ventricle of the brain of animals caused sleep to occur within a few minutes.
Nonapeptide was found in sleeping animals.
28 13.6 Ac tivit y 12.1

1. Identify the effects of sleep on neural function and discuss the effects
of sleep deprivation.
2. Explain the differences between the two types of sleep.
3. Do you think alcohol affects sleep? Explain your answer.
4. Go to the website below and do the exercise:
h t t p : // w p s . p e a r s o n e d . c o . u k /e m a _ u k _ h e _ w i c k e n s _
biopsych_3/114/29280/7495772.cw/index.html
Note: You can find the answers to questions 1 and 2 in your textbooks
and in the previous sections. Consult your lecturer or e-tutor if you have
any queries about these answers. This learning unit does not contain
all the information required to answer all the questions in this exercise
correctly. Please do a quick Internet search to find the correct answers or
make an educated guess.
13.7 NEUROTRANSMITTERS ASSOCIATED WITH SOME PATHOLOGIES

We have seen that various neurotransmitters play a role in sleep. In earlier
learning units you have learnt that neurotransmitters play a role in many of
the body’s functions, for example in the autonomic nervous system. In this
section, we discuss the role of two very important neurotransmitters that
affect states of brain activity, namely acetylcholine and serotonin. We also
look at the pathologies associated with the dysfunction or deficiency of these
neurotransmitters. Please study pages 167 to 172 in Widmaer et al (2014) for
more information on other neurotransmitters.
13.7.1 Acetylcholine (Ach)

Secretion
Acetylcholine is secreted by the neurons in many areas of the brain, but

especially by
•• the large pyramidal cells of the motor cortex

•• the motor neurons that innervate the skeletal muscles
•• many neurons in the basal ganglia
•• preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system
Function
Predominantly excitatory in nature
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98
Receptors with which acetylcholine combines:
•• nicotinic receptors
•• muscarinic receptors
Synthesis
Synthesis starts outside the vesicles, in the axoplasma (i.e. the cytoplasm
within the axon) of the terminal nerve endings of cholinergic nerve fibres.
Acetylcholine is then transported to the vesicles and stored until it is released.
This process is represented as follows:
choline-acetyl transferase

Ach-CoA + choline - acetylcholine
(Choline is an essential nutrient that has to be taken in as part of the diet.)
When the acetylcholine is secreted, it remains in the synaptic fissure for a few
seconds, and is then broken down by an enzyme:
acetyl cholinesterase

acetylcholine - acetate and choline
Choline is reabsorbed by the presynaptic terminals, where it is used again for

the synthesis of more acetylcholine.
Pathology, for example Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
About 120 000 people throughout the world die from AD every year. This
places the disease fourth on the list of causes of death after coronary heart
disease, cancer and stroke. AD affects approximately 5% of the population
above the age of 65. As the disease progresses, the sufferer loses the ability to
read, write, talk, eat, walk and take care of himself or herself, and eventually
dementia sets in.
•• Symptoms
Memory loss, disorientation, paranoia, hallucinations or aggressive disposition
•• Aetiology (cause of these symptoms)

Gradual loss of cholinergic neurons (nerve fibres that secrete acetylcholine),
especially in areas of the brain that have to do with memory (cerebral cortex,
hippocampus and brainstem).
Important irrefutable proof of the disease is the loss of neurons in the limbic
pathways that supply motivational drive to the memory process (Hall 2016).
The enzyme choline acetyltransferase are present in low concentrations in

the brains of people with AD. This enzyme is necessary for acetylcholine
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synthesis in the axon. The low concentrations occur because the gene that
controls the production of the apolipoprotein E is abnormal. This protein
transports cholesterol to the tissues. Because the gene is abnormal, amyloid
deposits (protein-lipoid material) occur and increase, and infiltrate the cerebral
blood vessels (cerebrovascular amyloid). There is a gene on chromosome 21
that codes for amyloid activity. Neurotic or senile amyloid deposits consist
of abnormal axons and terminals as a result of the amyloid that surrounds
them. This presents especially in the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia of the
hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and even the cerebellum.
In addition, the amyloid forms a protein, A68, which occurs in neurofibrillary
tangles in the following two groups of people:
(i) people with AD
(ii) people with Down Syndrome (DS), where the extra DS gene (trisomy 21)
can lead to abnormal amyloid production
A68 is thus a key factor in the onset of AD. In babies under two, A68 results in
the death of surplus neurons, but after the age of two it disappears. A68 may
therefore cause the growth of neurofibrillary tangles or the death of neurons.
According to other hypotheses, faulty genes, abnormal accumulation of proteins

in the brain, slow working viruses, environmental toxins such as aluminium,
and lowered blood flow that results in insufficient glucose and oxygen, can
all give rise to AD.
•• Treatment
Cholinesterase enzyme inhibitors
13.7.2 Serotonin
Secretion
Serotonergic neurons have a slow onset function. This is seen in the brainstem
in the median nuclei. These neurons send branches to the brain, spinal cord
and hypothalamus.
Serotonin is also present in non-neural cells, such as blood platelets, mastocytes
in the thymus gland and specialised cells in the lining of the digestive canal.
The reward and punishment centres in the hypothalamus and surrounding
areas are innervated with numerous norepinephrine and serotonin nerve fibres.
Function
The norepinephrine (NE) and serotonin systems supply drive to the limbic
system that allows a person to feel satisfied and happy, and to have a good
appetite, sexual drives and psychomotor balance. In addition, serotonin
•• inhibits pain pathways
•• regulates food intake
•• plays a role in alcoholism and other obsessive-compulsive syndromes
•• controls disposition
•• initiates sleep
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100
Receptors
DA1 and DA2 receptors combine with serotonin.
Synthesis
Serotonin is produced from tryptophan, an essential amino acid. It is metabolised

by MAO (monoamine oxidase).
Pathology
Clinical syndromes arising from abnormal NE and serotonin levels include
•• depression
•• manic-depressive psychosis (bipolar syndrome)
•• Tourette’s syndrome (study this yourself)
Depression is discussed in more detail below.
•• Symptoms of depression
–– unhappiness
–– melancholy
–– feelings of hopelessness and failure
–– loss of appetite and sexual drive
–– a condition of psychomotor agitation in spite of the depression
•• Aetiology
Depression is possibly caused by lowered activity of the norepinephrine and
serotonin systems. Drugs such as reserpine can block the secretion of NE and
serotonin, and thus give rise to depression.
•• Treatment
Up to 70% of patients can be treated effectively by increasing the excitation
of NE and serotonin in the nerve endings through the use of
–– monoamine oxidase inhibitors, which block the breakdown of NE and

serotonin once they have formed
–– tricylic antidepressants, such as Prozac, which block the reuptake of NE
and serotonin by the terminal nerve endings (to prolong the effect of these
substances)
–– serotonin alone, for example Zoloft, which blocks the reuptake of serotonin
and has fewer side effects as a result
–– electroconvulsive therapy, which causes an attack similar to epilepsy and
increases the effectiveness of NE transfer
Electroconvulsive therapy causes, among other things, the deregulation of

certain postsynaptic receptors (as a result of excessive excitation). It has been
found that electroconvulsive therapy deregulates beta-adrenergic and muscarinic
cholinergic mechanisms. The balance between the different neurotransmitters,
rather than the excretion of a single neurotransmitter, is therefore important
in depression counselling. A person is a psychological and physical unit, and
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therefore the addition of psychological counselling is essential for the patient’s

perception to change and to improve problem solving and stress handling.
There are three types of counselling:
•• cognitive behavioural therapy, which helps the person to acknowledge

his or her own negative thoughts and replace them with positive thoughts
and behaviour
•• interpersonal therapy, which focuses on working with a person’s troubled
personal and social relationships, which can contribute to depression
•• psychodynamic therapy, which helps the person through introspection
(looking at himself or herself) to expose and understand his or her emotional
conflicts, which can contribute to depression
29 13. 8 Ac tivit y 13. 2

1. Answer this question in the Discussion Forum on your e-tutor site:
Discuss the various functions of acetylcholine and serotonin in the
nervous system.
2. Discuss the pathology of Alzheimer’s disease.
3. Discuss an example of the pathology of abnormal serotonin levels.
Include details of symptoms, aetiology and treatment.

1. Discuss the two forms of sleep.
2. Explain the basic theories of the sleep process.
3. Why do we need to sleep? Discuss the physiological effects of sleep.
4. Explain the synthesis and breakdown of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine,

norepinephrine, glutamate and dopamine.
5. What is the effect of diet on the synthesis of neurotransmitters?

1. Think about your daily experiences with sleep. How do these relate to the
new understanding you now have of sleep?
2. In the light of this learning unit, can you explain why children fall asleep
faster than adults?
3. Do you feel satisfied that you know and understand the various
neurotransmitters, their synthesis and how they are secreted? What should
you do if you need more information?
4. Now that you have completed this module, do you have a new view about
states of mind (e.g. happiness, anger, depression)? Explain your answer.
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102
5. Think about everything you have learned in this module. Try to summarise
it in a few sentences. Then identify the three most important insights you
have gained from this module. Do these insights affect the way you think
about people or nature? If so, how?

You can watch the following video clips for additional discussions on brain
activity:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWULB9Aoopc (general information on

sleep)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNlp0UMqUtM (sleep stages)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3vsq8zsF0Kc (sleep stages)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3ONM_6fkRs (REM and non-REM sleep)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09eVouoCLaw (overview of
neurotransmitters)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQIzYVIXdhs (acetylcholine)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4D3IlIcqny4 (serotonin)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dj3GGDuu15I (causes of Alzheimer’s
Disease)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yy8e4sw70ow (depression)
13.12 CONCLUSION
We have completed our work on the physiology of the nervous system. You
have learnt a lot of terminology, you have identified different structures in the
brain and you learnt about their physiological functions. You should now have
a clearer understanding of the functioning of the human body and mind. This
should form an excellent basis for any further study or a career in life sciences.
...........
103 FIS3701/1

14
14 Discussion forums and topics in FIS3701
The following list shows the discussion forums and topics that have been
opened on the module website on myUnisa and on your e-tutor site (if you
have an e-tutor). Students are encouraged to participate actively in the various
forums and topics.
Note: If you do not have an e-tutor, you will be able to access all these forums
via the main module website.
E-tutor site:
Forum 1: Module-related discussions
Discussions related to the content of the module
Topic: Activity 2.3

Topic: Activity 3.1
Topic: Activity 3.2
Topic: Activity 3.3
Topic: Activity 4.2
Topic: Activity 5.1
Topic: Activity 6.2
Topic: Activity 7.2
Topic: Activity 8.2
Topic: Activity 10.2
Topic: Queries about the learning units
Use this topic to raise any questions you may have about the contents of the
learning units.
Forum 3: Student lounge
Use this forum to discuss general matters among yourselves.
...........
104
15
15 Frequently asked questions
CATEGORY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Prescribed Question 1: Do I really need both textbooks?

textbooks Answer: Yes. Both recommended textbooks are required
to master this subject, and are considered to be a valuable
investment as you will use them throughout your degree
studies and even thereafter. Hall (2016) is much more detailed
than Widmaier et al (2014), but often Widmaier et al (2014)
contains information that is not included in Hall (2016), so
students must have both on hand while studying Physiology.
Question 2: Does it matter if I have a different version of the
textbooks to the one prescribed?
Answer: No. The contents of the different versions are
virtually identical. The only notable difference will be the
page numbers. It will simply mean a little extra effort to find
the correct chapter in the index instead of relying on page
numbers directly from the tutorial letter.
Assignment Question 1: Do I have to submit my assignment both on

matters hard copy and online?
Answer: No. You can choose which method you want to use.
Question 2: What happens if I do not hand in both
assignments?
Answer: This would mean that you would have a much lower
year mark, since each assignment contributes 50% towards
your year mark. This would mean that you would have to
do much better in the examination to pass this module. It
is highly recommended that you submit both assignments.
Discussion Question 1: Do I have to participate in the Discussion

forums Forums?
Answer: You are not forced to participate in these forums,
but it is highly recommended as they are very advantageous
to your studies.
...........
105 FIS3701/1

16
16Announcements
Announcement 1: Message:
Welcome and Dear Student
getting started Welcome to Physiology of the Nervous System (FIS3701),
which is offered in the Department of Life and Consumer
Sciences. I am Dr SL Lebelo and I will be your lecturer for
this module. I trust that this module will deepen your
understanding of the nervous system, and help you to
further your studies in general. This module is presented
online, but as an alternative, you will also receive a printed
study pack.
If you have online access, you should do the following
to get started:
•• Go to myUnisa (http://my.unisa.ac.za)
•• Log in with your myUnisa login details.
•• Once logged in, you will see a link to FIS3702. If this
is not at the top of your screen, click on More Sites
and select FIS3702 from the drop-down menu.
•• Once you are in the site for FIS3702, read the Welcome
Message.
•• Now click on Official Study Material, and then on
Tutorial Letter 101. Read this tutorial letter carefully.
•• Go to the Learning Units and read learning unit 0.
If you are studying mainly from print, you can read
Tutorial Letter 101 and learning unit 0 in your printed
study pack.
I wish you all the best with your studies.
Dr SL Lebelo
Physiology lecturer
...........
106

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FIS3701/MO001/4/2019

Materials Online 001/4/2019

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS

Department of Life and Consumer Sciences

Please activate your myUnisa and myLife e-mail addresses, and

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

Welcome to the module Physiology of the Nervous System (FIS3702).

I wish you all the best with your studies.

Welcome to the module Physiology of the Nervous System, which is offered

I wish you all the best in your studies.

Tel: (27) 11 471 3644

Office: Office 209, Calabash Building, Unisa Science Campus, Florida

Welcome and Introduction

0.1 GETTING STARTED

•• submit assignments (Please note: It is advisable that you submit your

Your study material for this module includes

•• your prescribed textbooks

Module code-year-semester, e.g. FIS3702-17-SI

0.2 CONTACT DETAILS

Lecturer and department

Telephone number (during office hours 8:00–16:00): 011 471 3644

Telephone number (departmental secretary): 011 471 2230

You can also use the following contact details:

•• Unisa website http://www.unisa.ac.za or http://mobi.unisa.ac.za.

•• request library material

•• Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)

•• career advice and developing employability skills

•• Student Health And Wellness

It would be wise to know your health status (HIV/AIDS, blood pressure,

•• www.aidsconsortium.org.za (Click on Publications; under AC Pamphlets,

•• The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities

0.4 PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES

0.5 HOW THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE IS ORGANISED

0.6 LEARNING RESOURCES

Widmaier, E, Raff, H & Strang, K. 2014. Vander’s human physiology: the

0.7 STUDY PLAN

Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and learning unit 0 2

Skimming learning units and textbook, forming a thorough 2

First reading of learning units 1 to 13 and textbook (1 hour per 13

In-depth study of learning units 1 to 13, making mind maps and 78

Completing two assignments (Note: Assignment 01 should 10

Writing the examination 2

Week Activity (each week represents eight hours of study

2 •• Read through the remaining learning units and textbook,

3–6 •• In-depth study of learning units 1 to 5. (Make mind maps

7–10 •• In-depth study of learning units 6 to 9. (Make mind maps

11–13 •• In-depth study of learning units 10 to 13. (Make mind

14–15 •• Revision and preparation for the examination.

0.8 HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE?

Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:

Your portfolio should comprise the following:

•• answers to each activity in each learning unit

0.9.1 myUnisa menu options

0.9.2 myUnisa etiquette

Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, everyday

•• how your assignment and examination marks will be calculated

Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.

The main functions of the nervous system

and the function of its basic unit, the

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1 1.6 A c tivit y 1.1: Organisation and levels of the

1. The major structural components of a synapse, the site where a

1. If the voltage-gated calcium channels at a cholinergic synapse were

2. Distinguish between the two main types of neurotransmitters with regard

3. Distinguish between the spatial summation and the temporal summation

2. What would happen to an individual if the information from