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Submitting assignment
• Include all content in one PowerPoint slide
• Instruction for giving Name of file
• Semestr_Subject code_roll No. Eg. II_BIOL102_1
• ramakanta.lamichhane@ku.edu.np

2. Cell Types

• Prokaryotic cell and its organization

• Eukaryotic cell and its organization

• Major Cell type – Virus, Prokaryotic cell, Eukaryotic

cell (plant and animal cell)

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2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization
1. Single-celled organisms
2. The earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth.
3. Include bacteria, archaebacteria, and cyanobacteria (photosynthetic organisms)
4. Many archaebacteria are extremophiles (organism that thrives in extreme environments)
• Extreme hot -boiling springs in Antarctica
• Extreme cold - permanently frozen environments
• Extreme salt
• Extreme acidic

5. Prokaryotic bacteria can be found almost anywhere, air water, soil, human and animal guts, skin etc.
6. Prokaryotes reside in the human digestive system and on the skin, are responsible for certain
illnesses, and serve an important role in the preparation of many foods

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes: soil bacteria, cyanobacteria,

The commensal bacteria that inhabit our skin and gastrointestinal tract do a host of good things for us. They protect us
from pathogens, help us digest our food, and produce some of our vitamins and other nutrients.
Some of the products of this early biotechnology are as familiar as cheese, bread, wine, beer, and yogurt, which employ
both bacteria and other microbes, such as yeast, a fungus
Clostridium difficile, a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium that causes severe diarrhea.

2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization
Using Prokaryotes to Clean up Our Planet: Bioremediation
Microbial bioremediation is the use of prokaryotes (or microbial metabolism) to remove pollutants. Bioremediation has
been used to remove agricultural chemicals (e.g., pesticides, fertilizers) that leach from soil into groundwater and the
subsurface. Certain toxic metals and oxides, such as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed from water by
bioremediation. The reduction of SeO4-2 to SeO3-2 and to Se0 (metallic selenium) is a method used to remove selenium ions
from water. Mercury (Hg) is an example of a toxic metal that can be removed from an environment by bioremediation.
Several species of bacteria can carry out the biotransformation of toxic mercury into nontoxic forms. These bacteria, such
as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can convert Hg+2 into Hg0, which is nontoxic to humans.
One of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil
spills. The significance of prokaryotes to petroleum bioremediation has been demonstrated in several oil spills in recent
years,
Some hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria feed on hydrocarbons in the oil droplet, breaking down the hydrocarbons into
smaller subunits. Some species, such as Alcanivorax borkumensis, produce surfactants that solubilize the oil (making it
soluble in water), whereas other bacteria degrade the oil into carbon dioxide.

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2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization

Bacteria on a Human Epithelial Cell from the Mouth. The bacteria are the small dark purple dots and dashes on
the light blue cell. The oval purple mass in the center is the nucleus of the epithelial cell.

2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization
Prokaryotes come in various shapes, but many fall into three categories: a) cocci (spherical), b) bacilli (rod-shaped), and c) spirilli
(spiral-shaped)

Assignment:
Eg. of each category
with disease they
cause

Prokaryotic cells share four common components:

(1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding
environment;
(2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the
cell in which other cellular components are found;
(3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and
(4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins.

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• Shapes of bacteria and their pathogenic nature

Bacillus:
• Nonpathogenic bacilli - Bacillus megatherium and Bacillus thuringiensis.
• Pathogenic bacilli - Bacillus cereus and B anthracis.
• Bacillus cereus sometimes - food poisoning of short duration.
• Bacillus anthracis - anthrax in human and domestic animals.
Coccus:
• Some coccus is pathogenic.
• Staphylococcus aureus: It is the leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections such as abscesses (boils),
furuncles, and cellulitis.
• Streptococcus pyogenes: It is a Gram-positive bacterium that causes several diseases in humans, including
pharyngitis, skin infections, acute rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, a toxic
shock-like syndrome, and necrotizing fasciitis.
• Streptococcus pneumonia: Pneumococcus bacteria can cause infections in many parts of the body, including the
lungs (pneumonia).
Spirilla:
• Campylobacter jejuni is the cause of bacterial diarrhea, especially in children.
• Helicobacter pylori are able to colonize the gastric mucosal cells of humans, i.e., the lining of the stomach,
and it has been well established as the cause of peptic ulcers

2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization
Bacterial Cell Membrane
The prokaryotic plasma membrane is a thin
lipid bilayer (6 to 8 nanometers) that
completely surrounds the cell and separates
the inside from the outside. Its selectively
permeable nature keeps ions, proteins, and
other molecules within the cell and prevents
them from diffusing into the extracellular
environment, while other molecules may
move through the membrane.

Bacterial and archaeal phospholipids.

Archaeal (archaeobacteria) phospholipids
differ from those found in Bacteria and
Eukarya in two ways. First, they have
branched phytanyl sidechains instead of linear
ones. Second, an ether bond instead of an ester
bond connects the lipid to the glycerol.

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2. Cell Types
• Prokaryotic cell and its organization
Bacterial Cell wall and plasma membrane Membrane protein
Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, composed of polysaccharide chains
that are cross-linked by unusual peptides containing both L- and D-amino acids
including D-glutamic acid and D-alanine. (Proteins normally have only L-amino
acids; as a consequence, many of our antibiotics work by mimicking D-amino
acids and therefore have specific effects on bacterial cell-wall development.)
There are more than 100 different forms of peptidoglycan. S-layer (surface Peptidoglycan
layer) proteins are also present on the outside of cell walls of both Archaea and Periplasmic space
Bacteria.
Plasma
membrane

Gram positive and gram negative bacteria 2. Cell Types

Bacteria are divided into two major groups:
• Gram positive and Gram negative, based on their reaction to Gram staining. The Gram staining method is named after
its inventor, Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938).
• The different bacterial responses to the staining procedure are ultimately due to cell wall structure.
❑ Gram-positive organisms - typically lack the outer membrane; 90 percent of the cell-wall → composed of peptidoglycan
Ramaining is Lipoteichoic acids which anchor the cell wall to the cell membrane
❑ Gram-negative organisms - a relatively thin cell wall → peptidoglycan (only 10 percent); surrounded by an outer
envelope containing lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and lipoproteins

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• Prokaryotic cell and its organization

2. Cell Types
Gram positive and gram negative bacteria

1.Fixation of clinical materials to the surface of the microscope

slide either by heating or by using methanol.
2.Application of the primary stain (crystal violet). Crystal
violet stains all cells purple
3.Application of mordant: The iodine solution (mordant) is
added to form a crystal violet-iodine (CV-I) complex; all cells
continue to appear purple.
4.Decolorization step: The decolorization step distinguishes
gram-positive from gram-negative cells. The organic solvent such
as acetone or ethanol extracts the blue dye complex from the
lipid-rich, thin-walled gram-negative bacteria to a greater degree
than from the lipid-poor, thick-walled, gram-positive bacteria. The
gram-negative bacteria appear colorless and gram-positive Reason for Gram positive cell wall to retain stain
bacteria remain blue. • Thick
5.Application of counterstain (safranin): The red dye safranin • Dense
stains the decolorized gram-negative cells red/pink; the gram- • Non porous
positive bacteria remain blue. • Strongly trap the stain

Assignment
Example of gram positive and negative bacteria
with their pathogenic nature

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Unicellular Organism Introduction of cell biology

Gram-Positive bacteria Gram-Negative bacteria

Cell Wall
A single-layered, smooth cell wall A double-layered, wavy cell-wall
Cell Wall thickness
The thickness of the cell wall is 20 to 80 The thickness of the cell wall is 8 to 10
nanometres nanometres
Peptidoglycan Layer
It is a thick layer/ also can be multilayered It is a thin layer/ often single-layered.
Outer membrane
The outer membrane is absent The outer membrane is present (mostly)
Porins
Absent Occurs in Outer Membrane
Mesosome
It is more prominent. It is less prominent.
Lipopolysaccharide
Absent Present
Toxin Produced
Exotoxins Endotoxins or Exotoxins

Introduction of cell biology

Unicellular Organism
Gram-Positive bacteria Gram-Negative bacteria
Resistance to Antibiotic
More susceptible More resistant
Examples
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, etc. Escherichia, Salmonella, etc.
Gram Staining
retain the crystal violet colour and appear as do not retain the stain colour and appear as
purple-coloured when examined under the pink-coloured when examined under the
microscope after gram staining. microscope after gram staining.

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• pathogenic nature of gram positive and gram negative bacteria

Gram positive bacteria:

1. Staphylococcus aureus - cause inflammatory disease, including skin infections, pneumonia, endocarditis,
septic arthritis, osteomyelitis and abscesses.
2. Staphylococcus epidermis commonly infects prosthetic devices and IV Catheters producing biofilms.
3. Staphylococcus pneumoniae most commonly causes otitis media, pneumonia, sinusitis and meningitis
4. Bacillus anthracis is a gram positive spore forming rod that produces anthrax toxin resulting in an ulcer
with black eschar.
Gram negative bacteria:
1.Helicobactor pylori causes gastric disease owing to its production of cytotoxin which promote the
production of proinflammatory cytokines, to disrupt cell polarity and to cause tissue damage.
2. Enterobacteriaceae family produce toxins released into environment or directed to host cells. Some
toxins play only an ancillary or even an unknown role in pathogenesis. •
3. Neisseria species
N. meningitidis inhibits the upper respiratory tract and can cause meningococcal disease
N. gonorrhoeae - gonorrhea, a sexually transmitted infection

• Prokaryotic cell and its organization

2. Cell Types
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm plays, if possible, an even more important role in prokaryotes than it does in eukaryotes. It is the site of all
chemical reactions and processes that take place in the prokaryotic cell.
Another deviation from the eukaryotic cell is the presence of small, circular, extrachromosomal DNA known as plasmid.
Nucleoid
Prokaryotes are named for their lack of nucleus (pro= before; karyon=kernal or compartment). Instead, Prokaryotes have
a single continuous strand of DNA. This DNA is found naked in the cytoplasm. The region of the cytoplasm where this
DNA is found is called the 'Nucleoid'. Prokaryotes do not package their DNA in this way. Instead, prokaryotic DNA twists
and twines around itself. Imagine twisting a couple of bracelets around one another.
Plasmid
A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA.
Often, the genes carried in plasmids provide bacteria with genetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance. Such
genes are also called R genes and when they are exchanged in population, they can become resistant to
antibiotic drugs. Plasmids have a wide range of lengths, from roughly one thousand DNA base pairs to hundreds
of thousands of base pairs. When a bacterium divides, it is copied such that each daughter cell receives a copy of
each plasmid. Bacteria can also transfer plasmids to one another through a process called conjugation.
Ribosomes
At its most simple, the ribosomes of bacteria are smaller, made of different subunits than those of eukaryotic cells. As
such, antibiotics can be designed to target prokaryotic ribosomes whilst leaving the eukaryotic cells (e.g. our cells or the
cells of animals) unharmed. Unlike in eukaryotic cells, ribosomes in prokaryotes are never found bound to other
organelles

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Reproduction of Prokaryotes
2. Cell Types
Binary fission or Asexual Reprodction
It is a form of asexual reproduction in which an organism divides into two, each part carrying one copy of genetic material.–
During binary fission, a single organism becomes two independent organisms. plasmids are often passed on to the daughter
cell because the cytoplasm is divided equally between the cells. Binary fission does not provide an opportunity for genetic
recombination or genetic diversity.

Steps of Binary fission:

As shown in figure 1, bacterial DNA is tightly coiled.
Sometimes, the prokaryote will carry small plasmids,
which are small rings of DNA that carry extra genetic
information. The DNA is unraveled or unfolded and the
specialized proteins gain access to the DNA, which
then works to replicate the DNA. The same proteins
work on the plasmids which also strats to divide (Fig
2). When the plasmid and DNA are duplicated then the
content of the cytoplasm also increases due to
duplication of other content of the cytoplasm.

The genetic material (DNA and plasmid) migrate to opposite poles of the cell (Fig 3). The cell elongates with a septum
forming at the middle (Fig 4). Now the duplicated content are enclosed in separate compartment surrounded by plasma
membrane. New cell was is formed at the middile (Fig 5) and tow daughter cells are separated (Fig 6).

• Prokaryotic cell and its organization

2. Cell Types

Reproduction

Sexual reproduction or Reconbination Technique:

In sexual reproduction, genetic material is exchanged between two cells which facilitates genetic recombination and
creates a genetic drift in the species of bacteria. Genetic variation within prokaryotic organisms is accomplished
through recombination. Sexual reproduction occurs through three processes
1. conjugation,
2. transformation, or
3. transduction.

1. Conjugation - where a modified pilus will be used for transfer of

genetic material between two bacterial cells. This results in
development of more genetic variant species duet to mixing of
genetic materials. This can result in a single mutation of bacteria
which may spread through an entire bacterial population. This is
why it is so important to finish any course of antibiotics prescribed.
A single survivor can spread its advantageous genes to existing
bacteria in your body, and any progeny of the cell will share its
antibiotic resistance.

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2. Cell Types
2. Transformation
In transformation, bacteria take up DNA from their surrounding environment. The DNA shed by another bacteria is taken up
by another bacteria and is incorporated into the DNA present inside the cell. The DNA is transported across the bacterial cell
membrane and incorporated into the bacterial cell's DNA.
3. Transduction
Transduction involves the exchange of bacterial DNA through viral infection. Bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria,
transfer bacterial DNA from previously infected bacteria to any additional bacteria that they infect.

Conjugation through
electron microscope
1. Conjugation 2. Transformation 3. Transduction

• Bacterial toxin

Bacterial toxins are virulence factors (causing disease) that manipulate host cell functions and take over the
control of vital processes of living organisms to favor microbial infection. Some toxins directly target innate
immune cells, thereby annihilating a major branch of the host immune response.Bacterial toxins show an
extreme diversity regarding their source, size, structure, mode of secretion, membrane/intracellular receptor
recognition, specific mode of action. Bacterial toxins are mainly divided into two types based on their
source: exotoxins and endotoxins.

Exotoxins are proteins or polypeptides and usually heat labile. They are secreted or produced by bacteria which
diffuse into the surrounding medium. They act at tissue which is away from the original point of bacterial
growth. Enterotoxins (targets intestine), neurotoxins, cytotoxins, lysins (e.g., hemolysin), gangrene-producing
toxins, etc., are some examples of bacterial endotoxins, the names also indicating the site of action of the toxin.
An exotoxin can cause damage to the host by destroying cells or disrupting normal cellular metabolism. They
are highly potent and can cause major damage to the host. The pathogenic bacteria that produce exotoxins
mainly include Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, Group A streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella dysenteriae, Yersinia pestis, Vibrio
cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, etc.

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Endotoxins
The endotoxins are located in the outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria. It is a part of exterior cell membrane
which act as a toxin. It is non-protein. Chemically it is Lipopolysaccharide or LPS. It consist of lipid and a sort sugar
chain with various modifications. It is also responsible for forming the structure of bacteria. It is the major component
of Gram-negative bacteria. Soluble endotoxin is released when bacteria are destroyed, but is also released
physiologically as outer membrane vesicles. The LPS discharges at the bacterial cell death. So, it generally acts at the
site where bacteria is growing. In this, the toxicity is related to the lipid component, on the other side immunogenicity is
related to polysaccharide components.
The Lipopolysaccharides gives rise to various inflammation and activates complement by the alternative pathway.
During the growth of the Gram-negative bacteria, it produces a small amount of endotoxin. Endotoxins play an
important role in increasing the natural immunity.

Fig. Structure of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

character Endotoxins Exotoxins

Associated with extrachromosomal genes (e.g.
Location Associated with chromosomal genes.
plasmids).
Toxicity Endotoxin is moderate toxic. Exotoxin is highly toxic.
It is produced after the disintegration of the It is produced in the living gram-positive bacteria and
Source
gram-negative bacteria. gram-negative bacteria.
It is heat stable and active at 250° C or even at
Heat sensitive Its is heat imbalanced and destroyed beyond 60-80° C.
1000° C.
Boiling It does not get denatured on boiling. It gets denatured on boiling.
Meningococcemia, sepsis by gram negative
Diseases Botulism, Diphtheria, Tetanus.
rods etc.
Endotoxins general symptoms are fever, Exotoxins symptoms are either cytotoxin, enterotoxin
Effects
diarrhea, vomiting etc. or neurotoxin with defined action on cells or tissues.
Neutralization It cannot be neutralized by antibodies. it can be neutralized by antibodies.
No effective vaccines are available for
Vaccines Effective vaccines are available for exotoxins.
endotoxin
Immunogenicity Endotoxins are weakly immunogenic. Exotoxins are highly immunogenic.
A large amount of toxin is required to cause a
Potency A single toxin molecule is enough to cause a disease.
disease.
Toxins produced by Staphylococcus
Toxins produced by E.coli, Shigella, Vibrio
Examples aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus anthracis,
cholera, Salmonella Typhi.
Bacillus cereus.

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• Eukaryotic cell and its organization 2. Cell Types

Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells containing organized nucleus (enclosed within the nuclear membrane) and membrane-
bound organelles enclosed by cell membrane. Examples of eukaryotic cells are plants, animals, protists, fungi. Their
genetic material is organized in chromosomes. Golgi apparatus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Nucleus are parts of Eukaryotic
Cells
There are four types of eukaryotes:
• animals
• plants
• Fungi (unicellular: yeast; multicellular: mushroom)
• Protozoans
o algae - unicellular- Chlorella, Chlamydomonas and
multicellular-spirogyra,
o amoeba
o paramecium

Unicellular eukaryotes can reproduce sexually or asexually. They move with the
use of flagella, which are small thread-like appendages that extend from the cell
membrane. Unicellular eukaryotes perform many of the same actions as
multicellular eukaryotes, such as locomotion, respiration, digestion, excretion,
and reproduction.

• Eukaryotic cell and its organization 2. Cell Types

Figures showing major organelles and cell components of a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical eukaryotic plant cell.

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Plasma membrane 2. Cell Types

Plasma membrane of eukaryotes has a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the
cell from its surrounding environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-
containing group. The plasma membrane controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of
the cell. Wastes (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the plasma membrane. Proteins
and cholesterol are embedded in the plasma membrane.
The plasma membranes helps in formation of microvilli which are
present in the cells that are specialized in absorption (eg. Intestine).
Palma membranes fold into fingerlike projections that we call
microvilli (singular = microvillus). Microvilli, as they appear on
cells lining the small intestine, increase the surface area available
for absorption.
People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten,
which is a protein in wheat, barley, and rye. The immune response
damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb
nutrients. This leads to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea.
Patients suffering from celiac disease must follow a gluten-free
diet.

2. Cell Types
Phospholipid Chemically

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Cytoplasm 2. Cell Types

The cytoplasm is the cell’s entire region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope (a structure we will discuss
shortly). The cytoplasm consists of
• Cytosol (constitute water, ions and various chemicals)
• organelles suspended in the cytosol
• the structural proteins that make up the cytoskeleton, or "skeleton of the cell
Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water, it has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the
structural proteins called cytoskeleton. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty
acids, and derivatives of glycerol are also there. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other elements also dissolve
in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.
Nucleus

It is a more or less spherical organell, located almost in the centre of the cell.
The nucleus houses the cell’s genetic material (DNA), proteins and ribosomes. DNA are
organized with the help of histone proteins to give chromosomes. Like cytoplasm, the gel-like
substance inside nucleus is called nucleoplasm which consist of various chemicals.
Nucleoplasm is enclosed by nuclear membrane, which is made up of two layers of membrane:
an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Each of these membranes contains two layers of
phospholipids, arranged with their tails pointing inward (like in plasma membrane).
The outer membrane is continuous to form another membranous organelle, called the endoplasmic reticulum. Nuclear pores,
consists of protein globules which let substances enter and exit the nucleus. The set of proteins in the nuclear pore are called
nuclear pore complex, that control what molecules can go in or out. A small spherical structure called nucleolus is present in
the nucleus, called the nucleolus, in which nucleic acid are stored. It is also the site in which new ribosomes are assembled.
Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.

Chromosome

Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of every eukaryotic cell and are made
up of DNA, tightly coiled around proteins. Chromosomes carry hereditary
information in the form of genes. Every eukaryotic species has a specific
number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell. Most sexually
reproducing organisms have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from
each parent. For example, in humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosome,
while in fruit flies, it is four. The DNA is packaged by special proteins called
histones to form chromatin. The chromatin further condenses to form
chromosomes.

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2. Cell Types
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and fibres to
provide perfect shape to the cell, anchor the organelles, and stimulate the cell movement.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a cell organelle. It is a network of small,
tubular structures. It is a continuous membrane system that forms a series
of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Proteins and
other molecules move through the endoplasmic reticulum. The outer
surface of the endoplasmic reticulum can be smooth or rough. is a very
important manufacturing site for lipids (fats) and many proteins. Many of
these products are made for and exported to other organelles. Depending
upon the certain physical and functional characteristics ER are of two types:
known as rough ER and smooth ER.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has many ribosomes on its outer surface and makes proteins the cell needs.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes other substances that the cell needs, such as lipids (fats) and
carbohydrates (sugars). Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.

https://www.gstatic.com/culturalinstitute/searchar/assets/edu_concepts_endoplasmic_reticulum/desktop_light.mp4

Golgi Apparatus
2. Cell Types
•It is a stack of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
•It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
•They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
•It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
•Its function is the intracellular transport of macromolecules such as lipids, protein, and carbohydrates.
Ribosomes
These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids. It can exist as a
single unit associated with ER (monosomes) or multiple units associated with mRNA (polysomes). Monosomes
medicate in the synthesis of secretory proteins (proteins secreted out of the cell) and organelle-targeted proteins
(proteins transported into specific organelles within the ell). Polysomes medicate in the synthesis of cytosolic
proteins.

Mitochondria
It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is
divided into folds called cristae. It is also involved in the regulation of cell
metabolism. Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most
of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. These are
also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy. Chemical energy
produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)

The number of mitochondria per cell varies widely—for example, in humans, erythrocytes (red blood cells) do not
contain any mitochondria, whereas liver cells and muscle cells may contain hundreds or even thousands

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2. Cell Types
Cell Wall
•A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is the outermost layer which surrounds the cell
membrane. It is, however, absent in animal cells. The cell wall is present in all plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae,
and some archaea. An animal cell is irregular in its shape and this is mainly due to the lack of cell wall. The
compositions of the cell wall usually vary along with organisms. The cell wall is present in all plant cells, fungi,
bacteria, algae, and some archaea. The compositions of the cell wall usually vary along with organisms. The
prokaryotic cell walls are composed of large polymers known as peptidoglycans. Plant cell constitutes
cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectin. Function of cell wall includes:
•It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
•It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
•It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.

•Vacuole
A vacuole is a membrane bound structure found in the cytoplasmic matrix of a cell. The membrane
surrounding the vacuole is known as tonoplast. The membranes are composed of phospholipids. The
membranes are embedded with proteins that help in transporting molecules across the membrane. Different
combinations of these proteins help the vacuoles to hold different materials.
The term “vacuole” means “empty space”. They help in the storage and disposal of various substances. They
can store food or other nutrients required by a cell to survive. They also store waste products and prevent the
entire cell from contamination. The vacuoles in plant cells are larger than those in the animal cells. The plant
vacuoles occupy more than 80% of the volume of the cell. The vacuoles may be one or more in number.

•Mitochondria

2. Cell Types
Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells. These are of three types:
•Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis (synthesis of glucose)
•Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red, or orange colours.
•Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates (starch), or proteins.

Lysosomes
They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The enzymes are collectively called acid hydrolase. Eg
RNAse – involve in digestion of RNA; DNAse- involve in digestion of DNA; acid phosphatase – involve indigestion
of phosphates; Protease – peptidase, collagenase

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Virus
2. Cell Types
A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat. A virus cannot replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and use
components of the host cell to make copies of itself. A virus is an infectious particle that reproduces by
"commandeering" a host cell and using its machinery to make more viruses.
In a study scientist found that some agent was causing a disease of tobacco plant but would not grow on an
artificial medium (like bacteria). It was too small to be seen through a light microscope. Later it was identified
as tobacco mosaic virus due to the advancement in cell culture and microscopy which helped scientists to
identify viruses.
Virus are so small that they can pass through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of bacteria.
They cannot grow on an artificial medium and are not visible under the light microscope. In independent
studies in 1915 by the British investigator Frederick W. Twort and in 1917 by the French Canadian scientist
Félix H. d’Hérelle, lesions in cultures of bacteria were discovered and attributed to an agent called
bacteriophage (“eater of bacteria”), now known to be viruses that specifically infect bacteria.

In 1949 the technique of culturing cells on glass surfaces was successfully developed which opened the door
for more study of virus. Virus cell were infected in the culture cells and studied their pathogenectiy,
metabolism and other biological processes. It also helped in production of vaccines. X-ray diffraction
provided the high resolution required to discover the basic structure of minute viruses. Applications of new
knowledge about cell biology and biochemistry helped to determine how viruses use their host cells for
synthesizing viral nucleic acids and proteins.

Virus
2. Cell Types
Definition
Viruses occupy a special taxonomic position because they are neither plants, animals, nor prokaryotic bacteria (single-cell
organisms without defined nuclei). They are generally placed in their own kingdom called “Virus”. It is hard to called them
organism because they are not free-living—i.e., they cannot reproduce and carry on metabolic processes without a host cell.
Unlike true organisms, viruses cannot synthesize proteins, because they lack ribosomes (cell organelles) for the translation of
viral messenger RNA (mRNA; a complementary copy of the nucleic acid of the nucleus that associates with ribosomes and
directs protein synthesis) into proteins. Viruses must use the ribosomes of their host cells to translate viral mRNA into viral
proteins. The invading virus uses the nucleotides and amino acids of the host cell to synthesize its nucleic acids and proteins,
respectively. Some viruses use the lipids and sugar chains of the host cell to form their membranes and glycoproteins (proteins
linked to short polymers consisting of several sugars).

All true viruses contain nucleic acid—either DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid)—and protein. The nucleic
acid encodes the genetic information unique for each virus.
Virion (Bhai-rion), an entire virus particle, consisting of an outer protein shell called a capsid and an inner core of nucleic acid
(either ribonucleic or deoxyribonucleic acid—RNA or DNA). The core confers infectivity, and the capsid provides specificity to
the virus.
The virion capsid has three functions: (1) to protect the viral nucleic acid from digestion by certain enzymes (nucleases), (2) to
furnish sites on its surface that recognize and attach (adsorb) the virion to receptors on the surface of the host cell, and, in some
viruses, (3) to provide proteins that form part of a specialized component that enables the virion to penetrate through the cell
surface membrane or, in special cases, to inject the infectious nucleic acid into the interior of the host cell.

Viroids are small single-stranded, circular RNAs that are infectious pathogens. Unlike viruses, they have no protein coating

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Virus
2. Cell Types
Host range and distribution
Virus are generally classified on the basis of the host they infect. On this basis viruses are divided into three categories:
Animals virus
Assignment:
Plants virus
Two examples of each type, their structure (figure) and pathogenic nature
Bacterial virus or bacteriophage
Virtually all plant viruses are transmitted by insects or other organisms (vectors) that feed on plants. The hosts of animal
viruses vary from protozoans (single-celled animal organisms) to humans. Many viruses infect either invertebrate animals
or vertebrates, and some infect both. Certain viruses that cause serious diseases of animals and humans are carried
by arthropods. These vector-borne viruses multiply in both the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate host.
Size: The amount and arrangement of the proteins and nucleic acid of
viruses determine their size and shape. The nucleic acid and proteins of each
class of viruses assemble themselves into a structure called a nucleoprotein,
or nucleocapsid. Most viruses vary in diameter from 20 nm to 250–400 nm;
the largest, however, measure about 500 nm in diameter and are about 700–
1,000 nm in length. Only the largest and most complex viruses can be seen
under the light microscope at the highest resolution.
Shapes of viruses are predominantly of two kinds:
1. Rods or filaments,
2. Spheres, which are actually 20-sided (icosahedral) polygons.
3. Complex – bacteriophage ( polygonal head, which contains the DNA
genome and a special-function rod-shaped tail of long fibres).

Virus - stricture
2. Cell Types
•Capsid
•The capsid is the protein shell that encloses the nucleic acid; with its enclosed nucleic acid, it is called the nucleocapsid. This
shell is composed of protein organized in subunits known as capsomers. They are closely associated with the nucleic acid and
reflect its configuration, either a rod-shaped helix or a polygon-shaped sphere. The capsid has three functions: 1) it protects the
nucleic acid from digestion by enzymes, 2) contains special sites on its surface that allow the virion to attach to a host cell, and
3) provides proteins that enable the virion to penetrate the host cell membrane and, in some cases, to inject the infectious
nucleic acid into the cell's cytoplasm.
•
•Envelope -
Many types of virus have a glycoprotein envelope surrounding the
nucleocapsid. The envelope is composed of two lipid layers interspersed
with protein molecules (lipoprotein bilayer) and may contain material from
the membrane of a host cell as well as that of viral origin. The virus obtains
the lipid molecules from the cell membrane during the viral budding
process. However, the virus replaces the proteins in the cell membrane with
its own proteins, creating a hybrid structure of cell-derived lipids and virus-
derived proteins. Many viruses also develop spikes made of glycoprotein
on their envelopes that help them to attach to specific cell surfaces.

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2. Cell Types
•Nucleic Acid - Just as other cells, the nucleic acid of each virus encodes the genetic information for the synthesis of all
proteins. Viruses contain either DNA or RNA, never both; the viral nucleic acid is either single or double stranded. Only a few
groups of viruses use DNA. Most of viruses are RNA virus which carry single-stranded RNA.
Type-
•DNA virus –DNA viruses contain usually double‐stranded DNA (dsDNA) and rarely single‐stranded DNA (ssDNA)
•RNA virus - Single-stranded RNA

•DNA Virus:
•Use the host's biochemical machinery to replicate their DNA. The DNA of some viruses can become integrated into the DNA
of the host cell. These properties enable DNA virus infections to become latent, reactivated under certain circumstances, and
possibly result in neoplastic transformation (cancer) of the cell.
•RNA Virus:
•There are two types of RNA-based viruses.
•Plus strand of RNA - It is called as plus strand because it acts as messenger RNA for direct synthesis (translation) of viral protein. Most
RNA virus have plus strand of RNA.
•Negative strand of RNA - A few, group of RNA virus have negative strands of RNA. In these cases, the virion has an enzyme, called
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (transcriptase), which must first catalyze the production of complementary messenger RNA from the
virion genomic RNA before viral protein synthesis can occur.

RNA viruses have high mutation rates because their RNA polymerase, which copies the viral genome, is incapable of detecting
and repairing replication errors. These mutations lead to changes in antigenicity, enabling RNA viruses often to evade host
immunity. Some RNA viruses, called retroviruses, contain reverse transcriptase (p. 33); this enzyme produces a DNA transcript
of the virus which then becomes integrated in the genome of the host cell to transform its behaviour.

Virus replication
2. Cell Types

Viral Replication Definition

•Viral replication is the process of forming of biological viruses in the course of the infection process within the host
cells.
•A virus has to go through the process of reproduction to generate new, infectious virions which are able to infect cells
within the body and subsequent hosts.
•After entering the body, the virus makes physical contact and crosses its plasma membrane the target cell.
•Inside it, it creates and reproduces its genome and facilitates the production of its proteins through host ribosomes.
•The particles of a virus are derived from the biomolecules that have been synthesized and transform into infectious
virus.
•Then, the virions are expelled from the cells in order to carry on the process of infection

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Virus - Replication
2. Cell Types

Virus Attachment to host cell

2. Cell Types

Cell surface receptors

Different viruses utilize specific receptors on the cell surface for attachment.

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Virus as a host for Drug Delivery

2. Cell Types

The infective capacity of virus makes it and excellent nanotool (carry drug in very small amount) for drug delivery. The
research is gaining more attention but due to ethical issue practical use is absent. Drug can be incorporated into the capsid
and the outer surface of the virus is modified with targeting antibodies or cell receptors. Such modified virus with drug can
deliver the drugs in a cell-specific manner. The drug delivery capability of virus was studied in vitro using doxorubicin in
Hela cells. It was found that the cancer cells infected with the virus showed apoptosis, confirming the delivery of the drug.
Hela cell = cervical cancer cell

Anti viral drugs

Direct virus-targeting antiviral drugs include

1. attachment inhibitors/entry inhibitors
Assignment
2. protease inhibitors, Example of drug of each group and the
3. polymerase inhibitors, viral disease they treat

4. nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors,

Antibiotics and their mechanism of action

The treatment of pathogens is usually well targeted. Antibiotics attack proteins or structures (such as the capsule or
pili) that have no eukaryotic counterpart. Due to this, the antibiotic can kill prokaryotes whilst leaving the eukaryotic
cells of the animal or human intact.
There are several classes of antibiotics, classified according to how they work:
1.Cephalosporins: first discovered in 1948 - they prevent proper production of a bacterial cell wall.
2.Penicillins: the first class of antibiotic discovered in 1896 then rediscovered by Flemming in 1928. Florey and Chain
isolated the active ingredient from the penicillium mould in the 1940s. Prevent proper production of bacterial cell walls
3.Tetracyclins: interfere with bacterial ribosomes, preventing protein synthesis. Due to more pronounced side-effects,
this is not often used with common bacterial infections. Discovered in the 1940s
4.Macrolides: another protein synthesis inhibitor. Erythromycin, the first of its class, was discovered in the 1950s
5.Glycopeptides: prevent polymerisation of the cell wall
6.Quinolones: interefere with important enzymes involved with DNA replication in prokaryotes. Due to this they have
very few side-effects
7.Aminoglycosides: Streptomycin, which was also developed in the 1940s, was the first to be discovered in this class.
They bind to the smaller bacterial ribosome subunit, thus preventing protein synthesis. These do not work well against
anaerobic bacteria.

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