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vitae orci pretium sollicitudin at nec ex.

NON-FERROUS
METALS
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS,
CONSTRUCTION, AND REPAIR

WCC-ATC Presented by JAMES VILLELA

OVERVIEW
01 Non-ferrous metals 06 Titanium and its Alloys

02 Aluminum and its Alloys 07 Properties of Titanium

03 Properties of Aluminum 08 Nickel and its Alloys

04 Magnesium and its Alloys 09 Properties of Nickel

05 Properties of Magnesium 10 Copper and its Alloys

WCC-ATC Page 02/N

 WHAT ARE
THE TWO DIFFERENT
TYPES OF METAL?
Page 03/N
TWO TYPES OF METAL
Ferrous Metals Non-ferrous Metals
Alloys that do not contain iron or may
Alloys that contain iron as its chief
contain but at very little percentage
constituents
compositions only

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 04/N
 NON-FERROUS
METALS

Page 05/N WCC-ATC

 NON-FERROUS METALS
Much of the metals used on
today's aircraft contains no
iron. Some of the more Aluminum
common non-ferrous metals Titanium
Nickel
used in aircraft construction Copper
are the following: Magnesium

Page 06/N Presented by JAMES VILLELA

 ALUMINUM AND
ITS ALLOYS

Aluminum is the most widely used

metal in modern aircraft
construction.

WCC-ATC Page 07/N

PROPERTIES
OF ALUMINUM

High strength-to-weight ratio

Ease of fabrication
High thermal and electrical conductivity
Excellent corrosion resistance
Lightweight with sufficient strength

WCC-ATC Page 08/N

PURE ALUMINUM

Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength for

aircraft construction, that is why it is necessary
to alloy aluminum to drastically increase its
strength

WCC-ATC Page 09/N

VARIOUS TYPES OF ALUMINUM MAY
BE DIVIDED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASS

Cast Alloys Wrought Alloys

Melted in a surface and then Alloy is worked in its solid form

poured into a mold. Suitable for using specific tools. May be shaped
casting in sand, permanent mold, by rolling, drawing, or forging.
or die casting.

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 10/N
 WROUGHT ALLOYS
Wrought alloy is mostly used in aircraft
construction, being used for stringers,
bulkheads, skin, rivet, and extruded sections.

Page 11/N
TEMPER F - Fabricated
O - Annealed
DESIGNATIONS H - Strain Hardened
T - Solution Heat Treated

Page 12/N
Page 13/N

ALLOYING AGENTS

Aluminum alloys are classified by their major

alloying ingredient. Wrought aluminum are
identified by a four-digit index system called
the Aluminum Association
ALUMINUM
ASSOCIATION
1XXX Pure Aluminum 5XXX Magnesium
2XXX Copper 6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
3XXX Manganese 7XXX Zinc
4XXX Silicon 8XXX Other Elements

WCC-ATC Page 14/N

Page 15/N
ALUMINUM ASSOCITAION
1XXX
Represents commercially pure aluminum of 99
percent or higher purity. High corrosion resistance,
excellent thermal and electrical properties, can be
easily worked, very low in strength.
3XXX
Utilize Manganese as the principal alloying
element. Generally considered non heat
treateable. Offers moderate strength and has
good working characteristics.
2XXX
Utilize copper as the principal alloying element.
These produce great stength, however, it is
susceptible to intergranular corrosion when
improperly heated.
4XXX
This is alloyed with silicon which lowers its
melting temperature. Ideal for welding and
brazing.
Page 16/N

ALUMINUM ASSOCITAION
5XXX
Utilize Magnesium as the principal alloying element.
Possesses good welding and corrosion resistance
characteristics. If exposed to high temperaturs, it
becomes susceptible to corrosion.
6XXX
Utilize Magnesium and Silicon as the alloying element.
These two form magnesium silicide which makes the
alloy heat treatable. It has medium strength with
good forming and corrosion resistance

7XXX 8XXX
Zinc is added to aluminum which is ideal for high
strength applications. Little forming is allowed.
Other elements
This alloy is very hard, thus making it difficult to
bend.
CLAD ALUMINUM ALLOY
Alclad is a pure aluminum coating that is rolled
on to the surface of heat-treated aluminum
alloy. This coated surface greatly increase the
corrosion resistance of an aluminum alloy.

Page 17/N
MAGNESIUM AND
ITS ALLOYS

Page 18/N
MAGNESIUM AND
ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium are used for castings. In its wrought form,

it is used in sheets, bars, tubing, and extrusions. It is
one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength
and suitable working characteristics for use in
aircraft structures

WCC-ATC Page 19/N

MAGNESIUM AND
ITS ALLOYS
Magnesium in its pure state lacks sufficient
strength for use as structural metal. It is alloyed
with zinc, aluminum, etc. to develop strength
characteristics that make it suitable for structural
applications.

Page 20/N Presented by JAMES VILLELA

 Properties of Magnesium

Lightweight
Highly susceptible to corrosion
Tends to crack
Burns readily

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 21/N
PROPERTIES OF MAGNESIUM
The cracking makes it difficult to form and limits its use
for thin sheet metal parts. This can be solved by forming
parts while the metal is hot. Hardware used with
magnesium should also be compatible with the material.

Page 22/N
 TITANIUM AND
ITS ALLOYS

Titanium has a high strength-

to-weight ratio. It is 50
percent lighter than stainless
steel.

WCC-ATC Page 23/N

 Properties of Titanium

Lightweight with very high strength

Excellent corrosion resistance
Soft and ductile in its pure form

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 24/N
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Because of its characteristics, Titanium has
been studied extensively. It is now used in the
civilian aerospace industry. Modern jet
transports also utilize Titanium for upto 10 to 15
percent of its structural areas.
Page 25/N
CLASSIFICATION OF
TITANIUM
Alpha Alpha-beta Beta

Alpha alloys have Most verstile Have medium

medium strength Titanium alloy. It has strength, excellent
of 120 KSI to 150 medium strength in forming
KSI. It has good its annealed characteristics. It can
elevated condition and higher be heat treated to a
temperature strength when heat very high strength.
strenght. treated

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 26/N
NICKEL
& ITS ALLOYS
Page 27/N
TWO TYPES OF NICKEL
Monel
Contains about 68 percent nickel and 29
percent copper, along with small
amounts of iron and manganese. Monel
works well in gears and parts that
require high strength and toughness.
Presented by
JAMES VILLELA
Inconel
International Nickel Company Inc. Inconel
contains 80 percent nickel and 14 percent
chromium with small amounts of iron and
other elements. Inconel is used in turbine
engines because of their ability to maintain
stength uder high temperatures.
Page 28/N
 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
Copper doesn't find much use as structural materials in
aircraft construction. However, due to its excellent
electrical and thermal conductivity, copper is the
primary metal used for electrical wiring.

Page 29/N
ALLOYS THAT USE
COPPER AS BASE METAL
Brass Bronze Beryllium
Beryllium is one of the
Contains zinc and Contains tin and is msot used copper alloys.
small amounts of iron, used in bushings, It consissts of 97 percent
lead, manganese, bearings, fuel copper and 2 percent
magnesium, nickel, metering valves, and beryllium. It is useful for
and tin. Brass can be valve seats. precision bearings and
ductile and can have bushings, ball cages, and
relatively high strength spring wasfers.

Presented by
JAMES VILLELA Page 30/N
THANK YOU!
END OF PRESENTATION

WCC-ATC Presented by JAMES VILLELA

 1/N
WCC-ATC

FERROUS METALS
AND ITS ALLOYS
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION, & REPAIR
 FERROUS METALS PHOSPHORUS

IRON NICKEL

STEEL CHROMIUM
TABLE OF SAE NICKEL-CHROMIUM
CONTENTS
ALLOYING AGENTS STAINLESS STEEL

CARBON MOLYBDENUM

SULFUR VANADIUM
2/N
SILICON TUNGSTEN
FERROUS METALS

3/N
Ferrous metals are alloys containing iron as its chief
constituent. the most common ferrous metals in aircraft
structures is steel, an alloy with a controlled amount of
carbon added.
IRON

Iron is an element which is fairly soft, 4/N

malleable, and ductile in its pure form. It

is silvery white in color and is quite heavy.
5/N

IRON

Iron combines readily

with oxygen to form iron
oxide, which is more
commonly known as rust
RUST
6/N

IRON

How is Iron produced?

Iron is produced by mixing iron ore with coke and limestone and submitting it to hot air. The coke
burns and forms superheated carbon monoxide which absorbs oxygen from the ore causing
molten irion to sink to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone reacts with impurities in th iron
and coke to form a slag which floats on top of the molten iron. The slag is removed, and the
refined metal is then poured from the furnace. The resulting metal is know as pig iron and is
typically remelted and cast into cast iron components, or converted into steel
7/N

STEEL

To make steel, pig iron is remelted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is then
forced through the molten metal where it combines with carbon. A controlled
amount of carbon is then put back into the molten metal along with other
elements to produce the desired characteristic.
Much of the steel used in aircraft construction is made in electric furnaces,
which allow better control of the alloying agents. An electric furnace id
loaded with scrap steel, limestone, and flux.
SAE
Society of SAE has classified steel alloys with a four-digit
Automotive numerical index system. The first digit identifies
Engineers the principal alloying element in the steel, the
second digit denotes the percent of this alloying
element, and the last two digits give the
percentage in hundredths of a percent of carbon in
the steel.

8/N
9/N
SAE Classification of Steels
1XXX 5XXX
CARBON STEEL CHROMIUM STEEL

2XXX 6XXX
NICKEL STEEL CHROMIUM VANADIUM STEEL

3XXX 8XXX
NICKEL CHROMIUM STEEL NATIONAL EMERGENCY STEEL

4XXX 9XXX
CHROMIUM MOLYBDENUM STEEL SILICON MANGANESE STEEL
10/N

ALLOYING AGENTS IN STEEL

Pure iron has its practical uses, however,

adding small amounts of other materials to
molten iron changes its properties.
CARBON

Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When 11/N
mixed with iron. compounds of iron carbides called cementite form. It
is the carbon in steel that allows the steel to be heat treated to obtain
varying degrees of properties. The greater the carbon content, the
more receptive steel is to heat treatment. However, higher carbon
content decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
12/N
LOW CARBON STEEL
Contain between 0.10 and 0.30
percent carbon and are classified
as SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steel.
These steels are primariliy used
in safety wire, cable bushings,
and threaded rod ends. In sheet
form , these metals are used for
secondary structures where
loads are not high. It is easily
welded and machines readily.
CARBON
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL HIGH CARBON STEEL
Contain between 0.30 and Contain between 0.50 and
0.50 percent carbon. The 1.05 percent carbon and
increased carbon helps these are very hard. These steels
steels accept heat treatement, are primarily used in
while retaining a reasonable springs, files, and some
degreee of ductility.
cutting tools.
Adaptable for machining and
forging, and for surface where
hardness is desirable.
13/N

SULFUR

Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged. It

must be removed in the refining process. If sulfur cannot
be removed, its effects can be countered by adding
manganese. Manganese combines with sulfur to form
manganese sulfide, which does not harm the finished
steel.
 14/N

SILICON
Silicon acts as a hardener when
alloyed with steel. When used in
small quantities, it also improves
ductility.
 It raises the yield
strength of steel and
PHOSPHORUS improves low carbon
steel's resistance to
corrosion. High amounts of
phosphorus may cause the
alloy to become brittle
when cooled.

15/N
 CHROMIUM

Chromium is alloyed with steel to increase strength and

hardness as well as imrpove its wear and corrosion
resistance. Chromium steel is used in balls and rollers
of antifriction bearings. Chromium is electrolytically
deposited on cylinder walls and bearing journals to
provide a hard, wear-resistance surface.
 NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL

Nickel toughens steel, Chromium hardens it. When both elements are
alloyed, they give steel desirable characteristics for use in
high-stength structural applications. Nickel-chrome steels such as
SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts requiring
high strength, ductility, shock resistance, and toughness

17/N
STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is a classification of corrosion-resistant

steels that contain large amounts of chromium and
nickel. Their strength and resistance to corrosion make
them well suited for high-temperature applications
such as firewells and exhaust system components.

18/N
19/N GENERAL GROUPS OF STEEL
AUSTENITIC FERITIC MARTENSITIC
Referred to as 200 and Primarily allloyed with Referred to as 400
300 series chromium. series
Contain large May also contain small Alloyed with
percentage of amounts of aluminum chromium and is
chromium and nickel Contain no carbon, magnetic.
Used in aircraft tubing therefore, do not Extremely hard if
such as engine fuel respond to heat allowed to cool
pipes, radiators, treatment rapidly by quenching
various sheet metal, Used in deep drawing form elevated
and welded operations and exhaust temperature
components manifold systems. Used in beams
 20/N

The corrosion-resistant
steel most often used in
aircraft construction is
known as 18-8 steel. It
contains 18 percent chromium
and 8 percent nickel.
 One of the most widely used alloying
MOLYBDENUM elements in aircraft structural steel.
It reduces the grain size of steel and
increase both its impact strength and
elastic limit. Molybdenum steels are
extremely wear resistant and possess a
great deal of fatigue strength. Used
in high strength structural members
and engine cylinder barrels

21/N
CHROME-MOLYBDENUM

Chrome-moly steel is the most commonly used alloy in aircraft. Its SAE
designation of 4130 denotes an aloy of approximately 1 percent molybdenum
and 0.30 percent carbon. It machines readily, is easily welded, and responds
well to heat treatment. It is ideal in landing gear structures and engine
mounts. It is also tough and wear-resistant, thus making it a good material
for engine cylinders.

22/N
23/N

VANADIUM

When combined with chromium, vanadium produces a strong, tough,

and ductile steel alloy. It amounts up to 0.20 percent improved
grain structure and increases both ultimate tensile strength and
toughness. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome-
vanadium steel. It is also the most expensive alloying element.
24/N

TUNGSTEN
Tungsten has an extremely high melting
point and adds this characteristic to
steel it is alloyed with. Because
tungsten steels retain their hardness
at elevated operating temperatures,
they are used for breaker contancts in
magnetos and for high-speed cutting
tools.
25/N

THANK YOU!
ACTIVITY NAMAN!
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE
Assembling and repairing different components
of an aircraft require aircraft hardware. The safe
and efficient operation of all aircraft depends on
the correct selection and use of aircraft
hardware.
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE IS GENERALLY BROKEN
INTO TWO SECTIONS, AIRCRAFT RIVETS, AND
AIRCRAFT FASTENERS
AIRCRAFT RIVETS
Aircraft riveting is the most common technique
of joining sheets of aluminum. A rivet is a metal
pin with a formed head on one end. A rivet is
inserted into a drilled hole and its shank is then
deformed by a hand or a pneumatic tool. It
creates a union at least as strong as the material
being used.
THE AIRWORTHINESS OF AN AIRCRAFT DOES
NOT ONLY PERTAIN TO ITS PERFORMANCE BUT
ALSO TO THE STRUCTURAL STRENGTH AND
INTEGRITY OF THE AIRCRAFT.
SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS
Each aircraft produced from a given design must
meet the same standards. Specifications and
standards for aircraft hardware are generally
identified by the organization originating them.
Some of the most common specifications and
standards are:
AMS - Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN - Air Force-Navy
AND - Air Force-Navy Design
AS - Aeronautical Standard
ASA - American Standards Association
ASTM - American Society for Testing and
Materials
MS - Military Standard
NAF - Naval Aircraft Factory
NAS - National Aerospace Standard
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
SOLID SHANK RIVETS
It has been used since sheet metal was utilized in
aircraft. It is the most commonly used aircraft
fastener today. Solid shank rivets are available in
a variety of dimensions and sizes to
accommodate different applications
RIVET CODES
Two coding systems are used today, AN or air
force navy system, and MS20 or military
standard 20 system. The first component of a
rivet code denotes the numbering system used.
The second part describes the style of the rivet
head. The third part of the code is a one or two-
digit letter code representing the alloy material
used in the rivet. After the alloy code is the shank
diameter which is indicated in 1/32 inch
increments and the length in ⅙ inch increments.

RIVET MEASUREMENTS
Before a rivet is driven, it should extend beyond
the base material at least one and a half times
the rivet’s diameter. Once driven, the rivet shank
expands to fill the hole and the bucktail expands
one and a half times its original diameter. Once
the bucktail expands to the appropriate
diameter, it should extend beyond the base
material by at least one half the original rivet
diameter.
RIVET HEAD DESIGN
SOLID SHANK RIVETS ARE AVAILABLE IN TWO
STANDARD HEAD STYLES, UNIVERSAL AND
COUNTERSUNK/FLUSH. THE 470 UNIVERSAL
HEAD RIVET NOW REPLACES PREVIOUS
PROTRUDING HEAD STYLES SUCH AS ROUND,
FLAT, BRAZIER, AND MODIFIED BRAZIER.
426 countersunk rivets were developed to
streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow
over an aircraft’s wing or control surfaces. Before
a countersunk rivet is installed, the sheet metal
must be countersunk or dimpled. Countersinking
is a process in which the metal in the top sheet is
cut away in the shape of the rivet head.
On the other hand, dimpling is a process that
mechanically dents the sheets being joined to
accommodate the rivet head. Thickness of sheet
will determine which method is best suited for a
particular application.
Joints utilizing the countersunk rivets generally
lack the strength of protruding head rivet joints
because a portion of the material is cut away. To
provide a smooth finish after the rivet is driven,
the protruding rivet head is removed using a
microshaver (a rotary cutter that shaves the rivet
flush with the skin to obtain an aerodynamically
clean surface)
RIVET ALLOYS
1100
● Made of pure aluminum
● No identifying marks on the head
Designated by the letter A in the rivet
code.
● Lacks strength for
● applications, restricted
● structural assemblies such as fairings
(produce a smooth outline in aircraft
connections to reduce drag), engine
baffles.
2117
● 2117-T3 is the most widely used in
manufacture and maintenance of modern
aircraft
● Identified by a dimple in the center of the
head
● Represented by letter AD
● Referred to as field rivets because it is very
common and require no heat treatment
5056
● Identified by a raised cross on the head
● Denoted by the letter B in rivet code
● Some aircrafts are made of magnesium
(thrust reversers of commercial aircraft), if
aluminum rivets were used on these parts,
dissimilar corrosion could result. For this
reason, magnesium structures are riveted
with 5056 rivets which contain 5 percent
magnesium.
2017
● Identified by a raised dot in the center of
the head.
● Denoted by the letter D in rivet codes.
Very hard and must be heat treated before
they can be used.
● In its annealed state, it is stored in a
freezer and is commonly referred to as ice
box rivets. These rivets become hard when
they warm up to room temperature

2024
● Denoted by the letter DD in rivet codes.
● Identified by two raised dashes on the
head
● Also called as icebox rivets and must be
stored at cool temperatures until they are
ready to be driven.
7050
● Identified with a raised circle
● Denoted by the letter E in rivet codes.
● New and stronger rivet alloy developed in
1979
● Contains zinc
● Used in Boeing as replacement for 2024 in
767
CRES
● Denoted by the letter F in rivet codes.
● Used for fastening CRES steel sheets in
applications such as firewalls
● No marking on their heads
MONEL
● Identified with two recessed dimples in
their heads.
● Used in place of CRES rivets when their
somewhat lower shear strength is not a
detriment.
RIVET SELECTION
● Do not use a lower strength rivet alloy as
replacement to a higher strength alloy
unless it is larger than the one that was
removed.
● Enlarged, deformed, or damaged holes
should use the next larger rivet size as
replacement.
● Same degree of countersunk must be
used.
● Maximum rivet diameter should be 3
times the thickness of the thickest sheet
● Rivet length should be one and a half times
of the rivet diameter plus the grip length.
SPECIAL RIVET
A rivet is any type of fastener that obtains
clamping action by having one of its ends
mechanically upset. Conventional solid shank
rivets require access to both ends. However,
special rivets, often called as blind rivets, are
installed with access to only one end of the rivet.
Blind rivets are more expensive than solid shank
rivets, but they still find many applications in
today’s aircraft industry.
POP RIVETS
Pop rivets have limited use on aircraft and are
never used for structural repairs. However, they
are useful for temporarily lining up holes. Some
home-built aircraft utilize pop rivets. They are
made from soft aluminum alloy, steel, copper,
and Monel.
FRICTION-LOCK RIVETS
Friction-locked blind rivets have a multiple- piece
construction and rely on friction to lock the stem
to the sleeve. As the stem is drawn up into the
rivet shank, the stem portion upsets the shank
on the blind side, forming a plug in the hollow
center of the rivet
HUCK-LOCKS
Huck-Lok rivets were the first mechanical- lock
rivets and are used as structural replacements
for solid shank rivets. However, because of the
expensive tooling required for their installation,
Huck-Loks are generally limited to aircraft
manufacturers and some large repair facilities

Many friction-locked blind rivet center stems fall
out due to vibration, which greatly reduces its
shear strength. To combat that problem, most
friction-lock blind rivets are replaced by the
mechanical-lock.
CHERRYLOCKS
The Cherry mechanical-lock rivet, often called
the bulbed CherryLOCK, was developed shortly
after the Huck-Lok. Like the Huck-Lok, the
CherryLOCK rivet is an improvement over the
friction-lock rivet because its center stem is
locked into place with a lock ring. This results in
shear and bearing strengths that are high
enough to allow CherryLOCKS to be used as
replacements for solid shank rivets.

MECHANICAL-LOCK RIVETS
Mechanical-lock rivets were designed to prevent
the center stem of a rivet from falling out as a
result of the vibration encountered during
aircraft operation. Unlike the center stem of a
friction-lock rivet, a mechanical-lock rivet
permanently locks the stem into place and
vibration cannot shake it loose.
OLYMPIC-LOCKS
Olympic-lok blind fasteners are light weight,
mechanically locking spindle-type blind rivets.
Olympic-loks come with a lock ring stowed on
the head. As an Olympic-lok is installed, the ring
slips down the stem and locks the center stem to
the outer shell. These blind fasteners require a
specially designed set of installation tools

AIRCRAFT HARDWARE PART 2
AIRCRAFT FASTENERS
Unlike rivets, which are considered to be a
permanent fastener, there is a second type of
fastener that can be reused. These fasteners
include threaded hardware such as bolts and
screws, and the various types of nuts that secure
them.
THREADED FASTENERS
Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened
together with all the strength unthreaded
fasteners provide. However, unlike rivet,
threaded fasteners may be disassembled and
reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
THREAD TYPE & FITS
The difference between the American National
series and the American Standard Unified series
is the American National series has more threads
per inch than the American Standard Unified
series. For example, on a one inch diameter bolt,
the NF thread specifies 14 threads per inch, while
the UNF thread specifies 12 threads per inch.
THREAD TYPE
Aircraft bolts, screws, and nuts are threaded in
either:
• American National Coarse (NC)
• American National Fine (NF)
• American Standard Unified Coarse (UNC)
• American Standard Unified Fine (UNF)
A Class 1 fit allows you to turn the nut all the way
down using only your fingers. Wing nuts are a
good example of a Class 1 fit. A Class 4 and 5 fit
requires a wrench to turn a nut down from start
to finish. Aircraft bolts are usually fine threaded
with a Class 3 fit, whereas screws are typically a
Class 2 or 3 fit.
THREAD FITS
Threads are also designated by class of fit from
one to five.
• Class 1 - Loose Fit
• Class 2 - Free Fit
• Class 3 - Medium Fit
• Class 4 - Close Fit
• Class 5 - Tight Fit
DESIGNATION CODES
Threaded fasteners are given a part code
indicating a fastener's diameter in 1/16 inch
increments and its length in 1/8 inch increments.
For example, an AN4-7 identifies a bolt that
measures 4/16 or 1/4 inch in diameter and 7/8
inch in length.
For bolts that are longer than 7/8 inch, the code
changes. For example, a 1 inch bolt is identified
by a 10 representing 1 inch and no fraction.
Therefore, a bolt that is 1 1/2 inches long is
identified by a 14. A bolt with the code AN5-22
identifies an Air Force-Navy bolt that is 5/16 inch
in diameter and 2 1/4 inches long.
STANDARD AIRCRAFT BOLTS
A bolt is designed to hold two or more items
together. Bolts that are typically used for air-
frame structural applications have hex heads and
range in size from AN3 to AN20.
A diameter represents the shank diameter while
the length represents the distance from the
bottom of the head to the end of the bolt. A
bolt's grip length is the length of the unthreaded
portion.
• A corrosion resistant bolt, on the other
hand, is identified by the letter "C"
inserted between the diameter and length
designations.
• Aluminum alloy bolts are identified by the
letters "DD."
• "H" after the number indicating the
diameter head indicates a drilled head.
The head is drilled for safetying
• "A" after the dash number refers to an
undrilled shank. The shank is drilled for
locking through the insertion of a pin.

BOLT HEAD SYMBOL

• Aircraft bolts are available in cadmium-

plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant
steel, and in 2024 aluminum alloy. Unless
specified, a bolt is made of
cadmiumplated nickel steel.
DRILLED HEAD ENGINE BOLTS
• AN73 through AN81 are hex-headed bolts
that are similar in appearance to the
standard hex bolt, but has a deeper head
that is drilled to receive wire for safetying.
• Drilled-head engine bolts have a thicker
head for accommodating the drilled hole.
• Made with fine or course threads. A fine
threaded bolt is identified by the absence
of an "A" preceding the dash number,
while a course threaded bolt is identified
by the presence of the letter "A" before
the dash number.
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS
• Close tolerance bolts are designated
AN173 to AN186 and are much tighter
than standard AN3 through AN14. Close
tolerance bolts must be used in areas that
are subject to pounding loads or in a
structure that is required to be both
riveted and bolted.
• A thin layer of grease is usually applied to
the shank of a close tolerance bolt prior to
installation to provide some degree of
corrosion protection.
• The diameter and length of close-
tolerance bolts are measured in the same
increments as standard air-frame bolts.
For example, an AN175-26A designates a
5/16-inch diameter close-tolerance bolt
that is 2 3/4 inches long and has an
undrilled shank.
CLEVIS BOLT
• All bolts
discussed so
far may be
used for
either shear
or tensile loads. However, some
applications require a bolt to be loaded in
shear only. For these applications, a clevis
bolt is used.
• The AN21 through AN36 clevis bolt has a
domed head that is typically slotted or
recessed to accept a screwdriver.
• Only a short portion of the shank is
threaded, and there is a small notch
between the threads and the shank. This
results in a long grip length which
increases the bolt's shear strength and
allows the bolt to rotate more freely in its
hole.
• The diameter of a clevis bolt is given in
1/16-inch increments. The length of a
clevis bolt is more critical than that of the
other types of bolts and, therefore, it is
also measured in 1/16-inch increments
with a dash number indicating the length.
For example, an AN29-20 identifies a 9/16-
inch diameter clevis bolt that is 20/16 (1
1/4) inches long.
BOLT SELECTION AND INSTALLATION NON-SELF-LOCKING NUTS
• When joining two pieces of material, their A non-self-locking nut relies on either a cotter
combined thickness determines the pin, check nut, or lock washer to hold it in place
correct length of bolt to use. A bolt's grip
length is the length of the shank's
unthreaded portion and should be
identical to the total thickness of the
materials being fastened together.
• If the grip length is slightly longer than this
thickness, washers must be added to
ensure that the nut can provide the proper
amount of pressure when it is tightened. If
the grip length is substantially less than
the thickness of the materials, the bolt's SELF-LOCKING NUTS
threads will extend into the material,
resulting in a weaker joint.
• If nothing is specified about the washers
being used, it is good practice to use a
washer under both the bolt head and nut
to protect the material.
• Unless otherwise specified in an assembly
drawing, bolts should be installed with
their head on top or forward. Placing the
head in either of these positions makes it
less likely that a bolt will fall out of a hole
if the nut is lost. FIBER/NYLON TYPE
AIRCRAFT NUTS • AN365 self-locking nuts are held in
All nuts used in aircraft construction must have position by a nylon insert above the
some sort of locking device to prevent them from threads. This insert has a hole slightly
loosening and falling off. There are two basic smaller than the thread diameter on
types of nuts, self-locking nots and non-self which it fits.
locking nots • The nylon insert exerts a strongdownward
push on the nut and creates friction
SELF-LOCKING NUTS between the threads and nut to keep the
A self-locking nut locks onto a bolt on its own. nut from vibrating loose.
Employ a locking device in their design to keep
them from coming loose.
 • Nylon self-locking nuts should not be used
in any location where the temperature
could exceed 250 F.
METAL TYPE
• All-metal lock nuts are used in applications
where temperatures exceed 250 F.
• Some of these nuts have a portion where
the end of the nut have a slightly smaller
diameter than its body allowing the
threads to grip the bolt.
• Others have the end of the nut squeezed
into a slightly oval shape, and as the bolt
screws up through the threads it must
make the hole round, creating a gripping
action.
ANCHOR NUTS
SCREWS
Screws are probably the most used threaded
fastener in aircraft. They differ from bolts in that
they are generally made of lower strength
materials. Screws are typically installed with a
loose-fitting thread, and the head shapes are
made to engage a screwdriver or wrench.
CLASSIFICATIONS
There are three basic classifications of screws
used in aircraft construction:
• Machine screws, which are the most
widely used;
• Structural screws, which have the same
strength as bolts; and
• Self-tapping screws, which are typically
used to join lightweight materials.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCREWS
MACHINE SCREWS
• Machine screws are used extensively for
attaching fairings, inspection plates and
other light structural parts.
• The threads of a machine screw usually
run the full length of the shank, whereas
bolts have an unthreaded grip length.
STRUCTURAL SCREWS
• Made of alloy steel, are heat treated, and
can be used as structural bolts.
• They have a definite grip and the same
shear strength as a bolt of the same size.
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS
Self-tapping screws have coarse- threads and are
used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic, or
plywood together. The type-A screw has a gimlet
(sharp) point, and the type B has a blunt point
with threads that are slightly finer than those of
a type-A screw.
CLASSIFICATIONS CLEVIS PIN
There are four types of heads available on self- Clevis, or flat-head, pins
tapping screws: are used for hinge pins in
• Round head some aircraft control
• Truss head systems (control cable
• Countersunk head systems). When installing a clevis pin, place the
• Countersunk oval screw. head in the up position, place a plain washer over
the opposite end, and insert a cotter pin through
the hole to lock the pin in place.

PINS
Pins are used in shear applications and for safe
tying.
TYPES OF PINS
The main types of pins used in aircraft
structures are the following:
• Roll pins
• Clevis pins
• Cotter pin
• Taper pin
ROLL PIN
Roll pins are often used to
provide a pivot for a joint where
the pin is not likely to be
removed. A roll pin is made of flat spring steel
that is rolled into a cylinder but the two ends are
not joined.
This allows the pin to compress when it is
pressed into a hole and create a spring action
that holds the pin tight against the edge of the
hole.
COTTER PINS
Castellated nuts are
locked onto drilled
bolts by passing a
cotter pin through
the hole and then spreading the ends of the
cotter pin. There are two methods of securing
cotter pins that are generally acceptable. For the
first method, one leg of the cotter pin is bent up
over the end of the bolt, and the other leg is bent
down over one of the flats of the nut. With the
second method, the cotter pin is rotated 90
degrees and the legs wrapped around the
castellations. If the castellations in the nut fail to
align with the drilled bolt hole, add washers
under the nut until a cotter pin can be inserted.
TAPER PINS
Both the plain and threaded
taper pin are used in aircraft
structures to make a joint
that is designed to carry
shear loads. This type of pin does not allow any
loose motion or play. It can be safe tied by-
passing safety wire around the shaft and through
a hole drilled in its large end.
WASHERS
Washers provide a bearing surface area for nuts,
and act as spacers to obtain the proper grip
length for a bolt and nut assembly. They are also
used to adjust the position of castellated nuts
with respect to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts as
well as apply tension between a nut and a
material surface to prevent the nut from
vibrating loose. The three most common types of
washers used in airframe repair are the plain
washer, lock washer, and special washer.

PLAIN WASHERS
An AN960 plain washer provides a smooth
surface between a nut and the material being
clamped. They are available in sizes that range
from those that fit a number two machine screw
to those that fit a one-inch bolt. When working
with wood or composite structures, washers
with a large surface area are used to spread the
fastener load over a wider area.

LOCK WASHERS
In some instances, it is not convenient to use
self-locking nuts or cotter pins on bolts. For these
applications, a lock washer is often used
between the nut and joint surface if the joint is
not structurally critical. Lock washers are made
of steel and are twisted so that when a nut is
tightened against it, the spring action of the
washer creates a strong friction force between
the bolt threads and those in the nut.
AIRCRAFT MATERIAL PROCESSES
METAL WORKING
There are three methods of metalworking: (1)
hot-working, (2) cold-working, and (3) extruding.
The method used
will depend on the
metal involved and
the part required,
although in some
instances both hot
and cold-working
methods may be
used to make a single part.
HOT WORKING
Hot working is the plastic deformation of metals
above their recrystallization temperature. Hot
working occurs under conditions of temperature
and strain rate such that recrystallization
occurs simultaneously with deformation.
• Plastic deformation is a permanent
deformation, and is obtained by applying forces
great enougn to exceed elastio limit of the
material.
• Recrystallization temperature is the
temperature at which new, unstrained crystals
trom the original distorted grains are formed
after being plastically deformed.
ADVANTAGES
• The yield strength of metals decreases as
temperature increases, and the ductility
increases. Thus, it becomes possible to
alter the shape of metals drastically by hot
working without causing them to fracture
and without the necessity for using
excessively large forces.
• Hot working does not produce strain
hardening. Therefore, it does not cause
any increase in yield strength or hardness,
or corresponding decrease in ductility.
• Undesirable coarse or columnar grains
may be eliminated and a fine, randomly
oriented grain structure may be obtained.
Metals with fine grain structures have
superior strength, ductility and toughness.
• Impurities which are located around grain
boundaries are often reoriented into a
"crack-arrestor" configuration,
perpendicular to crack propagation.
DISADVANTAGES
• The high temperatures may promote
undesirable reactions between the metal
and surroundings.
• Tolerances are poorer due to thermal
contractions and possible non uniform
cooling.
• Metallurgical structure may also be non-
uniform.
ROLLING TYPES OF DEFORMATION
Rolling usually is the first step in converting cast • Draw out, in which length is increased and
material (ingot) into finished wrought products. cross section is decreased.
Hot rolled products, such as sheets, plates, bars,
• Upset, in which cross section is increased and
and strips, serve as input material for further
processes, such as cold forming or machining. length is decreased.
Basically, hot rolling consists of passing heated • Squeeze, in which multidirectional flow is
metal between two rolls that revolve in opposite produced impression dies in closed
directions, the size of the gap between the rolls
being somewhat less than the thickness of the
entering metal.

Charactristics, Quality, and Tolerances

• Because they are rolled and finished above
the recrystallization temperature, hot rolled
products have minimum directional
properties and are relatively free of residual
stresses.
• Generally free of voids, cracks, or
laminations.
• Surfaces are slightly rough and covered with TYPES OF FORGING
high temperature oxide known as mill scale.
• Open Die Hammer or Smith Forging
Okay
• Dimensional tolerances vary with the kind of • Impression-Die Drop or Closed-Die Forging
metal and the size of the product. For most • Counterblow or Impact Forging
products the tolerance is from 2 to 5 % of the • Press Forging
size (height or width). • Upset Forging
• Roll Forging

FORGING
COLD WORKING
Forging is the plastic working of metal by means
Cold working is the plastic deformation of metals
of localized compressive forces exerted by
below their recrystallization temperature. It is
manual or power hammers, presses, or special
generally performed at room temperature.
forging machines. It may be done either hot or
cold.
ADVANTAGES
• No heating is required.
• Better surface finish is obtained.
• Superior dimension control.
• Better reproducibility and
interchangeability of parts. I
• Improved strength and hardness
properties.
• Directional properties can be imparted.
• Contamination problems are minimized.
DISADVANTAGES
• Higher forces are required for
deformation.
• Heavier and more powerful equipment is
required.
• Less ductility is available.
• Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-
free.
• Strain hardening occur.
• Imparted directional properties may be
detrimental.
• May produce undesirable residual
stresses.
In cold working, after completing the
deformation and releasing the force, the
workpiece tries to return back to its original
shape, and some amount of strain on the
workpiece is recovered, i.e. the strain decreases.
The amount of decrease in the strain is called
springback. Cold working tools (e.g. dies) should
be designed by considering the springback
effects.
SQUEEZING PROCESS
Most of the cold working squeezing processes
have identical hot working counterparts or are
extension of them. The primary reasons for
deforming cold rather than hot are to obtain
better dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
In many cases the equipment is basically the
same, except that it must be more powerful.
BENDING PROCESS
Bending is the plastic deformation of metals
about a linear axis with little or no change in the
area. When two or more bends are made
simultaneously with the use of a die, the process
is sometimes called forming. If the axes about
which deformation occurs are not linear or not
independent, it is known as drawing, it is not
bending. In bending, two axes involved in
forming may be at an angle to each other, but
each axis must be linear and independent of the
other.
SHEARING PROCESS
Shearing is the mechanical cutting of materials in
sheet or plate form without the formation of
chips or use of burning or melting. When the two
cutting blades are straight, the process is called
shearing. Processes in which the shearing blades
are in the form of the curved edges of punches
and dies, are called by other names, such as
blanking, piercing, notching, shaving, trimming,
etc.
DRAWING PROCESS
Cold drawing is a term that can refer to two
somewhat different operations. If the stock is in
the form of sheet metal, cold drawing is the
forming of three-dimensional parts wherein
plastic flow occurs over a curved axis.
This type of cold drawing is similar to hot
drawing. On the other hand, if the stock is bar,
tube, wire, or rod, cold drawing refers to the
process of reducing the cross section and
increasing the length of the metal by pulling it
through a die.
EXTRUSION
In the extrusion process, metal is compressively
forced to flow through a suitably shaped die to
form a product with reduced cross section.
Although extrusion may be performed either hot
or cold, hot extrusion is employed for many
metals to reduce the forces required, eliminate
cold-working effects, and reduce directional
properties.
• Almost any cross-sectional shape can be
extruded.
• The amount of reduction in a single step is
limited only by the capacity of the
equipment.
• Extrusion dies are relatively inexpensive.
• Product changes require only a die
change, so small quantities of a desired
shape can often be produced
economically by extrusion.
• The major limitation of the process is the
requirement that the cross section must
be the same for the length of the product
being extruded.
• The dimensional tolerances of extrusions
are very good. For most shapes ± 0.003
mm/mm or a minimum of ± 0.07 mm is
easily attainable.
HEAT TREATMENT
All heat-treating processes are similar because
they all involve the heating and cooling of
metals. However, there are differences in the
methods used, such as the heating
temperatures, cooling rates, and quenching
media necessary to achieve the desired
properties.

The heat treatment of ferrous metals usually
consists of annealing, normalizing, hardening,
and/or tempering. Most nonferrous metals can
be annealed, but never tempered, normalized,
or case hardened.
To successfully heat treat a metal, you need to
have the proper equipment with close control
over all factors relevant to the heating and
cooling. For example, the furnace must be the
proper size and type with the temperatures
controlled and kept within the prescribed limits
for each operation, and you must have the
appropriate quenching media to cool the metal
at the correct rate.
STAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT
STAGE 1 - In the heating stage, the primary
objective is to heat uniformly, and you attain and
maintain uniform temperatures by slow heating.
If you heat unevenly, one section can expand
faster than another, resulting in a distorted or
cracked part.
STAGE 2 - In the soaking stage, the objective is to
hold the metal to the proper temperature until
the desired internal structural changes take
place. The chemical analysis of the metal and the
mass of the part will determine the appropriate
soaking period. you should not bring the
temperature of a metal directly from room
temperature to soaking temperature in one
operation.
Instead, heat the metal slowly to a temperature
just below the point at which the internal change
occurs and hold it at that temperature until you
have equalized the heat throughout.
STAGE 3 - To cool the metal and attain the
desired properties, you may need to place it in
direct contact with a cooling medium (a gas,
liquid, solid, or a combination), and any cooling
rate will depend on the metal itself and the
chosen medium. Therefore, the choice of a
cooling medium has an important influence on
the properties desired. Cooling metal rapidly in
air, oil, water, brine, or some other medium is
called quenching.
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT
ANNEALING
The objective of annealing is the opposite of
hardening. You anneal metals to relieve internal
stresses, soften them, make them more ductile,
and refine their grain structures. The process
includes all three stages of heat treatment
already covered (heat the metal to a specific
temperature, hold it at a temperature for a set
length of time, cool it to room temperature), but
the cooling method will depend on the metal and
the properties desired.
FERROUS METALS
To anneal ferrous metals and produce the
maximum softness in steel, you slowly heat the
metal to its proper temperature, soak it, and
then let it cool very slowly by burying the hot
part in an insulating material, or by shutting off
the furnace and allowing the furnace and the
part to cool slowly together.
Extremely low-carbon steels require the highest
annealing temperature, but as steel’s carbon
content increases, its annealing temperatures
decrease.
NON FERROUS METALS
Copper becomes hard and brittle when
mechanically worked, but it can be made soft
again by annealing at a temperature between
700°F and 900°F. However, copper may be
cooled rapidly or slowly since the cooling rate
has no effect on the heat treatment. One
drawback experienced in annealing copper is the
phenomenon called “hot shortness.” Copper
loses its tensile strength at about 900°F and if not
properly supported, it could fracture. Aluminum
also has the characteristic of “hot shortness,”
and reacts similarly to copper when heat
treating.
NORMALIZING
Normalized steel has a higher strength than
annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength
and ductility, much tougher than in any other
structural condition. Metal parts that will be
subjected to normalized.
The intent of normalizing is to remove internal
stresses that may have been induced by heat
treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or
machining. Uncontrolled stress leads to metal
failure.
Normalizing applies to ferrous metals only, and it
differs from annealing; the metal is heated to a
higher temperature, but then it is removed from
the furnace for air cooling.
HARDENING
However, while hardening heat treatment does
increase the hardness and strength of the steel,
it also makes it less ductile, and brittleness
increases as hardness increases. To remove
some of the brittleness, you should temper the
steel after hardening.
Many nonferrous metals can also be hardened,
and their strength increased by controlled
heating and rapid cooling, but for nonferrous
metals, the same process is called heat
treatment rather than hardening.
For most steels, hardening consists of employing
the typical first two stages of heat treatment, but
the third stage is dissimilar. With hardening, you
rapidly cool the metal by plunging it into oil,
water, or brine.
The real difference in each heat treatment
process occurs in stage three. The cooling rate
required to produce hardness decreases when
alloys are added to steel; this is advantageous
since a slower cooling rate also lessens the
danger of cracking and warping.
CASE HARDENING
The objective of case hardening is to produce a
hard, wear-resistant surface over a strong, tough
core. The surface of the metal is chemically
changed by the introduction of a high carbide or
nitride content, but the core remains chemically
unaffected.
TYPES
Carburizing - carbon is added to the surface of
low- carbon steel where the case becomes
hardened and the core remains soft.
Cyaniding - preheated steel is dipped into a
heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak. It is
then removed, quenched, and rinsed to remove
any residual cyanide. It produces a thin, hard
shell, harder than the shell produced by
carburizing. Cyanide salts are a deadly poison.
Nitriding - individual parts are heat treated
before being heated in a furnace that has an
ammonia gas atmosphere. This case hardening
method produces the hardest surface. The
nitriding process is used to case harden items
such as gears, cylinder sleeves, camshafts, and
other engine parts that need to be wear-
resistant and operate in high heat areas.
TEMPERING
After hardening by either case or flame, steel is
often harder than needed and too brittle for
most practical uses, that is why you need to
temper the steel to relieve the internal stresses
and reduce brittleness.
PROCESSES
Tempering consists of:
• Heating the steel to a specific temperature
(below its hardening temperature)
• Holding it at that temperature for the
required length of time
• Cooling it, usually in still air.
• Tempering reduces brittleness, but it also
softens the steel, which you cannot avoid.
However, the amount of hardness lost is
controllable.
• Tempering is always conducted at
temperatures below the metal’s low-
critical point.
• Providing there is any hardness to temper,
you can temper steel that has been
normalized, but you cannot temper
annealed steel. The purpose of both
normalizing (air cooled), and annealing
(controlled cooling environment) was to
relieve stress, , the same as tempering.
QUENCHING MEDIA
The rate at which you can cool an object will
depend on several factors:
• Size of the part. The mass of the part will
affect quenching; the greater the mass,
the greater the time required for complete
cooling.
• Configuration of the part. Parts may be of
the same size, but those containing holes
or recesses cool more rapidly than solid
objects.
 • Composition of the part. The composition
of a metal will determine the maximum
cooling rate possible without the danger
of cracking or warping. Initial temperature
of the part. Different steels and steel
alloys require a wide range of
temperatures for heat treatment.
• Final properties desiredThe medium must
cool the metal at the rate you need
(rapidly or slowly) to produce the results
you want.

Each is a factor in deciding which quenching

medium you should use. Different mediums
include water, brine, oil, and caustic soda.

LIQUID QUENCHING
Still-bath - Metal is cooled in a tank of liquid; only
movement of the liquid is caused by movement
of the hot metal.
Flush quenching - Liquid is sprayed onto the
surface and into every cavity at the same time to
ensure uniform cooling; used for parts with
recesses or cavities not quenchable by ordinary
methods;

DRY QUENCHING
Air Quenching - uses air for cooling some highly
alloyed steels.
Solids - solids you can use for cooling steel parts
include cast iron chips, lime, sand, and ashes.
Generally, you would use them to slow the rate
of cooling.
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE hand or a pneumatic tool. It creates a union
at least as strong as the material being used.

THE AIRWORTHINESS OF AN
AIRCRAFT DOES NOT ONLY PERTAIN
TO ITS PERFORMANCE BUT ALSO TO
THE STRUCTURAL STRENGTH AND
INTEGRITY OF THE AIRCRAFT.
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS,
CONSTRUCTION, AND REPAIR SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS
Each aircraft produced from a given design
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE must meet the same standards.
Assembling and repairing different Specifications and standards for aircraft
components of an aircraft require aircraft hardware are generally identified by the
hardware. The safe and efficient operation organization originating them.
of all aircraft depends on the correct
selection and use of aircraft hardware. Some of the most common specifications
and standards are:
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE IS AMS - Aeronautical Material Specifications
GENERALLY BROKEN INTO TWO AN - Air Force-Navy
SECTIONS, AIRCRAFT RIVETS, AND AND - Air Force-Navy Design
AIRCRAFT FASTENERS AS - Aeronautical Standard
ASA - American Standards Association
AIRCRAFT RIVETS ASTM - American Society for Testing and
Aircraft riveting is the most common Materials
technique of joining sheets of aluminum. A MS - Military Standard
rivet is a metal pin with a formed head on NAF - Naval Aircraft Factory
one end. A rivet is inserted into a drilled NAS - National Aerospace Standard
hole and its shank is then deformed by a SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
SOLID SHANK RIVETS
It has been used since sheet metal was
utilized in aircraft. It is the most commonly
used aircraft fastener today. Solid shank
rivets are available in a variety of
dimensions and sizes to accommodate
different applications

RIVET CODES
Two coding systems are used today, AN or
air force navy system, and MS20 or military
standard 20 system. The first component of
a rivet code denotes the numbering system
used. The second part describes the style of
the rivet head. The third part of the code is
a one or two-digit letter code representing
the alloy material used in the rivet. After the
alloy code is the shank diameter which is
indicated in 1/32 inch increments and the
length in ⅙ inch increments.

RIVET MEASUREMENTS
Before a rivet is driven, it should extend SOLID SHANK RIVETS ARE AVAILABLE
beyond the base material at least one and a IN TWO STANDARD HEAD STYLES,
half times the rivet’s diameter. Once driven, UNIVERSAL AND
the rivet shank expands to fill the hole and COUNTERSUNK/FLUSH. THE 470
the bucktail expands one and a half times its UNIVERSAL HEAD RIVET NOW
original diameter. Once the bucktail REPLACES PREVIOUS PROTRUDING
expands to the appropriate diameter, it HEAD STYLES SUCH AS ROUND, FLAT,
should extend beyond the base material by BRAZIER, AND MODIFIED BRAZIER.
at least one half the original rivet diameter.
426 countersunk rivets were developed to
streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow
over an aircraft’s wing or control surfaces.
Before a countersunk rivet is installed, the
sheet metal must be countersunk or
dimpled. Countersinking is a process in
RIVET HEAD DESIGN which the metal in the top sheet is cut away
in the shape of the rivet head. On the other
hand, dimpling is a process that
mechanically dents the sheets being joined
to accommodate the rivet head. Thickness
of sheet will determine which method is
best suited for a particular application.

Joints utilizing the countersunk rivets

generally lack the strength of protruding
head rivet joints because a portion of the
material is cut away. To provide a smooth
finish after the rivet is driven, the
protruding rivet head is removed using a
microshaver (a rotary cutter that shaves the ● No identifying marks on the head
rivet flush with the skin to obtain an Designated by the letter A in the
aerodynamically clean surface) rivet code.
● Lacks strength for
● applications, restricted
RIVET ALLOYS ● structural assemblies such as
fairings (produce a smooth outline in
aircraft connections to reduce drag),
engine baffles.

2117
● 2117-T3 is the most widely used in
manufacture and maintenance of
modern aircraft
● Identified by a dimple in the center
of the head
● Represented by letter AD
● Referred to as field rivets because it
is very common and require no heat
treatment

5056
● Identified by a raised cross on the
head
● Denoted by the letter B in rivet code
1100 ● Some aircrafts are made of
● Made of pure aluminum magnesium (thrust reversers of
commercial aircraft), if aluminum
 rivets were used on these parts,
dissimilar corrosion could result. For
this reason, magnesium structures
are riveted with 5056 rivets which
contain 5 percent magnesium.
2017
● Identified by a raised dot in the
center of the head.
● Denoted by the letter D in rivet CRES
codes. Very hard and must be heat
treated before they can be used.
● In its annealed state, it is stored in a
freezer and is commonly referred to
as ice box rivets. These rivets become
hard when they warm up to room
temperature
MONEL
2024
● Denoted by the letter DD in rivet
codes.
● Identified by two raised dashes on
the head
● Also called as icebox rivets and must
be stored at cool temperatures until
they are ready to be driven. RIVET SELECTION
7050
● Identified with a raised circle
● Denoted by the letter E in rivet
codes.
● New and stronger rivet alloy
developed in 1979
● Contains zinc
● Used in Boeing as replacement for
2024 in 767
● Denoted by the letter F in rivet
codes.
● Used for fastening CRES steel sheets
in applications such as firewalls
● No marking on their heads
● Identified with two recessed dimples
in their heads.
● Used in place of CRES rivets when
their somewhat lower shear strength
is not a detriment.
● Do not use a lower strength rivet alloy
as replacement to a higher strength
 alloy unless it is larger than the one
that was removed.
● Enlarged, deformed, or damaged holes POP RIVETS
should use the next larger rivet size as Pop rivets have limited use on aircraft and
replacement. are never used for structural repairs.
● Same degree of countersunk must be However, they are useful for temporarily
used. lining up holes. Some home-built aircraft
● Maximum rivet diameter should be 3 utilize pop rivets. They are made from soft
times the thickness of the thickest aluminum alloy, steel, copper, and Monel.
sheet
● Rivet length should be one and a half
times of the rivet diameter plus the
grip length.
FRICTION-LOCK RIVETS
Friction-locked blind rivets have a multiple-
piece construction and rely on friction to
lock the stem to the sleeve. As the stem is
SPECIAL RIVET drawn up into the rivet shank, the stem
A rivet is any type of fastener that obtains portion upsets the shank on the blind side,
clamping action by having one of its ends forming a plug in the hollow center of the
mechanically upset. Conventional solid rivet
shank rivets require access to both ends.
However, special rivets, often called as blind
rivets, are installed with access to only one
end of the rivet. Blind rivets are more
expensive than solid shank rivets, but they
still find many applications in today’s
aircraft industry.
 The Cherry mechanical-lock rivet, often
Many friction-locked blind rivet center called the bulbed CherryLOCK, was
stems fall out due to vibration, which developed shortly after the Huck-Lok. Like
greatly reduces its shear strength. To the Huck-Lok, the CherryLOCK rivet is an
combat that problem, most friction-lock improvement over the friction-lock rivet
blind rivets are replaced by the because its center stem is locked into place
mechanical-lock. with a lock ring. This results in shear and
bearing strengths that are high enough to
MECHANICAL-LOCK RIVETS allow CherryLOCKS to be used as
Mechanical-lock rivets were designed to replacements for solid shank rivets.
prevent the center stem of a rivet from
falling out as a result of the vibration
encountered during aircraft operation.
Unlike the center stem of a friction-lock
rivet, a mechanical-lock rivet permanently
locks the stem into place and vibration
cannot shake it loose.

HUCK-LOCKS
Huck-Lok rivets were the first mechanical-
lock rivets and are used as structural
replacements for solid shank rivets.
However, because of the expensive tooling
OLYMPIC-LOCKS
required for their installation, Huck-Loks
Olympic-lok blind fasteners are light
are generally limited to aircraft
weight, mechanically locking spindle-type
manufacturers and some large repair
blind rivets. Olympic-loks come with a lock
facilities
ring stowed on the head. As an Olympic-lok
is installed, the ring slips down the stem
CHERRYLOCKS
and locks the center stem to the outer shell.
These blind fasteners require a specially
designed set of installation tools