Module 1: The Forms and Functions of the State

Socio- Cultural and Political Institutions (Micheli, 2000, 11-18)

Family sets as the basic and the most essential institution in the society. It is the core of
the inter-relations of the community. It is the primary source of the values, hierarchical status,
and relational functions in the group.

Social Institution is the inter-relationship between persons and among the groups in
accordance with the functions and responsibilities in the society. The word “Family” is defined
as the social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and
reproduction (Murdock 1941:1). Family is the basic unit of the society that fosters the
beginning of values, norms, and belief systems. In addition, family is described as a group of
people united by mutual agreement through ties of marriage, blood or adoption, and mutual
relational inter-action and communication in creating as well as maintaining common culture.

Kinship

* Kinship – is web of social relationships that creates an important level of the lives of the
people in the society. It affects and influences the socio- cultural and political processes and
development.

* Descent - is the Origin or background of a person in terms of family or nationality.

Descent Group (Social group with same ancestry of the people)

1. Unilineal Society - The origin of a person is either from the mother’s or father’s line of
descent.

2. Matrilineal Descent – an individual’s origin from his/her mother’s descent group.

3. Patrilineal Descent - a person’s origin from his/her father’s descent group.

Marriage

* Marriage - The essential institutional symbol of the family. It is a cultural mechanism that
ensures the continuity of the social group. It serves as the foundation of family and sets as
inviolable social institution. It consists of the love, economic and social security, the parent’s
desires, companionship, protection, and common interests (Bowman). In the Philippine Family
Code, it is stated that marriage is the special contract of permanent union between a man and
a woman entered in the accordance with law for the establishment of conjugal and family life.
In addition, this law fosters two aspects: Contact - applies to man and woman only, and
Status - created between parties.

Forms of Marriage

1. Monogamy - allows a man to marry only one spouse at a time.

2. Polygamy – It is a form of more than one marriage and can be described in two ways:

 Polygyny - Marriage of one man into two or more women at the same

time. It is commonly practiced by Muslims and known as a status

symbol for the man.

 Polyandry - Marriage of a woman to two or more men at the same time.

3. Selection of Marriage Partners

* Types of Norms in Selecting of Marriage Partners

Endogamy - dictates one should marry within one’s group, clan or ethnic

affiliation.

Exogamy - One can marry outside one’s clan or ethnic affiliation.

Levirate Norms – A widow marries the brother or the nearest kin of her deceased
husband.

Surrogate Norm - Men should marry the sister or nearest kin of his deceased wife.

Family

Family serves as the core of the inter-relational dynamism in the society. It is the bearing for
the persons development. It varies from one culture to another – the way of living, belief
system and values formation of its members.

Structures of Family
1. Based on Internal Organization or Membership
a. Nuclear Family - described as the composition of husband and his wife and their children in
union recognized by the other members of the society. The two kinds of Nuclear Family is
known as 1st, Family of Orientation - the one that is born and reared or socialized, and 2 nd,
Family of Procreation - family is established through the mutual agreement of both parties in a
marriage that consists of husband, wife and children.

b. Extended Family – is composed of two or more nuclear families that economically and
socially related to each other. The relationship may be through parent to child relationship.

2. Based on Authority

a. Patriarchal Family - the authority is given to the father or the eldest male in the family.
b. Matriarchal Family - the authority is given to the mother or the eldest female in the family.

c. Egalitarian Family - both husband and wife exercise an equal amount or way of authority.

Functions of Family

1. The family performs the function of biological continuance and the preservation of the
bloodline in accordance with the socio-cultural agreement of the family.

2. The Family gives its members social status that enables them to carry all the essential
benefits of the family.

3. The family performs economic and social functions in the society that allows its members to
further develop all the resources acquired by the family.

Structural Characteristics of the Filipino Family

1. The basic unit of the Philippine society is the nuclear family.

2. The Christian Filipino family is known as a large group that normally a combination of both
nuclear and extended families.

3. Blood kinship serves as an important role in the Filipino family that emphasizes strong
affiliation of the siblings most particularly in the rural areas.

4. Family affiliation is emphasized in a form of “compadre or compadrazgo” system that can be

elaborated in the different rituals/occasions like baptism, confirmation and marriage.

5. Filipino Family is commonly known as Patriarchal in authority that means the father serves
to be the leader/source of authority in the family.
Challenges and Threats of Filipino Families
Social and Political Structure

Types of Political Description Functions

Organization
Traditional people Most traditional and smallest
Band type of group that aims to
meet the basic needs for
survival. Power depends on
the skills and personality of a
 leader.
Egalitarian - means that they
see people of the same age
and gender as the same. Traditional society which
focuses on meeting the basic
needs of the group. It is now
structured and organized for
Tribe it is more dependent on
horticulture. The leader
possesses more power,
however, can be deposed if
he/she exercises too much
power to the group.
It is permanent and formal
government. The leaders are
A political group role models who are
Chiefdom characterized by social responsible in resolving
hierarchies, centralization of disputes among members.
power and distribution of Leadership is dependent on
resources to the members. the skills and the capacity to
lead the group.
It is formal political
organization in a modern or
The most complex in relation industrial way of living that
to social, economic, and defined the citizenship of its
State political organization. constituents according to
their rights and
responsibilities. The group
imposes regulation to
manage the large population
of the group.

Each group of people in the society have the similarities when it comes to translation of
leadership by the leader. The role and responsibilities of a leader is greatly beneficial to the
members of the group. One thing that holds and binds the group is the exercise of power of a
leader in their respective group or community.

Components in Social and Political Structure (Blau. 1963, 305-316.)

1. Power - It is the sum of authority and legitimacy of a leader. It is the ability to lead the group
with the use of skills, knowledge and leadership with efficiency and effectiveness. The leader
may use power to exercise sanctions, punishments or directives to the members of the group.

2. Authority - It is the right of a leader to maximize or use power to command the members of
the group. It is a translation of power by exercising the capacity to lead out of expertise in a
particular concern or decision-making.

3. Legitimacy - It is the recognition of someone who serves to be right and proper. When a
leader is fully accepted and supported by the members of the group because he deserves it,
and he is capable of his responsibilities.

Three Types of Authority

For Max Weber, there are three types of authority in accordance with the legitimacy of a
person as a belief system1:

1. Traditional - It is the inherited power from the previous leader out of affinal privileged.

2. Charismatic - It is the capacity of a person to lead the members of the group by virtue to
inspire them to willingly follow and obey.

3. Rational - It is an exercise authority based on a system of rules set by the group. Members
have the right to choose leaders who can represent them in fighting for justice, fairness, and
equality. The rules serve as the guiding principle of the leader in exercising his/her roles and
responsibilities to the group. Most of the time, the members will use their proper reasoning in
voting for their supported leaders. In today’s developing era, people are now rational in
electing a leader on their behalf.

The leader of the group serves as the head of the state/society that he/she leads. The
head of the group delegates the power to sub- heads he/she has appointed in order to
maintain the effectiveness of his functions and responsibility.

Economic Institutions and State (Weber.1963)

Economic Institutions refers to the production and distribution of goods and services in order
to supplicate the needs of the members of the society. Economic agreement through an
exchange of functioning economy is significant for it widens the capacity of the state to
improve its resources in both ends receiving and selling towards the other state.
Reciprocity is defined as the capacity to give out generosity/volunteerism without money
involvement and that in the future, it can be reciprocated. This concept of reciprocity can be
closely described as barter, hospitality, gift-giving and sharing of resources. The purpose of
this act of giving is to build and strengthen social relationships and positively foster good favors
to the recipient.

In the previous lesson, it is important to create good relationship towards the other group for it
is essential for the development of the community. A good example of the concept of
reciprocity is the Filipino value of “Utang na Loob”. This value enables the group to
acknowledge the important contributions extended by the other group and it is through sincere
indebtedness that equates the impact of it.

Forms of Reciprocity

1. Generalized Reciprocity - refers to the exchange of goods and services with no time-bound
frame is followed. This is a kind of reciprocity that a person is giving without expecting
something in return.
2. Balanced Reciprocity - means the exchange between groups or individuals with something
to expect to receive out of similar or equally the same in value given. This concept somewhat
creates pressure in either both parties for it demands to reciprocate the given resources within
the period of time.

3. Negative Reciprocity - described as unequal process for which the groups try to maximize
their advantage while giving as little as possible. This is inspired by the desire to acquire a
large portion of goods using minimal resources.

Transfer and the Government

Government transfer or transfer of payments is used for the redistribution of resources

specifically wealth and income where no goods or services are given to the donor in return. In
a State scenario, transfers are evident for payments that can be through the collection of
taxes, social services, pensions, housing, and health care plans. In the Philippine context, the
government is providing various programs and activities intended for the citizens. The
commonly identified allocations are retirement, disability benefits, medical, unemployment
insurance, and education.
Redistribution

The process of redistribution of goods or services is observed when the collection of goods
from individual in a community is kept by the central authority. These goods are collected to be
used for future transactions. The main goal of redistribution is to allocate such goods back to
the people for common welfare. The process requires reversal dynamism – from the storage
area of the central authority then given back to the common people.

Understanding Market Transactions

In a developing state, it is important to familiarize the capitalist economy where the market
principle dominates. The principle implies that the market is tasked for the sale and distribution
of goods and services in the society. In the market arena, money plays a vital role for it is the
main means in all transactions. Market in economic definitions refers to a wider setting where
buyers or sellers simultaneously trade or exchange goods/services. Market also implies how
the state competitively exchange transactions towards the other state. In a market exchange,
at least two parties are involved: one who has a product and the other who has the money.
Both parties can extend agreement using bargaining or in barter system.

Elements of Market Transactions

1. Money - It consists of the objects that serve as way of exchange for goods or services.

2. Prices – These refer the amount required or agreed upon by both exchanging parties.

3. Supply – It is defined as the quantity of goods or services that are available to sell at a
given price in a period of time.

4. Demand – It refers to the quantity of goods or services that the consumer is willing to
purchase or take at a given price in a period of time.

It is important for a state to acquire economic growth and development in order to provide a
good standard of living to its constituents. Market existed because of the on-going transactions
made by the state towards the others state. This concept is significant for it opens-up the field
of international political economy or commonly known as the economic relations towards the
other states. The market-based concerns continuously develop societal and economic growth
in the areas of people’s communes, state-owned enterprise, decentralization, price reform and
capital market development.
Conflicts between Market and State Functions

Despite the call of every state to link with socio-economic markets in order to boost the
financial stability, there are disputes arises due to the liberal perspective that since majority of
the state deals with the citizens, it has to delegate the power. This aspect serves to be a
challenge on what to do in the world of economic markets. Thus, both the state and citizens
must work together to solve the dispute and to go on for the development and improvement.

Types of State According to Market Roles

1. Laissez-Faire State – is a French word that means “to leave alone”. This principle is
described as the participation of the government in the regulations, subsidies, privileges, and
other ways of development. Therefore, this type of state completely does not have any role in
managing the market.

2. Interventionist or Developmental State - describes as the intervention of the state in the

market and sets direction towards economic development. In this concept, the state
implements policies, subsidies, protection of tariffs and local industries.

3. Welfare State - refers to a vital role in the achievement and protection of the economic and
social readiness of its citizens. This concept is centered in the idea of a good quality life for all
the people instead of prioritizing the economic development.

Today, our government maximize the different branches with specific areas of
concentration in response to the basic needs of the society. Aside from the state-related
branches, the birth of non-state institutions significantly creates a positive effect to the society.
The non- state institutions are compositions of private companies that foster the same
vision/mission with the government/state that is to help/respond the needs of the people in the
society.
Module 2: Forms and Functions of Non-state Institution

Non-state Institutions

Governments have put up different institutions that provide services for its people's welfare, such
as public works, military and police forces, education, transportation, public works, health services, and
other departments and agencies. Similar institutions are utilized by external support agencies as channels
for programs and projects intended to benefit the poor. These are non-state institutions that take various
forms and have different functions and purposes that greatly impact the people's everyday living and the
country's activities as a whole. There are significant numbers of these institutions that promote human
rights while others, unexpectedly, commit crimes or even perpetrate violations affecting people's lives
and basic freedoms.

Forms of Non-state Institutions

*Non-state institutions intended to promote the country’s economy

A. Banks

Banking institutions are companies, corporations, or associations, or any lawful organizations

approved by the government which is engaged in the lending of funds acquired from the general
population through the receipt of deposits and the sale of bonds or obligations of any kind (Jimenez
2017, 174). These also lend money to individuals and business houses that need it.

In our country, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas or BSP has the sole authority in monitoring and
compiling various indicators on the Philippine banking system and classified banks according to the
following:

1. Universal and commercial banks are banking institutions that grant short term loans and
varieties of banking services. This represents the largest group, resource-wise, of financial
institutions in the country. Universal banks offer services, which are wholesale banking, retail
banking, and investment banking. Thus, it operates and functions like a commercial and
investment bank. Examples of existing universal banks in the country include Banco De Oro
(BDO), Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI), Philippine National Bank, and UnionBank, while
commercial banks include East West Bank and Bank of Commerce (Jimenez 2017,175).

These are the largest universal and commercial banks in the country by total assets as of
December 2019:
Top 10 Best Banks in the Philippines as to Assets
2. The thrift banking system – These are banks specializing in offering savings accounts and home
mortgages for clients. These are sometimes referred to as Savings and Loan Associations
(S&Ls). They accumulate savings from depositors, and then invest it. They also provide short-
term working capital as well as medium- and long-term financing to businesses engaged in
agriculture, services, industry and housing, and diversified financial and allied services, and to
their chosen markets and constituencies, especially small and medium enterprises and individuals
(Caña 2020).

3. Rural and Cooperative Banks- These are the most well-known type of banks in the rural
communities. Their role is to promote and expand the rural economy in an orderly and effective
manner by providing the people in the rural communities with basic financial services. They help
the farmers through the stages of production, from planting to selling of their products (Jimenez
2017, 175).

Rural banks and cooperative banks are differentiated from each other by ownership.
Rural banks are privately owned and managed; cooperative banks are organized/owned by
cooperatives or federation of cooperatives. Example of banks belong to this group are, East West
Rural Bank Inc., Cantilan Bank Inc (A Rural Bank), and One Network Bank (A Rural Bank).
B. Corporations

Corporations are legal entities that are independent and distinct from their owners. Corporations
enjoy most of the rights and responsibilities that people have; they can enter agreements, loan and
borrow money, sue and be sued, recruit workers, own assets, and pay taxes. These may be non-profit
organizations engaged in activities for the public good; municipal corporations, such as cities or towns;
or private corporations organized to profit (Kenton, 2020).

In legal interpretations, a corporation is like a person who has responsibilities and has the power
to buy, sell and own property; it can enter into leases and contracts, and it can even bring lawsuits. It
also must pay taxes or, if failed, can be prosecuted or punished if it breaks the law. The leading
corporations in the country are SM Prime Holdings, San Miguel Corporation, Ayala Land, SM
Investments Corporations, JG Summit, Petron Corporation, Smart Corporations, Nestle, and Meralco.*

C. Cooperatives

These financial institutions promote and undertake savings and lending services among their
members. These generate common pool of funds to provide financial assistance and other related
financial services to their members. Furthermore, each member has a fair share of the risks and benefits
of his/her financial undertaking by the agreed cooperative principles, rules, or regulations (Jimenez
2017,177).

There are different types of cooperatives in the Philippines, and these are:

a. Credit Cooperative – is a financial institution owned and controlled by its members that
promote and undertakes savings and lending services. It generates a shared pool of funds to
provide financial assistance and other related financial services to its members.
b. Consumer’s Cooperative – frequently appears as retail outlet possessed and worked by the
consumers, for example, food co-ops. Its primary aim is to procure and distribute goods to its
members and even nonmembers.
c. Producer’s Cooperative – is a joint production undertaking of all members where they
processed products from raw materials to produce goods for sale by the cooperative to its
members and nonmembers or their chosen market. All the products made shall be sold in the
name and account of the cooperative, shall be considered as products of the cooperative and
its members.
d. Marketing Cooperative – focuses on supplying goods or production inputs to members and
marketing their products.
e. Service Cooperative – concerns giving services such as medical and dental care,
hospitalization, transportation, insurance, housing, labor, electric light and power,
communication, professional and other services.
f. Multipurpose Cooperative – is a combination of two or more of the forms of different types
of cooperatives. Example of this is Panabo Multi-Purpose Cooperative (PMPC).
g. Advocacy Cooperative – is a cooperative focused on advocating cooperativism among its
members and the public through socially- oriented projects, education and training, research
and communication, and other activities to reach out to its intended beneficiaries.
h. Agrarian Reform Cooperative – intends to develop an appropriate system of land tenure,
land development, land consolidation and land management which is organized by marginal
farmers who are agrarian reform beneficiaries.
i. Cooperative Bank – is a cooperative that aims to provide wide range of financial services to
its members.
j. Dairy Cooperative – has members that are engaged in fresh milk products which may be
possessed or marketed as dairy products
k. Education cooperative – is organized to own and operate licensed educational institutions
without going beyond what is stipulated in RA No. 9155 known as the Governance of Basic
Education Act of 2001
l. Electric Cooperative – has the purpose of managing the generation and utilization of
renewable energy sources and the acquisition and operation of sub-transmission or
 distribution to household members. Common example of this is the electric cooperative in
most provinces like Davao del Norte Electric Cooperative (DANECO).
m. Fishermen Cooperative – is organized by fishermen members in localities whose products
either as fresh or processed products.
n. Housing Cooperative – is a cooperative that aims to provide or assist members who actively
participate in the housing savings program to have access to housing provisions. It is
controlled and co-owned by its members.
o. Insurance Cooperative – aims to venture into the business of insuring life and property of
cooperative and their members.
p. Water Service Cooperative – is organized to manage water systems' distribution and
operation to distribute potable waters to its members and their households.
q. Worker’s Cooperative – is organized by workers who are workers, aiming to provide
employment and business opportunities to its members.
r. Other types of cooperatives as may be determined by the Cooperative Development
Authority (CDA)*

The cooperatives mentioned above are just a few of the long lists from the CDA, which can be found on
their official website.

D. Labor/Trade Unions

These are membership-based organizations created by workers and their leaders who are united to
promote, protect their common interest and welfare in their workplace. For example, the same
company's banana plantation workers can create their own union to be heard and be given what is due to
them, especially during disadvantageous or unfair situations in their workplace. Specifically, trade
unions represent their members to accomplish the following, which are the reasons why workers would
join:

1. Negotiate agreements with employers on their wage/salary and working conditions

2. Deliberate significant changes to the workplace
3. Discuss members’ concern towards their employers
4. Escort members in disciplinary and grievance meetings
5. Provide legal and financial provisions for members
6. Raise concerns and demands for the members such as free health and insurance benefits, and
7. Take collective action to enforce the agreed terms with employers (Jimenez 2017, 178)
 Most of these trade unions are independent of any employer. The Department of Labor and
Employment (DOLE) and the National Labor Relations Commission (NLRC) are the government's
overseers to ensure the employees' welfare in congruence with what is stated in the Constitution and the
Labor Code of the Philippines. Unions are usually independent of their employers, yet sometimes they
work closely or take the form of partnership to come up with a collective agreement that will give
satisfaction to both of them.

Agreements can be reached voluntarily but sometimes with the help of the arbitration panel from the
NLRC. In case agreement of both parties is impossible, a union may apply for statutory recognition in
written form, which can be secured first from the employer. However, if the employer refuses to do so,
then the union can bring the case to the NLRC, Court of Appeals, and Supreme Court for a decision. The
court will then assess the level of union membership and the presence of any other union.

Whether the union is recognized or not, membership in it is voluntary and does not require all
workers to join as stipulated in our law; thus, they have the right to refuse to become a member. The
worker is also protected from discrimination for being a union member. Moreover, trade union
membership should not be grounds for refusal or dismissal from employment and illegal selection for
termination or redundancy by the employer.

Nonmember workers will still enjoy the same protection as it does to union members if a collective
bargaining agreement is reached. Employers cannot force workers to join their (employers) preferred
union and has no right to deduct payments from the employees in return for union membership without
the employees’ approval.

 Collective Bargaining- is the process of negotiating the terms or conditions of employment

such as working conditions, rules in the workplace, retirement and health benefits, wage/salary
and bonus, and the like between an employer and organization of workers.
 Redundancy- refers to an employee's dismissal from his/her job by the employer to reduce the
workforce. If you are being made redundant, you are entitled to receive redundancy pay.

OTHER NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

*The following below are non-state institutions that are noneconomic.

A. Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational advocacy groups are organized to promote and advocate principled causes, ideas,
and values that aim to bring change to ordinary people's daily lives. Members can be any
knowledgeable, committed individuals and organizations with the same cry for change across state
borders. Advocacy organizations are known by different names: non-state actors, NGOs, and
transnational advocacy networks. Among the common actors that play a significant part in the
establishment of these organizations are the media, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), religious
organizations, local social movements, foundations, trade unions and consumer organizations,
intellectuals and scholars, and other agencies in international and regional intergovernmental
organizations and the like (Jimenez 2017, 180).

Among the issues that these groups are determined to give attention include human rights,
consumer rights, women’s rights, environmental issues, international peace, and many others. These
groups become influential because of their relationships and connections being developed with other
like-minded groups across borders that they use to change international policy and action.

Importance of Transnational Advocacy Groups

a. They serve as voices of civil societies and of groups outside the political arena.
b. They promote more comprehensive opportunities for dialogue on human rights issues,
cultural and environmental concerns, and others across borders.
c. Through mobilization of information in support of a cause, they can influence international
policy, actions, or practices.
d. They create activities among themselves to forward their principled cause and make it
happen.

B. International Organizations

These are created after an international agreement between countries or organizations and
become institutions that provide avenues for diplomatic agreement, rules, and activities among nations.
International organizations can be categorized into two: International Governmental Organizations
(IGOs) and International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs or, more commonly, NGOs).

IGOs and NGOs exist for different reasons, such as controlling the multiplication of
conventional and nuclear weapons, overseeing trade exchange, keeping up military alliances, ending
world hunger, poverty, or discriminations, and encouraging the spread of democracy harmony. The most
notable International Organization is the United Nations, which was established on October 24, 1945,
which aims to end World War II; the organization also creates programs and advocacies that aim to
address poverty, hunger, and terrorism. Environmental problems, economic issues, and many others can
be read in Article one of the UN Charter.
Module 3: The Functions and Importance of Education in the Society

The Function and Importance of Education

This is an important issue in one's life. It is the key to success in the future and to have many
opportunities in life. Education has many advantages for people. For instance, it illuminates a person's
mind and thinking. Having an education in an area helps people think, feel, and behave in a way that
contributes to their success and improves their personal satisfaction and their community.

Education develops human personality and thoughts; it helps an individual deal with others and
prepares one for life experiences. It makes people have a special status in their society, and everywhere
they live. There are various benefits of having an education, such as having a good career, having a good
social status, and having self- confidence.

Basically, education gives us the chance of having a good career in life. We can have plenty of
chances to work in any workplace we wish. In other words, opportunities for better work will be simpler
and easier to find. The more well educated we are, the greater chance we will get a job with high pay.
Likewise, education polishes our minds, reinforces our thoughts, and strengthens our character and
behaviors toward others. It equips us with information in various fields in general and our specialization
in particular, especially what we need to master in our job career.

Further, without education we may not survive humanely nor have decent professions.
Furthermore, education grants us a good status in society. As educated people, we are considered as
valuable sources of knowledge in our society. Having education helps us teach others about morals,
manners and ethics in our society. For this reason, people deal with us in a considerable and special way
of being productive and resourceful.

In addition, education makes us role models in the society when other people need us to guide
them on the right path or when they want to make decisions. Thus, it is an honor for us to serve our
community and contribute to its advancement. In fact, being educated is an advantage to help our people
and build a good society. Besides, it is very well-known that having self-confidence is always generated
from education.

It is a great blessing for us to have self-confidence, which leads to many advantages and
successes in life. For example, it helps us manage the specific task, tackle life's challenges, and maintain
positive stands. Additionally, having self-confidence is typically based on proper education, paving the
path for us to succeed. Accordingly, self-confidence makes us aware of how well we perform a task or a
range of actions. In short, being educated is undoubtedly being self- confident and successful in life.

Hence, education is the process of acquiring knowledge and information that lead to a successful
future. As discussed above, there are a lot of positive traits of having an education, such as having a
good career, having a good status in society, and having self-confidence. Education makes us view
obstacles as challenges to overcome with no fear; it urges us to face new things. It is the main factor
behind successful people and the merit of developed countries. Therefore, education is deemed as a real
success behind any future success.

For every community and person, education is important. It is life itself, but not life's
preparation. Thus, for the majority, social and national growth, education plays a complementary role. It
helps a person to realize his highest self and goal. Below are the main functions and roles of education
for individuals, society, and nation.

The Education

When we think about education, the first thing that strikes our minds is acquiring knowledge.
Education is a tool that provides awareness, skills, strategies, and information to people. It helps them
understand their rights and duties to their families, community, and country. It improves vision and
insight to see the world. It builds society's capacity to tackle inequality, crime, corruption, and many
other bad elements.

Training gives us awareness of the surrounding environment. The experience of looking at life
grows in us. It is the most significant factor in the nation's evolution. One cannot pursue fresh ideas
without knowledge. It means that one cannot build the world; without ideas, there is no innovation and
without innovation, there is no development of the country.

Importance of Education in our Society

In the modern developed world, education is an important factor that plays a huge role. To be
able to succeed in this competitive world, people need good education. In modern society, people focus
on achieving a high standard of living and awareness to provide better solutions to their problems.
Features of Education

Education empowers everyone. Some of the areas where education helps are:

1. Removing Poverty - Education helps eradicate poverty; if a person is educated, he can get a
good job and meet his family's basic needs and requirements.
2. Protection and Defense Against Crime - If an individual is well educated, he will not be easily
fooled by anyone. A trained individual is less likely to engage in domestic violence and other
social evils. In life, they enjoy good relationships. This suggests that individuals are less likely to
be cheated or become victims of crime.
3. Wars and Terrorism Prevention - One needs to recognize the importance of education in our
everyday lives to lead a safe and secure life. One needs to take an active part in various
educational activities. These types of productive activities provide knowledge to live a better life.
4. Trade and Commerce - The nation's trade & commerce would also prosper easily if its people
were well-educated. Education helps to become self-dependent and to build a great trust between
them to accomplish challenging tasks. Their quality of life is increased by receiving an
education.
5. Law and Order - Education enables the process of the nation's fast development. If you have a
good education, you can serve your country well. It develops a good political ideology.
6. Women Empowerment - Education also helps in empowering women. The educated women
can raise voice against the injustice. This will bring a great deal of social growth.
7. Uplifting the poorer economic elements of society - The most critical element for improving
the world is education. Many illiterate people suffer the hardships of prejudice, untouchability &
injustices that prevail in society due to lack of education, but with the promotion of a good
education. This inevitably leads to the upliftment of economically disadvantaged parts of society
if all people are educated.
8. Communication - The link between education and communication is evident. Healthy education
allows other individuals to interact better. It also enhances our ability for communication, such as
voice, body language, etc. A qualified person feels safe to challenge or give a speech to a wide
audience or may hold a meeting or seminar. Moreover, sending emails, writing letters, typing
notes, reading magazines & newspapers, or even using a smartphone would never be possible
without getting a basic education.
Role of Education in Society

Education is a social institution in which society offers essential information to its citizens,
including fundamental truths, job skills, and values of cultural norms. One of the most significant
advantages of education is that it enhances personal lives and makes it possible for society to function
smoothly. Poverty can be eliminated by providing education, and every individual can contribute to
developing the country.

Education Helps in the Creation of a Better Society

In contrast to an uneducated person, an educated person is more likely to establish stronger moral
and ethical values. The lack of education generates problems such as superstition, domestic abuse, poor
health, and poor living conditions. Training provides equal opportunities for both men and women, and
educated people will create a better world.

A better society cannot be built without a decent education. Only when people are skilled enough
to know how to work with various technologies can innovation and creativity occur. With the help of
better methods, educated people often find solutions to their issues.

Education act as Back Bone of a Society

An integral part of human society is education. The lack of education gives rise to various social
problems, such as poor health, internal strife, poor living standards and many more. This allows
individuals to find a better approach to their issues. Education helps individuals to appreciate the true
value of contribution and to help become the foundation of society.

Education is the most powerful weapon which we can use to change the perspective of the world.
An educated person knows how to deal with different types of problems. Through the right education, a
person can develop good moral values. It helps individuals to become good human beings.

Social Stratification

This refers to a mechanism under which a society in a hierarchy classifies groups of individuals. It is
abundantly clear in the United States that certain groups have greater standing, influence, and resources
than other groups.

A good way to imagine social structure is the distinct vertical layers contained in rock, called
stratification. The layers of society are made of individuals, and society's resources are distributed
unevenly across the layers. The top layer of the social system of stratification is the individuals that have
more wealth. The lower levels of society reflect other classes of people, with increasingly less and less
resources.

Module 4: Characteristics of Different Systems of Stratifications

SOCIAL STRATIFICATIONS

In the social sciences, social stratification is a concept used to define the relative social status of
individuals within a given social group, category, geographical area, or other social units. It is derived
from the Latin word "strātum" (plural; parallel, horizontal layers) that refers to the categorization of its
people by a given society into socio-economic rankings based on factors, such as wealth, income, social
status, occupation and power. Stratification is characterized as the act of sorting information,
individuals, and objects into different groups or layers. It is a method used in combination with other
system for data analysis (Wikipedia).

Further, it is an essential underlying character of the societies. As we find in all cultures, ancient
and modern, it is historical and as it persists in simple or complex cultures that was universal. The social
distinction based on high and low is both societies' historical heritage.

For over time, these social strata and layers including divisions and subdivisions have been
recognized on the bases of gender and age, position and status, skills and incompetence, life chances and
economic cum political ascription and monopolization, ritual and ceremony, and on numerous other
grounds. Indeed, social stratification is dynamic in nature. The distinctions of dominance and inferiority,
authority, and subordination, as well as occupation and vocation are no less dependent on it. Despite
progressive thoughts and radicalism, equality and democracy, socialism and communism, still social
stratification has persisted.

MEANING & NATURE

Social stratification refers to the classification of individuals by a society into socioeconomic

category rankings based on various factors, including wealth, income, ethnicity, education, and power.
Moreover, the term stratification refers to a mechanism by which individuals and classes are classified in
a status hierarchy that is more or less permanent. Furthermore, it refers to the division of a population
into structures, one on top of another.

Social stratification is a horizontal differentiation of society into higher and lower social units,
according to Murray (1947) in his book entitled Introductory Sociology. Further, Tumin (1953) also
stated that social stratification refers to structures in a hierarchy of roles in any social group or
community that are unequal in terms of power, property, social assessment, and/or social gratification.

Stratification thus contains two phenomena, (1) the distinction of individuals or groups ranked
higher than others by certain individuals or groups and (2) the ranking of individuals according to some
valuation basis.

Based on certain variations in ideals that it assigns to various positions, society compares and
ranks individuals’ classes. When individuals and classes are graded according to some widely accepted
valuation bases, we have social stratification in a hierarchy of status levels based on inequality in social
status. We mean the organization of any social group or community by which roles are commonly
separated by stratification. Regarding control, land, assessment and intellectual satisfaction, the roles are
unequal.

The nature of stratification has contributed to the issue of social inequality that is from the past to
current situation. These inequalities are institutionalized and unchangeable in communities that have
closed stratification structures. A person born into a specific economic and social strata or caste remains
until he/she dies in this stratum. Numerous current industrial societies have structures of open
stratification or class stratification. Social mobility is possible in open stratification structures, but
certain members of the community do not have the ability to fulfill their potential.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATIFICATIONS

The following social stratification characteristics were described by Melvin M. Tumin in his publication
entitled American Sociological Review (1953):

1. It is Social

Stratification is social in the sense that it does not reflect biologically mediated discrimination in
social. It is true that variables such as power, intellect, age, gender also may serve as the bases from
which status is classified. But these differences alone are not enough to justify why some societies are
granted more power, land, and prestige than others.

2. It is Ancient

The system for stratification is very old. Also, in the small wandering bands, stratification is
present. Age and sex carry the primary stratification factors. Almost every ancient civilization gave
distinction between rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen and slaves. Social philosophers have
been deeply concerned with economic, social, and political inequalities since the times of Plato and
Kautilya.

3. It is Universal
 The social stratification is universal. The difference between rich and poor is noticeable
everywhere. Stratification is quite present in non-literate communities.

4. It is in Diverse Forms

In all cultures, social stratification has never been standardized. The Aryan society was divided
into four Varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudras; the ancient Greek society into
freemen and slaves; and the ancient Chinese society into mandarins, traders, farmers and soldiers. The
ancient Roman society was stratified into two strata: The Patricians and the Plebeians. The general
forms of stratification found in the modern world tend to be class and land.

5. It is Consequential

The Stratification System has its own implications. Due to stratification, the most important,
most desirable, and sometimes the scarcest items in human life are distributed unequally. The method
has two types of implications: (i) Life chances and (ii) lifestyle. Such topics as infant mortality rates,
lifespan, physical and mental illness, marital problems, separation, and divorce apply to life chances.
The lifestyle however, include living modes, residential areas, education, leisure practices, parent-child
relationships, modes of transportation, and so on.

Elements of Social Stratifications

There are several common elements of all stratification systems. Differentiation, ranking, evaluation
and rewarding have been established as these components. Tumin (1953) identified the components of
social stratification as the following:

1. Status Differentiation

It is the mechanism by which social roles, such as father and mother, are decided and
differentiated from each other by combining a distinctive role, a set of rights and responsibilities.

Differentiation of status functions more successfully when:

a) Tasks are identified clearly.

b) Power and obligation shall be separated.

c) A recruitment and training system exists.

d) There are appropriate penalties to motivate individuals, including incentives and

sanctions.
 Responsibilities, services, and privileges are allocated not to specific persons, but also to status.
The societies will create general and universal rules or guidelines that will extend to many and different
people who are to inhabit the same status, e.g. all the different women who will play a parent's role.

Differentiation is not in itself an independent method. Ranking is the easiest way to promote
understanding the differentiation process.

2. Ranking

Ranking is defined as a position on the achievement or status scale as a classification of individual.

Ranking is done on the basis of:

a. Personality traits that persons are assumed to require if they are to learn and successfully
perform roles such as intellect, aggressiveness, and politeness
b. The abilities and skills that are considered essential, such as physiological, numerical or
linguistic skills, for effective role performance
c. The general characteristics of the job, such as complexity, cleanliness, risk, etc.

The aim of the ranking is to classify the right candidate for the correct position. Non-valuative
rating, i.e. jobs are classified as harder or easier, cleaner or dirtier, better or riskier, and the individuals
are classified slower, smarter or more capable than others without indicating that some are socially more
important and others are less important because of these qualities. Ranking is a selective method in the
sense that only certain statuses are chosen for comparative ranking and only some are generally included
in the ranking process with all selected features, e.g. the Father-Mother status is not ranked.

3. Evaluation:

The method of assessment further solidifies classification and ranking. While the ranking
procedure relies more or less on the question, the assessment process focuses better and worse on the
question. Assessment is both a personal and social characteristic. That is, people give everything a
relative value, a degree of choice and a priority of desirability. To the point that assessment is a learned
value, people tend to share a specific set of values with a consensus that tends to evolve within a society.
The social dimension essential for evaluation stratification would be value consensus.

The Three Dimensions of Evaluation

a. Prestige - These relates to honour and includes respectful behaviour. Radcliffe-Brown (1955) in
his publication “The British Journal of Sociology ” mentioned three groups that were typically granted
special prestige in hunting societies: those old people, those with supernatural abilities, those with
special personality traits such as hunting ability. Prestige is the goods or commodity that is in limited
supply and it is, therefore, more valued.
b. Preferability - Those positions, i.e. status roles, which are selected by most citizens, are rated
higher, e.g." I'd like to be a doctor here).”

c. Popularity - Those common status roles that people know to be very prestigious are assessed
higher, e.g. Nowadays, the students are taking a course for being a teacher because this occupation is
very popular.

d. Rewarding - Differentiated, rated, and assessed statuses are assigned to differential incentives in
terms of positive things in life. In different ways, social units such as households, subcultures, social
classes, and professions that are socially classified are rewarded differently. A few of the benefits are
health care, education, wages, and positions of prominence.

Two Types of Rewarding

1. Abundant- Which rather than material, these are spiritual or psychic and are secured in the
process of performing a role, such as pleasure, love, and respect.

2. Scarce- In this context of desirable and limited incentives, social stratification becomes
important. Many who have influence take possession of these incentives in a system where there
is an unfair distribution of incentives. In conclusion, it can be assumed that the social mechanism
that shapes and retains the stratification structure is distinction, rating, assessment and rewarding.

FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

Sociologists distinguish between two forms of systems of stratification: the closed systems and
the open systems. Closed systems accommodate no change to social status. It is described as a place
where individuals can do little or nothing to alter their social status. They do not allow people to change
levels and do not facilitate social interactions between levels. The caste systems and slavery are closed
systems of stratification in which individuals may do little or nothing to alter their social status. Open
systems on the other hand, focus and allow layers and classes to move and interact. It is based on
success, allowing layers and classes to move and interact. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and
promote these cultural values and influence people's opinions. Class systems and estate systems are the
examples in open systems of stratification. Hence, stratification systems include the caste system, the
class system, slavery, and estate system (Encarnacion, 2019).

Slavery (Free or Unfree)

Slavery is a system in which people are bought and sold as slaves against their will,
compelled to work, or kept in captivity or cages.
 Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase, or birth; and can
also be deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation. Historically,
slavery was institutionally recognized by many societies. Slavery predates written records and has
existed in many cultures. The number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history, remaining as
high as 12 million to 27 million. Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt
bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations (Encarnacion, 2019).

Caste Systems

Caste systems are closed systems of social stratification in which individuals inherit
their status and experience little mobility.

Caste is a complex social system that incorporates some or all of the components of endogamy,
hereditary transfer of jobs, social status, social identity, hierarchy, exclusion, and authority. Caste is a
closed social stratification structure in which membership is determined by birth and remains fixed for
life; castes are also endogamous, which means that marriage is prevented outside one's caste, and
children are automatically members of their parents' caste. Race or ethnicity, economic class, or
religious affiliation is the most prevalent stratification of castes. Castes have been noted in cultures all
over the world throughout history, but they are sometimes mistakenly considered to be a practice
specific to India (Encarnacion, 2019).

Historically, there were four well-known types in the caste system in India: Brahmins (priests),
Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (commerce), Shudras (workmen). In these four caste classifications,
some people left out were called "outcasts" or "untouchables" and were ostracized and persecuted.
While Indian culture is often associated with the term "caste system," in many non-Indian societies, the
system is prevalent. Caste structures have been found in various cultural settings around the globe,
including primarily Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and other societies (Encarnacion, 2019).

Class Systems

Social class refers to the grouping of people, typically based on income, education,
and occupation, in a stratified social hierarchy.

Social class refers to the grouping of people in a stratified social hierarchy into positions. In
terms of variables, such as wealth, income, education, and occupation, a class consists of a group of
people who share similar status. Class systems, unlike caste systems, are transparent. People are free to
get a standard of education or jobs different from that of their parents. They can also socialize with
members of other classes and marry them, allowing individuals to switch from one class to another.
Employment is not fixed at birth in a class system. While family and other social models help direct an
individual towards a career, there is a place for personal choice. Certainly, class systems are the most
accessible, which means that they have the most vertical mobility (Encarnacion, 2019).

Estate Systems

Estate systems are characterized by land ownership and were widespread during the
Middle Ages and through the 1800s in Europe and Asia.

In feudal systems, estates were classified especially in Europe during the Middle Ages. They
were less restrictive than castes, and some mobility was permitted. In an estate structure, according to
their birth, military strength and landholdings, men are assigned to their strata. Unlike castes, instead of
religious rules, estates were created politically through man-made laws. Each estate had a code of
suitable behavior of its own (Encarnacion, 2019).

The common threefold divisions are:

A. The nobility (first/highest) estate), consisting of aristocracy and gentry;

B. The clergy (second estate), which had a lower position, but had various privileges; and
C. The commoners, ranging from peasants and artisans to everything else.

The individuals of different strata were defined in an estate structure by the privileges they had
and the obligations they were supposed to fulfill. These structures differ depending on their degree of
vertical mobility, or the likelihood that the stratification ladder will rise or fall. A person has virtually no
chance of going up or down in some so-called closed societies. There is more vertical mobility in open
societies to some individuals, and maybe many individuals will level up or even go down. To define the
consistency or lack thereof of an individual's rank across these variables, sociologists use the term status
consistency. Caste structures equate with high consistency of status, although there is lower consistency
of status for the more fluid class structure. In economic, social, political, and ideological aspects, social
stratification structures trigger relational sets of inequalities (Encarnacion, 2019).

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility refers to the transition from one social status to another within the social system.
This indicates a change in social standing. All societies offer some conditions for social mobility. Unlike
culture, social mobility is the extent that people can transfer from one class or level of status to another.

It is claimed that the greater the degree of social mobility, the more accessible the class structure.
In evaluating the relative "openness" of a social system, the idea of social mobility has fundamental
significance. The aspect, shapes, direction, and magnitude of social mobility depend on the nature and
types of social stratification. In order to find out the relative 'opening' of a social system, sociologists
studied social mobility.

Any community that enhances its standards would also enhance its social standing. But there are
no uniform levels of social mobility in all countries. From time to time, it varies from society to society.
The rate of mobility in India is inherently poor because of the predominant occupation which is
agriculture and the continuity of the caste system which is relative to the other nations of the world
(YourArticleLibrary).

Types of Social Mobility:

In social stratification, the movement occurs in three directions.

a) From lower to higher

b) From higher to lower
c) Between two positions at the same level.

Two Types of Social Mobility:

1. Horizontal mobility
2. Vertical mobility
3.

HORIZONTAL MOBILITY

This refers to the transfer of people possessing the same level from one social group to another.
This implies that the ranks of these two categories are not distinct. It demonstrates a change of place
without a change of status. For example, horizontal mobility is the case if a teacher leaves one school
and joins another school, or a bank officer leaves one branch to work in another or even changes
residence.

VERTICAL MOBILITY

This refers to the transfer of individuals from one layer to another or from one place to another
while their class, occupation, and power change. It is the movement from lower to higher or higher to
lower is involved. Two forms of vertical mobility exist. One is upward, and the other is downward).

Further, it is called upward mobility if a person moves from lower status to higher status. For
instance, it is said to be upward social mobility if the son of a peon enters a bank as an officer, but if he
loses the job due to some other cause or inefficiency, he is downwardly moved from his previous job. So
downward mobility takes place when a person steps down and changes his/her status from one position
to another.

Module 6: Ways to Address Social Inequalities

Social Inequality

Social equality could be an alluring ascribed in a majority rule and civilized society. Unfortunately, there
are just so many sources of inequality.

1. Social Capital
refers to the capacity of a collective to act together to seek after a common objective.

2. Political Capital
refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence possessed by a political actor, such as a politician, to
mobilize support toward a preferred policy outcome. Translated to the level of individuals in society, this
would amount to the access of one person to his/her political representative. Again, this would be a
function not only of resources but also of familiarity with the political process and the venues available
for communication with one’s political representatives. This would then redound to political literacy
which is usually a function of social class and level of education. Although, one should quickly add that
it is not totally an assurance that just because one is welloff economically and well educated, one is also
politically literate and is knowledgeable of the policy and political process.

3. Symbolic Capital
refers to the resources that one possesses which is a function of honor, prestige, recognition, or
any other trait that one values within a culture. It is an important possession that can influence the ability
of someone to access opportunities in society. Unfortunately, this is largely influenced by class origin,
and by other ascribed traits which lead some individuals unable to access opportunities, or if so, with
which they find difficult.

Aside from social class, gender and sexual orientation have been a source of inequality. Women
have continuously been obliged by social 5 orders to have an auxiliary predisposition, primarily due to
social convictions, in favor of men. Men are seen in numerous societies as normal pioneers and are
agreed on more social and political rights. It is maybe critical to point out that women earned the right to
vote much later compared to men. In some societies, women seem not allowed to claim property, and
they may not indeed drive their own cars.

Certainly, in more modern societies, there are still inequalities against ladies. Whereas much of
the world has as of now, concurred women to have equal political rights. Equality in women
representation in numerous legislatures in the world has yet to be realized. Women are also still paid less
despite doing more work in a few industries.
Moreover, women endure harassment within the workplace and they are also victimized by
sexual assaults and violence. Indeed, even within the security of their homes, numerous women are still
subjected to domestic violence and abuse.

A comparative circumstance is faced by lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons,
who are regularly subjected to discrimination and mock by a society that considers them abnormalities
or shapes of deviancy. Individuals of the LGBT community struggle to win recognition for their
gracious rights, such as the right for same-sex marriages that have as of now been granted to them in a
few states, and for which still unfavored to them in others.

Ethnic minorities are also subjected to discrimination. Aside from the cultural marginalization
that they suffer from the dominant cultural majorities, their cultural practices are also subjects of ridicule
and their physical appearances and demeanor; they also end up as victims of development aggression.
Ancestral lands of ethnic groups are either forcibly taken away from them in the guise of project
developments, such as the construction of government infrastructures, or to become dumping grounds
for toxic wastes.

Persons with disabilities (PWD) are also become the target of discrimination, and their physical
impairments become the basis for them to be denied equal opportunities in employment. They also do
not usually enjoy the benefits that people without disabilities receive.

Two ways by which social inequalities can be addressed in Local and National Government in the
Philippines:

1. Through policy legislation

Gender equality can be fostered by administering laws that promote the rights of women, and the
LGBT. We have laws within the Philippines that advance the rights of women, but not for LGBT.
Similarly, laws that ensure the rights of ethnic minorities can be passed. The Philippines, for example,
has in place the Indigenous People’s Rights Act that seeks to protect the rights of our cultural
communities (Jimenez 2017). We also have passed laws to protect the rights of the persons with
disabilities (PWD); the Republic Act 9442 of the Magna Carta for Persons with Disabilities that we will
no longer tolerate anyone who humiliates or bullies a PWD and the right to sue a person who will treat
him/her with “disrespect and condescendence.”

2. Through promoting cultural transformation

To promote cultural transformation and endeavoring to transform the way society looks at
women, LGBT, ethnic minorities, and PWDs is a way to respond to social inequalities. The key to this
will be to teach the public, both in formal settings such as schools as well as through well-known media.
Stereotyping of women, LGBT, ethnic minorities, and PWDs in television, radio, internet, and other
popular media are the most effective ways to perpetuate discrimination, and these are also means, where
that such discriminations can be addressed and minimized, if not totally removed.

Global Inequality

Inequality does not only exist between social orders and states, but also among states. Some
states are wealthier and more effective than other states. These privileged states most likely become
more powerful within the worldwide community. Hence, it leads to a circumstance of global inequality,
where poorer and less powerful states are being controlled and influenced by the wealthier and more
powerful states.

In verifiable circumstances, the balance of power of states is more frequent than not established,
where the method of colonization in the past led to a relation of unequal dependency between a previous
colony and its previous colonizer. The case of the Philippines and the United States may be a great
example of this. The Philippines is culturally, economically, and politically, seen to be beneath the strong
influence of the US.

However, inequality can also be an outcome of the relative strength of a state vis-à-vis another in
terms of strategic importance or development assistance. Resource-rich states, such as the oil-producing
countries, tend to have more leverage. States that send official development assistance (ODA) to other
countries are well-positioned to dictate their policy conditionalities on the states who receive their
development funds in the form of grants or loans.

Military strength too gets to be a source of inequality when states that have the prevalent military
ability can bully other nations with weaker military strengths. The situation in the West Philippine Sea
between China and the Philippines is a clear example of this unequal relationship. China forces its way
into our domains and claims such areas as part of their territory; taking advantage of our weaker naval
force defenses.

Global inequality can also be shown through the operations of transnational enterprises and
organizations that work on a global scale. Numerous of these enterprises are powerful, or in case not,
indeed more powerful, than person states. Private organizations have gigantic control that they can use
to affect the economy of nations where they have ventured. The World Bank, the International Monetary
Fund, and the Asian Development Bank ( ADB) are in a great position to have a colossal effect on the
countries that are bound by them as they are able to handle economic policies in order to comply with
their loan conditions.

Three ways to address Global Social Inequalities:

1. Formation of regional groups

 such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of the ways to address
global social inequality. The assumption, which is not always the case, is that the formation of regional
groups can provide strength in numbers. The main drawback is that despite the presence of the ASEAN,
individual members may be constrained to provide assistance to others due to the policy of
noninterference, where members are hesitant to intervene in the foreign and domestic issues of another
country. For example, in the West Philippine Sea issue where there is a dispute between the Philippines
and China, there is no firm ASEAN position.

2. To enter into bilateral treaties and pacts with other countries,

like the mutual defense agreement between the Philippines and the US could be done in order to
respond to global social inequality. Unfortunately, while this provides some semblance of security for
the Philippines as it sets the parameters for when the US can help us in times of external aggression
from another country, it further reinforces our unequal relations with the US.

3. The recourse to international treaties and agreements

sets contracts on issues as varied as climate change, transnational crime, and international
development. The Philippines is a signatory to these agreements, which bind other signatories to a
standard protocol. Any violation of these agreements can be used as a basis to appeal to the International
Court of Justice (ICJ). For example, China’s incursion to our territories is presumed to be a violation of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This is the basis of our complaint
against China that we filed at the ICJ.

Module 7: Human Responses to Emerging Challenges in Contemporary Societies

The spectrum of challenges that are confronted by humanity in the contemporary societies

Through the years, human race has been experiencing changes in different aspects of life.
Consequently, these changes are really inevitable that cause the emergence of different challenges which
are being faced by humanity

Emerging Challenges Causes Sample Human Responses/Initiatives

Food Security 1. Population Growth In order to unravel food security in Mindanao,
2. Changing tastes of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
the consumer United Nations supports the Philippine
3. Climate change Government by implementing Mindanao
4. Water scarcity Strategic Programme for Agriculture and
Fewer people are choosing Agribusiness (MSPAA) 2015-2022, that aims
 farming as an occupation to:
a. Increase production and productivity
b. Promote appropriate technologies
c. Promote climate-smart technologies that
can respond effectively to climate change
impacts and natural disasters
d. Improve competitiveness and profitability
of small-scale agriculture
e. Improve governance and institutional
framework for accessing technologies, credit,
and markets. (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations).
Low Inclusive 1. Global Financial As cited in the article of Breen 2020 in the
Economic Crisis World Economic Forum that in 2015 the
Growth 2. Unemployment United Nation set the Sustainable
Economic Inequality Development Goals for 2030. Some of the
said objectives touch on inclusive growth and
social inclusion. Certainly, goal 8 aims to
promote inclusive and sustainable economic
growth and goal 10 targets to reduce
inequality within countries and among
countries.
Unemployment 1. Changing of In order to lessen the number of jobless
technologies Filipino, the Philippine Government through
Workers are under the Bureau of Workers with Special Concerns
pressure to constantly (BWSC) of the Department of Labor and
acquire skills and adjust to Employment (DOLE) initiated the Starter
the evolving and emerging KITS Project. This is a livelihood formation
industries approach that is intended to improve
socioeconomic aspect of workers in the
informal economy, sectors with special
concerns, and displaced wage workers (local
and overseas) and their families. DOLE will
provide a livelihood starter KITS comprising
of a set of services that will enable the target
recipients to quickly start a livelihood
endeavour and become self-employed
(Bureau of Workers with Special Concerns).
Climate 1. The massive use of n 2008, the Philippine Congress enacted
Change fossil fuels Republic Act 9729 also known as the Climate
2. Deforestation or Change Act. It mandates the mainstreaming of
exploitation of climate change (CC) deliberations into
forests government policy and planning. This law
3. Improper waste provides the foundation for the creation of the
disposal Climate Change Commission, the National
Mining Framework Strategy on Climate Change
(NFSCC) for 2010-2022, and the National
Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) for
2011-2028 (Climate Change Services, 2020).
Gender 1. Uneven access to In order to promote gender equality in the
Inequality education government agencies and offices, the Civil
2. Lack of Service Commission has been mainstreaming
Employment the application of Gender and Development
equality (GAD). Moreover, to pursue the said
3. Lack of legal endeavor in the learning institution, the
protection Department of Education codified DepEd
4. Lack of religious Order 32, series of 2017 - GenderResponsive
freedom Basic Education Policy. Through this, DepEd
Lack of political promotes gender equality through Gender-
representation Responsive Basic Education (Department of
Education, 2017)
Health 1. Population Growth When COVID 19 – Pandemic started, all
Security Crisis 2. Rapid Urbanization affected countries adapted and imposed health
(Example: The 3. Environmental safety protocols recommended by the World
Emergence degradation Health Organization such as:
COVID-19 4. Misuse of - Wash your hands often
Pandemic) antimicrobials - Cough or sneeze in your bent elbow, not on
Weak health systems your hands.
- Avoid touching your eyes, nose and mouth
- Limit social gatherings and time spent in
crowded places
- Avoid close contact with someone who is
sick
- Clean and disinfect frequently touched
objects and surfaces (World Health
Organization, 2020)

Moreover, governments acted swiftly to

create appropriate financial and legal actions
in order to respond to the socioeconomics
crisis brought by the pandemic. This can
provide financial assistance to medical
practitioners and expedite the creation of
vaccine.