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Block 2

Symmetries in quantum mechanics

2.1 Wigner Theorem

Theorem 2.1.0.1 (Wigner Theorem). Any mapping U (not necessarily linear) from a complex Hilbert space
V onto itself that preserves the value of |hψ|φi| is either unitary or anti-unitary.

This is obvious from the properties of unitary and anti-unitary operators seen in Block 1. For example,
for the Unitary case, it is very easy to write
|ψ 0 i = Û |ψi, |φ0 i = Û |φi ⇒ hψ 0 |φ0 i = hψ|Û † Û |φi = hψ|φi
whereas if U it is anti-unitary
hψ 0 |φ0 i = hψ|φi∗
and in both cases the modulus of the inner product remains unchanged.
An interesting observation is that the square of an anti-unitary operator is always unitary, easily proved
as follows: Consider an anti-unitary operator Ū and let us define
|γi = |Û ψi, |ηi = |Ū φi
Now we know that applying Ū again,
hŪ γ|Ū ηi = hγ|ηi∗
but, in turn
hγ|ηi = hŪ ψ|Ū φi = hψ|φi∗ ⇒ hŪ γ|Ū ηi = hŪ 2 ψ|Ū 2 φi = hψ|φi.
This gives us a very interesting result: Any continuous transformation that preserves the Hilbert space norm
has to be unitary since every continuous transformation always admits a square root.
Now, let us recall that if a vector of the Hilbert space transforms under unitary transformations as
|ψ 0 i = Û |ψi
a linear operator Ô of the Hilbert space onto itself will be transformed as
Ô0 = Û ÔÛ †

Let us now introduce a very useful definition:

Definition (Generator of a family of Unitary operators). Consider a 1-parametric family of unitary operators
Û (s). The generator of this family of unitary operators is the self-adjoint operator Ĥ satisfying

Û (s) = eiĤs
for all s.

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2.2 The symmetries of Galileian spacetime and the Schrödinger equation

2.2.1 Generators of the Galilei group

The laws of physics have to be invariant under the symmetries of spacetime. These include rotations, dis-
placements and boosts between inertially moving reference frames. This is to say, for example, if I change
my reference frame to that of another internal observer, the laws of physics have to be the same. In quan-
tum mechanical terms, this translates in the invariance of the probability distribution of observables with the
symmetry transformations of spacetime.
Ultimately one has to take into account the Poincare group (rotations, displacements and Lorentz boosts)
but for now we are going to keep a non-relativistic approach, let us assume that the laws of Physics are
invariant under all the possible symmetries of Galileian spacetime. In 3+1 dimensions, if x is a 3-component
spatial vector, a Galilei transformation from x to x0 can be written as
x → x 0 = Rx + a + vt
t → t0 = t + s
Here R is a rotation, a is a spatial displacement, v is the velocity of a uniformly moving reference frame and
s is a time shift.
Let us denote by x0 = τ {x, t} a Galilei transformation. τ is, therefore, a transformation dependent on the
parameters R, a, v, s, this is , a rotation, displacement, boost and time-shift. It is straightforward to see that
the composition of two Galilei transformations is another Galilei transformation: consider two independent
Galilei transformations τ1 {X, t} = {X 0 , t0 }, τ2 {X 0 , t0 } = {X̂ 00 , t00 } such that the composition of the two is
τ3 {X, t} = {X 00 , t00 }, making the transformations explicit we have
X 00 = R2 (R1 X + a1 + v1 t) + a2 + v2 (t + s1 )
t00 = t + s1 + s2
and therefore
R3 = R2 R1
a3 = a2 + R2 a1 + v2 s1
v3 = v2 + R2 v1
s3 = s2 + s1
Now assuming that the laws of Physics are invariant under Galilei transformations, the transformation of
vectors of the Hilbert space and linear operators under the Galilei group has to be unitary:
|ψi → |ψ 0 i = U (τ )|ψi
Ô → Ô0 = Û (τ )ÔÛ † (τ )
Now we know the effect of applying the two transformations τ2 τ1 is equivalent to the composite transformation
τ3 . Hence, we require that Û (τ2 )Û (τ1 )|ψi and Û (τ3 )|ψi represent the same physical state (this is, they differ
only in a phase factor), therefore demanding this we obtain
Û (τ2 τ1 ) = eiω(τ2 ,τ1 ) Û (τ2 )Û (τ1 ) (2.2.1)
and the phase cannot depend on |ψi or otherwise Û cannot be linear, and therefore cannot be unitary, and
we have seen that for continuous transformations Û has to be unitary.
Recapitulating, in 3+1 dimensions we have 10 possible independent transformations, for example:

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• 3 Spatial displacements

• 3 Rotations

• 3 Boosts

• 1 Time shift

As seen above, a general Galilei transformation is a 10-parametric family of unitary transformations.

Therefore, the most general transformation of this kind can be expressed as the product of ten exponentials
10
Y
Û (τ ) = eisµ K̂µ
µ=1

where Kµ are Hermitian operators and are called the generators of the Galilei group corresponding to the
different independent transformations.
Before introducing notation for the different generators, let us make some considerations about the struc-
ture of the Galilei group. If all the parameters sµ were arbitrarily small (sµ =   1), we could get the general
form for a general infinitesimal unitary corresponding to a Galilei transformation
10
X
Û = 11 + i K̂µ + O(2 )
µ=1

Now let us consider the following product (sequential application) of transformations and their inverses:

eiεK̂µ eiK̂ν e−iK̂µ e−iK̂ν = 11 + 2 (K̂ν K̂µ − K̂µ K̂ν ) + O 3 = 11 + 2 [K̂ν , K̂µ ] + O 3



(2.2.2)

Given that, as stated in (2.2.1), any sequence of Galilei transformations is equivalent to another Galilei
transformation (modulo a phase), there will always be a set of 11 parameters {ω, sµ } that will make a single
transform plus a phase, eiω Û (τ ), equal to (2.2.2). These 11 parameters are obviously infinitesimal too (and
order 2 ) so we can expand eiω U (τ ) in power series:
10
X
iω
e Û (τ ) = 11 + i sµ K̂µ + iω 11 + O(3 ) (2.2.3)
µ=1

Clearly, equating (2.2.3) and (2.2.2) demands that the commutator of two generators be a linear combi-
nation of generators and maybe a multiple of the identity:
h i X
K̂µ , K̂ν = i cλµν K̂λ + ibµν 11 (2.2.4)
λ

The structure constants cλµν are fully determined by the composition rules of the space-time Galilei trans-
formations τ (R, a, v, s). The multiple of the identity bµν ∈ R is due to the phase factor in (2.2.3) and would
be zero if ω were zero.
It is convenient to introduce some notation for the generators of the Galilei group:

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• Rotation with respect to an axis α: X̂ → Rα (θα )X̂

ˆ
ÛRα = e−iθα Jα
• spatial translation along an axis α: xα → xα + aα
ÛDα = e−iaα P̂α
• Boost in the α direction: xα → xα + vα t
UBα = eivα Gα
• Time shift: t → t + s
Ûs = eisĤ
n o
These 10 generators −Jˆα , −P̂α , Ĝα , Ĥ (α = 1, 2, 3) are the specific forms of K̂µ . The signs in the
complex exponents are chosen to keep the usual conventions.
As an example and also a very simple exercise, let us see how the exponential of the momentum operator
e−iaα P̂αis a spatial translation. Consider the position representation of |ψi, this is ψ(x) = hx|ψi. the
action of the operator P̂ on the vector |ψi is given by e−ix0 P̂ |ψi, which in the position representation is
ψx0 (x) = hx|e−ix0 P̂ |ψi. Inserting the identity in terms of eigenstates of |P i
Z Z
−ix0 P̂ −ix0 P̂
ψx0 (x) = hx|e |ψi = dp hx| e |pihp|ψi = dp e−ix0 p hx|pihp|ψi

where we have used that |pi is an eigenstate of P̂ . Now, substituting the expression of hx|pi we get
Z Z
1 ipx −ix0 p 1
ψx0 (x) = √ dp e e ψ(p) = √ dp eip(x−x0 ) ψ(p) = ψ(x − x0 )
2π 2π

which shows that the action of e−ix0 P̂ is a translation of x0 .

The commutation relationships between the different generators are easy to compute and the result is
given by
   
P̂α , P̂β = 0 Ĝα , P̂β = iδαβ M 11
   
Ĝα , Ĝβ = 0 P̂α , Ĥ = 0
Jˆα , Jˆβ = iεαβ γ Jγ
   
Ĝα , Ĥ = iP̂α
Jˆα , P̂β = iεαβ γ P̂γ Jˆα , Ĥ = 0
   

Jˆα , Ĝβ = iεαβ γ Ĝγ

 

Where the repetition of the label γ on the right-hand side is understood as a sum over the index gamma
(Einstein’s convention) and εαβ γ is the fully anti-symmetric symbol. It is left as an exercise (easy but lengthy)
to compute these commutation relationships. As an example, we will compute here the commutation relation-
ships between the different rotations:
The rotation transformations with respect to each axis are
   
1 0 0 cos θ 0 sin θ
R1 (θ) =  0 cos θ − sin θ  R2 (θ) =  0 1 0 
0 sin θ cos θ − sin θ 0 cos θ

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 
cos θ − sin θ 0
R3 (θ) =  sin θ cos θ 0 
0 0 1

Expanding those matrices in power series we get

Rα (θ) = 11 + θMα + O(θ2 )

where Mα = (dRα /dθ)|θ=0 are

     
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1 0
M1 =  0 0 −1  M2 =  0 0 0  M3 =  1 0 0  (2.2.5)
0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0

Let us now carry out two infinitesimal rotations (θ =   1) with respect to the x and y axes and undo
them in the same order. These operations in three-space do not commute. Indeed, using (2.2.5), we get

R2 (−)R1 (−)R2 ()R1 () = 11 − 2 M1 , M2 = 11 − 2 (M1 M2 − M2 M1 ) = 11 − 2 M3 = R3 (−2 )

 

So the correspondent unitary transformations associated with these rotations have to satisfy a similar rela-
tionship modulus a phase:
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 2ω 2 Jˆ
eiJ2 eiJ1 e−iJ2 e−iJ1 = ei 12
ei 3

So the generators must satisfy the following (taking Taylor expansions in both sides of the equality and
equating order by order in )
Jˆ1 , Jˆ2 = iJˆ3 + ω12 11
 

The corresponding commutation relationships for all possible combinations of rotations can be derived
from the cyclic permutation of the rotation axes and the anti-symmetry of the commutator with respect to
the exchange of arguments:
Jˆα , Jˆβ = iεαβ γ Jˆγ + ωαβ 11
 

where εαβ γ is the Levi-Civita (completely anti-symmetric) symbol.

To determine the multiple of the identity in the commutator we make use of the anti-symmetry of the
commutator under swapping of arguments: in this case, the antisymmetry of the commutator implies that the
multiple of the identity can be expressed as

Jˆα , Jˆβ = iεαβ γ Jˆγ + iεαβ γ bγ 11

 

where bγ=1,2,3 are real numbers (same as in 2.2.4). But this multiple of the identity is, in this case, irrelevant,
the trivial substitution Jγ + bγ → Jγ for α = 1, 2, 3 implies that the unitary transformation generated by Jγ
will also add an extra phase factor. If we carefully look at the implications of this substitution in the laws of
physics, we see that it’s effect would be replacing the unitary transformation U (Rγ ) = e−iθJγ by eiθbγ e−iθJγ ,
this is to say, we are replacing |ψ 0 i = U |ψi with e−iθbγ |ψ 0 i. Since the global phase of |ψ 0 i has no physical
relevance, we can reabsorb that irrelevant multiple of the identity into Jγ giving

Jˆα , Jˆβ = iεαβ γ Jˆγ

 

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2.2.2 Commutators of the Galilei group generators with the position operator

To derive the equations of motion, it is also useful to know how the generators commute with the position
operator X̂.
Let us begin with the well known position-momentum commutators. For this let us apply the spatial
translation x → x 0 = x + a to the position eigenvectors:

|xi → |xi0 = e−ia·P̂ |xi = |x + ai

where
X̂|xi = x|xi. (2.2.6)
In the same fashion, the transformation of the position operator to a translated position operator is given by

X̂ → X̂ 0 = e−ia·P̂ X̂eia·P̂ (2.2.7)

And, of course, the transformed position operator acting over the transformed eigenvector gives the following

X̂ 0 |x0 i = e−ia·P̂ X̂eia·P̂ e−ia·P̂ |xi = xe−ia·P̂ |xi = x|x 0 i (2.2.8)

but we know that |xi0 = |x + ai, so comparing (2.2.8) with (2.2.6) we get that since X̂|x0 i = (x + a)|x0 i and
X̂ 0 |x0 i = x|x0 i then
X̂ 0 = X̂ − a11 (2.2.9)

Taking a series expansion in (2.2.7) and equating, to the first order in a, (2.2.9) and (2.2.7) we get
 
X̂α , a· P̂ = iaα 11

and this has to be true for any a, in particular for a being the unit vectors in the there spatial directions:
 
X̂α , P̂β = iδαβ 11 (2.2.10)

An exactly similar computation considering an infinitesimal rotation of magnitude θ  1 that acts as

follows
x → x 0 = x + θn̂ × x
and whose corresponding action on the eigenvectors of the position operator is given by

|xi → |xi0 = e−iθn̂J |xi

and taking series expansion and comparing terms in an analogue way as above leads to the following commu-
tation relationship
Jˆα , X̂β = iεαβ γ X̂γ
 
(2.2.11)

Or in other words, this tells us that the components of X̂ are transformed under rotations as the compo-
nents of a 3-vector.
It is trivial to see that a boost commutes with the position operator since a boost is proportional to a
translation in momentum space:  
Ĝα , X̂β = 0 (2.2.12)

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2.3 From spacetime symmetries to Schrödinger equation

Corresponding to the time shift t → t0 = t + s there exists a transformation in the Hilbert space of the form
Ûs = eisĤ :
|ψ(t0 )i → eisĤ |ψ(t0 )i = |ψ(t0 − s)i

Let us rename −s = t and make t0 = 0 so we got that |ψ(t)i = e−itĤ |ψ(0)i. We can differentiate this relationship
to get
d d
|ψ(t)i = −iĤe−itĤ |ψ(0)i ⇒ |ψ(t)i = −iĤ|ψ(t)i (2.3.1)
dt dt
which looks like a Schrödinger equation. However we have not specified yet what this Ĥ is. This will depend
on the symmetries of our problem

2.3.1 Free particle with no internal degrees of freedom

For the case of a free particle with no extra degrees of freedom other than x and p. The operators X̂ and P̂
form an irreducible set, which means that any operator that commutes simultaneously with both of them has
to be a multiple of the identity. We can, by using this, determine the form of all the generators of the Galilei
groups as functions of X̂ and P̂ . For that we need to find combinations of the generators of the group that
commute simultaneously with P̂ and X̂ which will therefore mean that they are multiples of the identity, as
seen in the theorems proved in Block 1. In particular we will be most interested in the form of the generator
of time translations Ĥ (that in the end gives the Hamiltonian of the system).
It is easy to check from the commutation relationships given in the previous section that Ĝ−M X̂ commutes
with both P̂ and X̂. This means that it is a multiple of the identity and therefore

Ĝα − M X̂α = cα 11 ⇒ Ĝα = M X̂α + cα 11

But we also know that Ĝα must satisfy the commutation relation Jα , Gβ = iεαβ γ Gγ , this means that the
 

term cα 11 which commutes with Jˆα cannot be part of Ĝα

Ĝα = M X̂α (2.3.2)

Now
 let us
 consider the following proposal for the rotation generator Jˆ = X̂ × P̂ . It is easy to check using
γ
that Jα , Pα = iεαβ Pγ and the position-momentum commutation relations that Jˆ − X̂ × P̂ commutes with

the irreducible set X̂, P̂ and therefore it has to be a multiple of the identity and therefore

Jˆα = X̂ × P̂ + cα 11.

Now, the constants cα must be zero if Jα , Jβ = iεαβ γ Jγ has to be satisfied, therefore

 

Jˆ = X̂ × P̂ (2.3.3)

for a free particle with no internal degrees of freedom.

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To determine the remaining generator Ĥ we can use the commutation relationship Ĝα , Ĥ = iP̂α and
substitute Gα by the expression (2.3.2), obtaining
  iP̂α
X̂α , Ĥ =
M
It is easy to verify that Ĥ = P̂ · P̂ /2M satisfies the previous equation. However, this may be not the only
solution.
From the equation above, nevertheless, we
 can readily
 see that H − P̂ ·P̂ /2M commutes with X̂, and from
the Galilei group commutation relationship Pα , H = 0 we know it commutes with the momentum operator.
This means H − P̂ · P̂ /2M has to be a multiple of the identity. This implies that
P̂ · P̂
H= + E0 11 (2.3.4)
2M
Therefore we have derived Schrödinger equation for a free particle with no internal degrees of freedom from
the symmetries of Galileian spacetime.

2.3.2 Free particle with spin

Internal degrees of freedom are, by definition, independent of the center-of-mass degrees of freedom. Therefore,
they will be represented by operators that are independent
 from X̂ and P̂ , i.e. operators that commute with
the position and momentum ones. This means the set X̂, P̂ is not irreducible and therefore any operator
that commutes with them would be, in general, a function of the operators representing the extra degrees of
freedom.
Let us consider that the internal degree of freedom is a contribution to angular momentum (such as spin),
this means that instead of (2.3.3), the generators of rotations are of the form
Jˆ = X̂ × P̂ + Ŝ
   
with X̂, Ŝ = P̂ , Ŝ = 0.
The operator Jˆ has to satisfy the usual Galilei commutation relationship Jˆα , Jˆβ = iεαβ γ Jˆγ . The first
 

term, X̂ × P̂ already satisfies them, therefore Ŝ must do it too.

Ŝα , Ŝβ = iεαβ γ Ŝγ
 
(2.3.5)

The generator of boosts might be different in this case since the fact that Ĝ − M X̂ commutes with both
P̂ and X̂ will no longer mean that it is a multiple of the identity, but instead it will be a function of the
internal degrees of freedom Ĝ − M X̂ = f (Ŝ). Now the left-hand side of the equation is a 3-vector, and the
only function of Ŝ which is a 3-vector, has to be a multiple of Ŝ. This is so because cross product powers of
Ŝ are proportional to Ŝ given that Ŝ × Ŝ = iŜ.
 
Therefore, Ĝ = M X̂ + cS with c ∈ R. However, the commutation relationship Ĝα , Ĝβ = 0 imposes that
c = 0 since the three components of Ŝ do not commute among each other. Therefore in this case the generator
of boosts is exactly the same as in the previous case Ĝ = M X̂.
Now, the same argument as in the previous section that lead us to (2.3.4) can be repeated here yielding
that H = P̂· P̂ /2M  + Ê0 only that in this case
 Ê0 could also be a function of Ŝ. Now the commutation
relationship Jˆ, Ĥ = 0 demands in turn that Ŝ, Ê0 = 0, therefore Ê0 can only be a multiple (or power) of
Ŝ · Ŝ. So Ĥ has an internal energy contribution.

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2.3.3 Particle in interaction with an external field

Since we are going to take into account the dynamics coming from a possible coupling to an external potential,
we are breaking the symmetry under time shifts. In other words, the laws of physics will not remain invariant
under shifts because there might be accelerations coming from the iteration with external potentials.
This implies that the results we found for the commutators involving Ĥ can no longer be true, this is, in
this case
Jˆα , Ĥ =
     
P̂α , Ĥ 6= 0 Ĝα , Ĥ 6= iP̂α 6 0.
Nevertheless, the rest of the symmetries of Galilean spacetime will still be respected. So what happens when
we reduce the symmetry of the setting because we have external potentials?
For this calculation let us introduce a velocity operator V̂ such that it fulfills that

d D E D E
X̂ = V̂
dt
for any state. We can write
   
d d d
hψ(t)| V̂ |ψ(t)i = hψ(t)| X̂|ψ(t)i = hψ(t)| X̂|ψ(t)i + hψ(t)| X̂ |ψ(t)i
dt dt dt

From the application of the generator of time translations we recall (2.3.1)

d
|ψ(t)i = −iĤ|ψ(t)i (2.3.6)
dt
substituting this into the equation above we get
 
hψ(t)| V̂ |ψ(t)i = i hψ(t)| Ĥ X̂|ψ(t)i − i hψ(t)| X̂ Ĥ|ψ(t)i = i hψ(t)| Ĥ, X̂ |ψ(t)i

Therefore we get the expression for the velocity operator as

 
V̂ = i Ĥ, X̂ (2.3.7)

However, Ĥ will be different than in the previous cases due to the interaction with external fields.
Now, the operator V̂ , changes under boosts in the same way as X̂ changes under translations (the boost
is just a ’translation’ of the speed of the particle):

eiv·Ĝ V̂ e−iv·Ĝ = V̂ − v 11

Or in other words, we changed V̂ to another reference frame in uniform motion.

Similar to what we did to find the commutator of the position and momentum operator, a series expansion
on v on the left-hand side of the expression above leads to the following identity of the first order terms in v:
 
iv· Ĝ, V̂α = −vα 11

which in turns means  

Ĝα , V̂β = iδαβ 11 (2.3.8)
exactly the same as for the position-momentum commutation relationships.

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Let us recall that in this case there are no extra degrees of freedom, hence, the expression for Ĝ remains
the same as in the previous case (there
 are no extra degrees of freedom) so Ĝα = M X̂α . Now from the Galilei
group commutation rule Ĝα , P̂β = iδαβ M 11, and (2.3.8), we find that V̂ − P̂ /M commutes with Ĝ. Now
since Ĝ = M X̂ and {X̂1 , X̂2 , X̂3 } is a complete set of commuting operators, one of the theorems seen in Block
1 guarantees that V̂ − P̂ /M (which commutes with all the components of X̂) has to be a function of X̂. The
most general form of the velocity operator is therefore

P̂

V̂ = − A X̂
M


where A X̂ is a function of the position operator.
 
Now, we can substitute this in (2.3.7) (V̂ = i H, X̂ ) and solve for Ĥ. A possible solution is

2
P̂ − A X̂
Ĥ0 =
2M
which can readilybe verified by substitution. However, using that Ĥ0 is a solution of
 (2.3.7), we readily obtain
that Ĥ − Ĥ0 , X̂ = 0, which means that Ĥ − Ĥ0 commutes with the complete set X̂1 , X̂2 , X̂3 , thus Ĥ − Ĥ0
has to be a function of X̂. Therefore the most general form of the generator of time evolution for a particle
with no degrees of freedom subjected to a external field is

2
P̂ − A X̂

Ĥ = + W X̂ (2.3.9)
2M

So we have that

the only interaction consistent with the invariance

under Galilei transformation is a scalar
potential W X̂ and a minimally coupled vector potential A X̂ , which cannot be functions of P̂ .

2.4 Symmetries and conservation laws in quantum mechanics

Consider Û (s) = eisK̂ a unitary transformation with generator K̂ = K̂ † , such that the generator of time
translations is invariant under the transformation

Û (s)Ĥ Û † (s) = Ĥ (2.4.1)

 
which in turns mean that Ĥ, Û (s) = 0. Since that has to be true for all s this is equivalent to say that Ĥ
commutes with the infinitesimal generator of the transformation
 
Ĥ, K̂ = 0 (2.4.2)

If Ĥ were time dependent, we will say that Ĥ will be invariant under the transformation Û (s) if (2.4.1)
and (2.4.2) are satisfied for all t.
The hermitian generators of a transformation can be usually identified with observables. E.g. the generator
of translations is the linear momentum and the generator of rotations is angular momentum. As such, those
infinitesimal generators do not have intrinsic time dependence:

dK̂
=0
dt

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Therefore, if Ĥ is invariant under the transformation generated by K̂ we can show that the expectation value
of the observable does not change with time:

   
d d d  
hψ(t)| K̂|ψ(t)i = hψ(t)| K̂|ψ(t)i + hψ(t)| K̂ |ψ(t)i = i hψ(t)| Ĥ, K̂ |ψ(t)i
dt dt dt
or in other words
d D E
K̂ = 0
dt t

This means that the physical magnitude K (represented by the Hermitian operator K̂) is a constant of
motion.
The invariance of Ĥ under spatial translations implies that linear momentum is a constant of motion.
The invariance of Ĥ under rotations implies that angular momentum is a constant of motion. If Ĥ is time
independent, then Ĥ represents itself a conserved quantity: the energy of the system.

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