E C E

Fiber Optic Communication

ECE 4255
Oishi Jyoti
Lecturer
Department of ECE
RUET
Reference Books

1. G J. C. Palais, Fiber optic communications. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, 1988.

2. HJ. M. Senior and M. Y. Jamro, Optical fiber communications: principles and
practice. Pearson Education, 2009.

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Outlines

 LED
 LED Structures
 Planar LED

3
LED
 Two terminal device, referred as Light Emitting Diode
 It converts electrical signal into optical signal
 It operates in forward bias.
 When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting
light in the process.
 Working Procedure:
 When the diode is forward biased, holes are sent from p → n while the electrons are
sent from n → p.
 When electrons recombine with holes, it releases energy in the
form of photons
 We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 4

λ
 Quantum Efficiency

 It is defined as a ratio of the number of electrons in external circuit to the number

of incident photons.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
 QE = =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑛(𝑛+1)2

Where, n = refractive index of materials

 The efficiency can be less because of –
 Material properties
 Deviations in refractive index
 Angle made by emitted photon

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LED Structures
1. Homojunction Led
2. Heterojunction Led

 Homojunction:
 Both p and n-type semiconductor are made of same base material. (e.g. GaAs).
 Called Homo Junction.
 Similar layer but different doping
 By making n-side heavily doped.
 Light in p-region radiated out.
 Light in n-region may be absorbed.
 Specially designed to enable most radiative recombination at junction side nearer to surface.
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LED Structures
1. Homojunction Led
2. Heterojunction Led

 Heterojunction:
 Both p and n-type semiconductor are made of different base material.
 It is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors with different bandgap.
 Heterojunctions are of two types, Isotype (n-n or p-p) or Antisotype (p-n).
 n-side made of n-type GaAs or n-type GaAlAs.
 GaAs – Smaller and direct band gap – Larger electron affinity.
 GaAlAs – Larger and direct band gap – Smaller electron affinity.
 Reduces diffusion length and carrier life time.
 Increases bandwidth.
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Planar LED

 Since the light is emitted from a plane surface it is called planar LED (or) surface emitting
LED.
 In order to increase the probability of radiative recombination, the thickness of the ‘n’ layer
is taken higher than that of the thickness of the ‘p’ layer.
 Contacts are made with the help of Al in such a way that top layer of the ‘p’ material is left
uncovered, for the emission of light.
 Biasing can be applied at the contacts. The whole p-n junction is surrounded by plastic
material so that the losses due to reflection can be minimized.

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Planar LED

 Due to forward bias, the majority carriers from ‘n’ and ‘p’ regions cross the junction and
become minority carriers in the other junction (ie) electrons, which are majority carriers in
‘n’ region cross the junction and go to ‘p’ region.
 Similarly holes which are majority carriers in ‘p’ region cross the junction and becomes
minority carriers in ‘n’ region
 The excess of minority carriers are injected in both ‘p’ and ‘n’ regions. This phenomenon is
called minority carriers injection.
 The electrons which are excess minority carriers in p-region recombines with the holes which
are majority carriers in ’p’ region and emit light.
 Similarly, the holes which are excess minority carriers in ‘n’ region recombine with the
electrons which are majority carriers in ‘n’ region and emit light.
 Therefore electron-hole pair recombination process occurs more and thereby producing light
through the top layer of the p-material which is left uncovered.

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Radiated power by Planar LED

ℎ𝑐𝐼
 Internal generated power, 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 = η𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑞λ

Where, h =planks const

c = light velocity
I = forward current
q = charge of electron
λ = operating wavelength
𝜏
η𝑖𝑛𝑡 = where η𝑖𝑛𝑡 is the internal quantum efficiency , 𝜏 = total rise time which can be defined
𝜏𝑟
𝜏𝑟 𝜏𝑛𝑟
by 𝜏 =
𝜏𝑟 +𝜏𝑛𝑟

𝜏𝑟 = rise time of radiated atom, 𝜏𝑛𝑟 = rise time of non-radiated atom

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Radiated power by Planar LED

 Radiated power, 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = η𝑒𝑥𝑡 . 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡

1
η𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑛(𝑛+1)2

Where, η𝑒𝑥𝑡 = the external quantum efficiency

𝑛 = refractive index

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Double Heterojunction Emitter

 It is GaAs/AlGaAs based Double Heterojunction LED.

 Thin layer of GaAs is sandwiched between two layers of AlGaAs.
 GaAs is lightly doped and has narrower bandgap.
 AlGaAs layers have wider bandgap.
 When forward bias is applied through its top and bottom contacts, electrons are injected
from highly doped AlGaAs layer to central GaAs layer.
 The injected electrons are trapped within the middle layer due to double heterojunction
potential barriers.
 Electrons are forced to recombine with the holes without too much diffusion from interfaces.
They recombine radiatively with energy equal to the band gap of GaAs.
 What are the advantages of DHE Led?
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Surface Emitting Led

 In surface emitting LEDs the plane of active light emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber.
 A DH diode is grown on an N-type substrate at the top of the diode.
 A circular well is etched through the substrate of the device.
 A fiber is then connected to accept the emitted light.
 Lambartian Radiation: The power is reduced to 50% of its peak when
θ = 600 , therefore the total half-power beamwidth is 1200.
The radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED.
 What are the advantages of SE Led?

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Edge Emitting Led

 In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam
more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED.
 Such a device is known as edge emitting LED or ELED.
 It consists of an active junction region (DH) which is the source of incoherent light and two
guiding layers.
 The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but higher than outer
surrounding material.
 Thus a waveguide channel is form and optical radiation is directed into the fiber.
 Edge emitter‘s emission pattern is more directional providing improved coupling efficiency
 What are the advantages of EE Led? 14
Characteristics of LED

 Reliable and long lasting if operated within the power given.

 Output power diminishes with time.
 The lifetime is the time it takes for the power to reduce to half of its initial
value.
 Temperature will Affect LED Efficacy
 Low Energy Consumption

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LASER

 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

 It is a device that emits a narrow, coherent, and monochromatic beam of
light.
 Hight intensity of beam
 High quantum efficiency
 Narrow spectral width
 High modulation rate

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Characteristics of LASER

 Pumping Threshold: The power input to a laser must be above a threshold

level before the device will emit.
 Output Spectrum: The laser output power is not at a single frequency but
over a range of frequencies.
 Radiation pattern: The range of angles depends on the emitting area and
modes of oscillation.
The mode of oscillation refers to the specific pattern
or configuration of the electromagnetic field within a
laser cavity. It describes the spatial distribution of the
intensity and phase of the laser beam.

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Components of LASER
 Active Medium: The active medium may be solid crystals such as ruby or Nd:YAG,
liquid dyes, gases like CO2 or Helium/Neon, or semiconductors such as GaAs. Active
mediums contain atoms whose electrons may be excited to a metastable energy level
by an energy source.
 Pumping Mechanism: Excitation mechanisms pump energy into the active medium by
one or more of three basic methods; optical, electrical or chemical.
 High Reflectance: Mirror A mirror which reflects essentially 100% of the laser light.
 Partially Transmissive Mirror: A mirror which reflects less than 100% of the laser
light and transmits the remainder.

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Working of LASER
 Stimulated Absorption: It is a process in which an atom or molecule absorbs a photon of
specific energy from an incident electromagnetic field, leading to an excitation of the atom
or molecule to a higher energy state.
 This process is the reverse of stimulated emission, which is a fundamental process in lasers.
 In stimulated absorption, an incoming photon interacts with an atom or molecule that is in its
ground state or a lower energy level.
 If the energy of the photon matches the energy difference between the atom's current state
and a higher energy level, the interaction can result in the absorption of the photon and the
excitation of the atom to the higher energy state.
 The stimulated absorption process involves the following steps:
 Incident Photon
 Interaction
 Absorption
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 Excitation
Working of LASER
 Spontaneous Emission: Spontaneous emission is a fundamental process in which an excited
atom or molecule undergoes a transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state,
releasing a photon in the process.
 Unlike stimulated emission, which occurs in the presence of an incident electromagnetic
field, spontaneous emission happens naturally without any external stimulation.
 The electrons in the excited state can stay only for a short period. The time up to which an
excited electron can stay at higher energy state (E2) is known as the lifetime of excited
electrons.
 Thus, after the short lifetime of the excited electrons, they return to the lower energy state
or ground state by releasing energy in the form of photons.
 The photons emitted in spontaneous emission process constitute
ordinary incoherent light.

Incoherent light is a beam

of photons with frequent
and random changes of 20
phase between them.
Working of LASER
 Stimulated Emission: Stimulated emission is the process by which incident photon interacts
with the excited electron and forces it to return to the ground state.
 In stimulated emission, the light energy is supplied directly to the excited electron instead of
supplying light energy to the ground state electrons.
 The electrons in the excited state need not wait for completion of their lifetime.
 When incident photon interacts with the excited electron, it forces the excited electron to
return to the ground state. This excited electron release energy in the form of light while
falling to the ground state.
 Two photons are emitted, one is due to the incident photon and another one is due to the
energy release of excited electron.

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Working of LASER

 Population Inversion: In order to achieve significant stimulated emission, a population

inversion is required.
 Population inversion will take place in which more atoms will exist in the higher energy states
than in the lower.
 This population inversion is typically achieved through pumping mechanisms that provide
energy to the gain medium.
 Metastable State: Lifetime of atoms is longer here.
 Pumping:
 Optical Pumping
 Electrical Pumping
 Chemical Pumping
 Atom-atom Collision
 Direct Conversio 22
Light Amplification in LASER
 A simple laser consists of a cavity that is built to reflect waves of light to reinforce one another.
 The cavity may either include liquids, solids or gases.
 The material selection in the cavity decides the output wavelength.
 Mirrors are located at either end of the cavity.
 One of the mirrors is fully reflective so that none of the light will pass into them. The other
mirror is reflective in part, allowing 5 per cent of the light to pass through it.
 Energy is pumped into the cavity from an external source through a method known as pumping.
 The waves in between the mirrors are reflected back and forth.
 The length of the cavity is such that waves that are reflected reinforce each other.
 At the end of the cavity, with a partially reflective mirror, the electromagnetic waves emerge in
harmony with one another.
 The laser output is a coherent, electric field. Both waves have the same phase and frequency in
a coherent beam of electromagnetic energy. 23
Advantages of LASER

 It is used for information transmission in the field of communication because it has

an enormous capacity to support information.
 This principle of no interference of electromagnetic is used in wireless
communication systems via free space for both telecommunication and computer
networking since the laser radiation is free of this interference.
 Laser radiation includes very little leakage of the signals.
 In fiber optic systems laser-based fiber optic wires are used because they are very
lightweight.
 Lasers are commonly used for the diagnosis of cancers in the medical sector because
they are less harmful compared with X-rays.

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Disadvantages of LASER

 Lasers are expensive, and therefore, those patients who need laser-based
treatment options are much expenditure.
 Lasers are expensive to maintain, and therefore cause high costs to doctors
and hospital administrators.
 Lasers elevate the convolution and the treatment period based on laser
equipment.

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Distributed Feedback Laser Diode

 A distributed-feedback laser (DFB laser) is a laser where the whole resonator consists
of a periodic structure in the laser gain medium, which acts as a distributed Bragg
reflector in the wavelength range of laser action.
 Generate signal with single frequency.
 Periodic variation of refractive index is obtained using diffraction grating.
 Near the Bragg wavelength, single mode is reflected and other mode are suppressed by
oscillations.
 The grating layer acts as wavelength filter, that allows only one mode to oscillate.

The grating structure is not placed in the

active layer because it will then cause defects
in the core that26 will decrease the efficiency
and will increase the threshold current.
DFB Properties

 Narrow linewidth
 Less temperature dependent
 More linear operation

 Types of DFB:
 Fiber Laser
 Semiconductor/Diode Laser

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Fiber Laser

 In the case of a fiber laser, the distributed reflection occurs in a fiber Bragg grating,
typically with a length of a few millimeters or centimeters.
 Efficient pump absorption can be achieved only with a high doping concentration of
the fiber.
 Output power is usually fairly and the power conversion efficiency is small.
 Fiber laser is very simple and compact.
 Its compactness and robustness also leads to a low intensity and phase noise level.

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Diode Laser

 Semiconductor DFB lasers can be built with an integrated grating structure

 It is to make laterally coupled structures, where the gratings are on both
sides of the active region.
 Semiconductor DFB lasers are available for emission in different spectral
regions at least in the range from 0.8 μm to 2.8 μm.
 The linewidth is typically a few hundred MHz

The optical linewidth is the width of the

spectrum of a light beam or an
absorption feature

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Optical Amplifiers

 Optical amplifiers are devices used in optical communication systems to amplify

optical signals without the need for converting them into electrical signals.
 They are crucial components in long-distance fiber-optic transmission networks,
helping to boost the signal strength and extend the reach of the optical signals.
 The main function of optical amplifiers is to amplify the optical power of the signal
without converting it into electrical form.
 This avoids the need for costly and time-consuming conversions between optical and
electrical signals in the network.
 By keeping the signal in the optical domain, the signal quality and integrity can be
maintained, resulting in high-speed and efficient transmission.

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Types of Optical Amplifiers

 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA): It uses a length of optical fiber doped with
erbium ions to amplify signals in the 1550 nanometer wavelength range, which is
commonly used in optical communication.
 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA): SOAs are based on semiconductor materials
and operate by injecting current into the semiconductor to achieve gain. They can
amplify a wide range of wavelengths and are used in various applications such as
optical networks, optical switches, and wavelength converters.
 Raman Amplifier: Raman amplifiers utilize the Raman effect, which is a nonlinear
optical process occurring in fiber, to amplify signals. They can provide amplification
over a wide range of wavelengths and are used in both the 1310 nanometer and 1550
nanometer bands.

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Ways of Optical Amplifiers

 Figure shows three ways in which optical amplifiers can be used to enhance the
performance of optical communication links.
 A booster amplifier is used to increase the optical output of an optical transmitter
just before a signal enters an optical fiber.
 The optical signal is attenuated as it travels in the optical fiber. An inline amplifier
is used to restore the optical signal to its original power level.
 An optical pre-amplifier is used at the end of the optical fiber link in order to
increase the sensitivity of an optical receiver.

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Light Detector

 A light detector, also known as a photodetector or photosensor, is a device used to

detect and measure light or optical signals.
 It converts the optical signal into an electrical signal that can be processed or analyzed
by electronic circuits.
 Light detector types:
 Photo Diode
 PIN Diode
 Avalanche Photo diode

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Photo Diode

 Photodiodes: Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that generate a current or

voltage when exposed to light.
 They work based on the principle of the photovoltaic effect, where photons of light
create electron-hole pairs within the semiconductor material, resulting in a
measurable current or voltage.
 These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means
that the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the
battery, and the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 This diode is very sensitive to light so when light falls on the diode it easily changes
light into an electric current.

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Photo Diode

 Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds are
ionized. This generates hole and electron pairs.
 Photocurrents are produced due to generation of electron-hole pairs.
 When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high
energy. This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron
release, free electrons and hole are produced.
 In general, an electron will have a negative charge and holes will have a positive
charge. The depletion energy will have built-in electric field. Due to that electric field,
electron-hole pairs move away from the junction. Hence, holes move to anode and
electrons move to the cathode to produce photocurrent.

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 PIN photo diode

 A PIN photodiode is a type of photodiode that incorporates a p-region, an intrinsic (i)

region, and an n-region.
 This structure gives PIN photodiodes certain advantages over standard photodiodes, such as
improved sensitivity and reduced capacitance.
 The intrinsic region is typically wider than the depletion region found in standard
photodiodes, allowing for increased absorption of photons. This enhanced absorption makes
PIN photodiodes more sensitive to light across a broader range of wavelengths.
 When light photons enter the device, they are absorbed in the intrinsic region, generating
electron-hole pairs. The electric field across the depletion region then separates the
generated electron-hole pairs, causing electrons to move toward the n-region and holes
toward the p-region. This separation of charge creates a photocurrent that is proportional
36
to the incident light intensity.
Avalanche Photo Diode

 The diode which uses the avalanche method to provide extra performance as
compared to other diodes is known as avalanche photodiode.
 These diodes are used to change the signals from optical to electrical. These
diodes can be operated in high reverse bias.
 This diode includes two heavily doped & two lightly doped regions. Here,
heavily doped regions are P+ & N+ whereas lightly doped regions are I & P.

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Avalanche Photo Diode Avalanche is a form of electric current
multiplication that can allow very large
currents within materials which are
otherwise good insulators

 Avalanche breakdown takes place when the diode is subjected to high

reverse voltage.
 The reverse bias voltage increases the electric field across the depletion
layer.
 Incident light enters the p+ region and further gets absorbed in the highly
resistive p region. Here electron-hole pairs are produced.
 A comparatively weaker electric field causes separation between these pairs.
Electrons and holes drift with their saturation velocity towards the pn+
region where a high electric field exists.
 As the velocity is maximum, the carriers collide with other atoms and
generate new electron-hole pairs. A large number of e-h pairs results in high
photocurrent.

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Thank you