Managing Change: Lecture 3

Tools for organisational change

Dr. Joshua Moon (SPRU)

2023
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 Today’s session outline
Metaphors of organisational change:

•Machine
•Organism
•Political system
•Flux and Transformation

‘Tools’ for organisational change and the contingencies they are

compatible with:

•Simple or complex change

•Lesser or greater involvement of staff
•Stable or dynamic environmental conditions

(Unless otherwise stated, content is from Cameron and Green 2020, Chapter 3)

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 “Tools” for managing change
“Tools” introduced in this module can be thought of as:

Concepts: (***)
Labels that we apply as specialist terms to aid understanding.
(e.g. Bion’s ‘dependency’ or ‘pairing’ describe behaviours)

Theories: (**)
A well characterised explanation for a phenomenon
(e.g. Skinner’s theory of behavioural reinforcement)

Frameworks: (*)
Provide structure to facilitate application of knowledge
(e.g. Tuckman’s model of team change)
* More stars suggests more use of these tools in your essay
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 The use of organisational
metaphors
Morgan (1985):
‘Metaphor gives us the opportunity to stretch our thinking and
deepen our understanding, thereby allowing us to see things in new
ways and act in new ways… Metaphor also creates distortions too…’

However metaphors paint pictures that are biased, distorted

and incomplete. Consider following suggestions:
•Gambling on the stock market is like betting on the races
•Government must balance income and expenditure like households

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 Commonly used organisational
metaphors

Metaphor: Machine

Historical context Rise of scientific management with mass production (Taylorism in early
20thc.)
Assumptions Rational, designed, well-defined structures, functional for its purpose

Related beliefs Employees are cogs in the machine with:

Defined roles
Discipline
Clear objectives
Clear management guidance
Implications for Management should drive change
Change Well planned change can be successful
Resistance is not legitimate
Limitations Only suitable for stable situations
Requires strong management especially where resistance is high

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 Commonly used organisational
metaphors

Metaphor: Organism

Historical context Burnes and Stalker’s contingency theory and organismic organisations
(1960s) see organisations as “open systems” linked to outside world
Assumptions Organisations must respond to the environments; Cross-organisational
coordination is essential
Related beliefs Adaptively is required – no best one form
The flow of information is key
Alignment of individual, team + organisational needs
Implications for Drivers for change are external
Change Awareness for need to change must be raised
Responses can be designed
Participation and support are needed
Limitations Organisations not just passive to environment
Challenge of co-ordination and alignment of parts
Organisations cannot address the needs of all staff

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 Commonly used organisational
metaphors

Metaphor: Political systems

Historical context Pfeffer’s work on organisational power (1980s onwards); but see also
Machiavelli (16thc).
Assumptions Dominance of interpersonal politics to exert power in organisations
(despite structure/ hierarchy)
Related beliefs Politics is unavoidable – you’re in it!
Build support for success
Unofficial networks of influence
Allocated through negotiation/ bargains
Implications for Find powerful people
Change Build a coalition
More support is better
Winners and losers
Limitations Plots and infighting

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 Commonly used organisational
metaphors
Metaphor: Flux and transformation

Historical context Complexity theory and organisations as complex adaptive systems

(1960s onwards)
Assumptions It is not possible to have overall control of change in a complex system

Related beliefs Organisation emerges from chaos

Organisations can self-renew
Key tensions influence new ways of working
Many dimensions are influential on organisations (no linear cause and
effect).
Implications for Change emerges – it is not managed
Change Managers are part of the system – not outside it
Tension and conflict are part of change
Managers as facilitators
Limitations Lack of predictability and control is disturbing, especially for managers

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 Which metaphor is appropriate?
Political systems

Machines Flux and transformation

Organisms

Some relevant contingencies (can be low or high):

Complexity of the change

Involvement of staff
Pace of environmental change

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 Which metaphors
doe A,B,C and D
best match?

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 Organisational change processes

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Science Policy See Cameron
Policy Research
Research Unit and Green (2020) p.113
 Bullock and Batten (1985)

Planned change - run as a project (machine metaphor)

1. Exploration phase - need for change, acquire resources

2. Planning phase - Key decision makers/ experts make plan

3. Action phase - Application of plan (with possible re-planning)

4. Integration phase – Adapt policies/ processes to fit new elements

Application for simple issues or on parts of an organisation in

isolation, but not useful for complex change.

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 Beckhard and Harris (1987)
Change formula (organism metaphor)
C = [ABD] > X
Where:
C = Change
A = Level of dissatisfaction with status quo
B = Desirability of the proposed change or end state
D = Practicality of the change (minimal risk of disruption)
X = ‘Cost’ of changing

A simple point intervention for large groups during change

processes. Useful for highlighting and communicating drivers/ barriers
and honing visions

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 Douglas McGregor – The Human Side of Enterprise (1960)

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X assumptions
The average person dislikes work and
will avoid it wherever possible.
Employees must be coerced,
controlled or threatened with
punishment if they are to perform as
required.
Most people try to avoid responsibility
and will seek formal direction
whenever possible.
Workers place security above other
factors relating to employment and will
display little ambition.
Theory Y assumptions
Most people can view work as being
as natural as rest or play.
Workers are capable of exercising self-
direction and self-control.
The average person will accept and
even seek responsibility if they are
committed to the objectives being
pursued.
Ingenuity, imagination, creativity and
the ability to make good decisions are
widely dispersed throughout the
population and are not peculiar to
managers.

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and Technology See Cameron
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 Kotter’s eight accelerators (2012)
(machine, political, organism)
1. Establish a sense of urgency
2. Form a guiding coalition
3. Create a vision
4. Communicate the vision
5. Empower others to act on the vision
6. Plan and create short term wins
7. Consolidate improvements and produce still more change
8. Institutionalise new approaches

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 Continuous change

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 The Japanese approach to change

Long-term planning: (~15 years horizons, accept low dividends and

profits)

Organisational Vision that is clear to all staff

Involvement of all staff and commitment to:

Timeliness - Just In Time production techniques

Ringi system - Right first time is slow but effective (see video on Ri Gi
Sho process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6qZFUWLkbhc)

Quality: Total quality approach, Kaizen (continuous improvement)

Source: B. Burnes (2017) Managing Change, Chapter 5.

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 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X assumptions
The average person dislikes work
and will avoid it wherever possible.
Employees must be coerced,
controlled or threatened with
punishment if they are to perform as
required.
Most people try to avoid
responsibility and will seek formal
direction whenever possible.
Workers place security above other
factors relating to employment and
will display little ambition.
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Theory Y assumptions
Most people can view work as
being as natural as rest or play.
Workers are capable of exercising
self-direction and self-control.
The average person will accept and
even seek responsibility if they are
committed to the objectives being
pursued.
Ingenuity, imagination, creativity
and the ability to make good
decisions are widely dispersed
throughout the population and are
not peculiar to managers.
William Ouchi’s Theory Z
(1981)
Theory Z assumptions
Workers want to build co-
operative and close working
relationships
Collective decision making,
slow evaluation.
Involvement and
commitment of entire
workforce.
Strong personal ties to
organisation; life time
employment; the seniority
principle.
 Nadler and Tushman (1997)
Congruence model (political and organism metaphors)

Cameron and Green (2020) p.122

Broadly applicable to change scenarios emphasising that organisational sub-systems
need to be kept in harmony:
- Change in one system cannot be addressed without change in others
- Lack of congruence can lead to: resistance, control loss, and power problems

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 Nadler and Tushman (1997)
Four sub-systems:

Work - tasks undertaken by people, and the processes they use, as

well as the pressures and rewards they experience

People - The skills and characteristics of staff, their backgrounds and

expectations

Formal organisation - structures, systems and policies in place

Informal – ‘unwritten’ aspects of power, influence, values and norms

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 Mackinsey’s 7S model: Values are
central
The 7S model provides a broad check list that can be used for gap
analysis in a wide range of change scenarios:
Current state → future state → Change gap →Barriers → Activities

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Source: Ratsch et al. (2019)
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Senge et al. (2014)
The Dance of Change (political, organism, flux)
Guiding principles:
Start small; grow steadily, don’t plan it all, expect challenges!*
(because change must overcome organisational ‘homeostasis’)

*Challenges include:
•We have no time!
•We have no help!
•This stuff isn’t relevant!
•They’re not walking the talk!
•This stuff is @*£&!
•This stuff isn’t working!
•They don’t understand!

Application is for long term, organisation-wide change

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 Summary
There are many concepts, theories and frameworks (‘tools’) to
support organisational change.

Organisational metaphors can aid decision making:

-Organism
-Political system
-Machine
-Flux and transformation

Choose the right tools for the task according to contingencies:

The environment, scale of change, degree of staff involvement.

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