McGraw-Hill Series in Water Resources

and Environmental Engineering ENVIRONMENTAL

Rolf Eliassen, Paul H. King, and Ray K. Linsley
Consulting Editors
ENGINEERING
Bailey and Ollis: Bioch emical Engineering Fundamentals
Bishop : Marine Pollution and Its Control
Biswas: Model sfor Water Quality Managemeni
Bockrath : Environmental Law for Engineers. Scientisls, and Managers
Bouwer : Gro!{ndwater Hydrol ogy
Canter: Environmental Impact Assessment Howard S. Peavy
Chanlett: Environmental Prote ction
Professor of Civil Engineering
Gaudy and Gaudy: Micr obiologyfor Environmental Scientists and Engineers
Montana Scate University
Haimes: Hierarchical Analysis of Water Resour ces Systems: Modelling and
Optimization of L arge-Scale Systems
Hall and Dracup: Wat er Resources Systems Engineering
Donald R. Rowe
Linsley and Franzini: Water Resources Engineering Professor of Civil Engineering
Linsley, Kohler , and P aulhus : Hydrology for Engineers King Saud UniverSity
Metcalf & Eddy , Inc .: Wastewater Engineering.' Collec tion and Pumping of Wast ewater Saudi Arabia
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.: Wastewater Engineering. Trealment, Disposal. Reuse
Peavy , Rowe, and Tchobanoglous : Environmental Engineering George Tchobanoglous
Rich : Low-Maintenance, Mechanically-Simpl e Waste water Treatment Systems Professor of Civil Engineering
Sawyer and McCarty : Chemistry for Environmental Engineering University of California , Davis
Steel and McGhee : Water Supply and Sewerage
Tchobanoglous , Theisen , and Eliassen: Solid Wastes, Engineering Principles and
Management Issues

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogo ta H amburg
London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Dehli
Panama Pari s Siio Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo T oronto
 CONTENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL
INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1985

Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hili Book Co., Singapor e

for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-e xport ed
from the country to which it is con sign ed by McGraw - HilI.

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31
15 14 13 12 11
CTP BJE
Preface XI/ I

Copyright © 1985 by McGraw-Hili, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of thi s publi ca tion m ay be Intrnclu Cli on
reprodu ced or distribut ed in any form o r by any means ,
I- I ·T he Em 'i ron lllc nt
or stored in a data base or a retri eval system, without
1-2 T he Im[lact 0 1' Il ulllam upo n the Enviro nm e nt 2
the prior written perm issio n of the publi sher .
1-3 Th e Im[lact o r the En\ironm e nt up o n Hum an s 4
1-4 Impr o \'cme nt of Envi ro nme nt al Qu a li ty 6
This book was set in Tim es Roman.
The editors were Kiran Ve rma and David A. Damstra. 1- 5 T he Ro lc of the Environ ment a l Eng inee r 7
The production supervi so r wa s Leroy A. Youn g. ReI-e rcnces

Part 1 Wat er
... Libra./},.()f.c;:()1"!9.ress in Publication Data
2 Wat er Qu a lity : Definiti ons, Charaderistics;
Peavy , Howard S. and Perspect ives II
Environment al engin eering .
2-1 T he Hyd raul ic Cycle a nd Water Qual ity 12
(MCGraw-Hili series in wat er resour ces and envir on- PHY S IC A L W AT E R-QUA LITY PA RA M ETER S 14
mental engineering) 2-2 Sus pended S,1Iid, 15
Includ es biblio graphi ca l references and indexes .
2-3 T urbidit y 17
1. Environmental engin eering . I. Row e, Don ald R.
2-4 Co lo r 18
II. Tchobanoglou s, Geo rge . III. Title. IV. Series.
2-5 Ta ste and Odo l 20
TD145.P43 1985 628 84- 3854
2-6 Temper a ture 22
ISBN 0-07-0491 34-8
CHE M ICAL \\ATE R-QUA LI T Y PA RA M ETER S 23
When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07 -1 00231-6 2- 7 Chemi stn of S" luti o ns ' 23
2-8 T o ta l Dissoh cd So lid, 28
2-9 Alkali nit\ 31
2· 10 Har d ness
:2-1 1Fl uo ride 3(,
2· 12 Me tal s 37
2-1 ] Orga nH.:" 38
2- 14 Nutllc nh -1 4
Printed in Singapore
 CONTENTS vii
vi CONTENTS

46 · 4-8 Filtration 165

BIOLOGICAL WATER-QU-\UTY PARAMETERS
' 4-9 Disinfecti o n ,. t ·
182
2-15 Pathogens 47
50 OTHER WATER-TREATMENT PROCESSES 190
2-16 Pathogen Indicators
54 4-10 Dissolved Solids Removal 190
WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
DiSCUSSIOn Topics and Problems
2-17 In-Stream Standards 54 '104 .
References
2-18 Potable Water Standards 55
2-19 Wastewater Effluent Standards 56 5 Engineered Systems for Wastewater Treatment
Discussion Topics and Problem s 57
and Disposal 207
References . 62
5-1 Wastewater Characteristi cs 208
3 Water Purification Processes in Natural Systems 63 211
5-2 Effluent Standards
64 5-3 Terminology in Wastewater Treatment 212
PHYSICAL PROCESSES
3-1 Dilution 64 PRIMARY TREATMENT 2Pl
3-2 Sedimentation and Resuspension 65 5-4 Screening 217
3-3 Filtration 66 5-5 Comminuting 220
3-4 Gas Transfer 66 5-6 Grit Removal 221
3-5 Heat Transfer 71 5-7 Flow Measurement 224
73 5-8 Primary Sedimentation 224
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
73 SECONDARY TREATMENT 229
3-6 Chemical Conversions
BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES 74 5-9 Growth and Food Utilization 230
5-10 Suspended-Culture System s 234
3-7 Metabolic Processes 75
5·11 Activated Sludge 234
3-8 Microorganisms in Natural Wat er Syst em s 79
5-12 Ponds and Lagoons 248
RESPONSE OF STREM ...lS TO BIODEGRADABLE. 5·13 Attached-Culture Systems 255
ORGANIC WASTE 83 5-14 Secondary Clarification 268
. Effiw:ots...................................................... . 277
3-9 Dissolved-Oxygen Balance . . . . . . . .... ?;l. _ ...... . .. . . . ..... .
g5 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 278
3-10 Dissolved-Oxygen Model
3-.11 Organic Discharge and Stream Ecology 94 279
5-16 Sludge Characteristics
APPLICATION OF NATURAL .pROCESSES IN 5-17 Sludge Thickening 281
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS 5-18 Sludge Digestion 285
5-19 Sludge Disposal 292
3-12 Physical Processes
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT 294
3- i3 Chemical Processes
3-14 Biological Processes 5-20 Nutrient Removal 295 :'
Di scu ss ion T o pics and Problem s 5-21 Solids Removal 301
Refere.nc es 302
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND REUSE
4 Engineered Systems for Water Purification 104 5-22 Wastewater Di sposal 303
5-23 Wastewater Reuse 306
4-1· Historical Overview of Water Treatment 105
Discussion Topics and Problems .314
4-2 Water-Treatment Processes 107
References
322
WA TER-TRFA 1M ENT PROCESSE S.
THEORY AND .APPLICATION 109 6 Environmental Engineering Hydraulics Design 324
110 324
4-3 Aeraiillil WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
11 3
4-4 So lid s Se paration \j) \ - \IJ) In 6- 1 Method s of Distributing Water 324
4-5 Settlin g Operatioll s 326
1.1 1 6-2 Di stribut io n Re se rvoir s
4 -(,
4-7
C llagulati o ll
So ft enin g S'\- \G1 151 6-3 Di stribution Sys tem s
331
 CONTENTS ix
v iii CONTENT S
455
333 7-9 Ox ides of N itr ogen
6-4 Distribution System Components 461
335 7-10 Phot oc hemi cal Oxidant s
6-5 Capacity and Pres sure Requirement s 463
337 7-1 1 Ind oo r Air Po lluti o n
<6-6 Design of Distribution Systems 464
338 A IR- QUA LIT Y MA N AGEMENT C ONCEPTS
Hydraulic Analy sis o f Di stribution Systems
346 Di sc uss io n T o pics a nd Pr o blems 477
6-8 Cross-Connections in Di str ib ution System s
347 Refe renc es 480
6-9 Constructi o n of W a ter Di stribution Systems
348
6-10 Pumping R equired for Water Supply Syst em s
348
WASTEWATER CO LL EC TION Meteoro logy and Natural Purificati o n Pr ocesses 483
349 8
6-11 Types of Co llection Systems E L EME N T AL PR OPERT IES Of THE ATMOSP H ERE 483
-: 349
< 6-12 Types of Sewer s 484
353 8- 1 Sca les of i\ lotill n
6-13 Collection System Appurten a nces 486
354 go: Heat
6-14 Basic Consideration s in th e De sign o f Sewers 491
360 i)-} Press ur e
6-15 Design of Sanitar y Sewers 493
369 8-4 Wlncl
6-16 Preparation of Contact Drawings and Spe cifica tions 495
371 8-5 MOistur e
6-17 Construction of Sewe rs 495
37 1 8-6 Rcla tive H umidit y
6-18 Maintenan ce of Sewers
37 1
6-19 Design of Storm wa ter Sewers IN FLUE N CE OF i\ I LTEOROLOG IC AL PHENOMENA ON
372 495
WATER AND WASTEWATER PUMPIN G A IR QUALITY
372 496
6-20 Pump s 8-7 La pse Rat es and DI '> persio n
375 498
6-21 Pump Drive Unit s 8-8 Press ur e Sys te ms and Di spe rsio n
378 498
6-22 Pump Application Terminology and Usag e 8-9 Wind s and Di sper sio n
384 499·
6-23 Pump Operating C haracte ristics and C ur ves 8-1 0 M OiStur e and Di spe rsio n
3')0 499
6-24 Analysis of Pump Sys tem s 8-11 Mod el ing
Pump Stations fo r Water and Wa stewater 397
6-25 EFFECTS or A IR POLLUT IO N ON METEOROLOGICAL
507

- HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF WATER

WASTEWATER TREATMENT
AN D
397
397
COND IT IO N S
8- 12 Change s o n the Mesos cal e and Micr os cale
__ . __ 13__ _0.11_ the_ M aC.fQseal e
508
509
6-26 Treatment Plant De sign ,--399, 510
6-27 Preparation of Hydraulic FFOfiks< <" <<" < <." " <" 0<" <--" , -- -. . -.. - - - - - - . . - Di sc uss io n T o pic s a nd Probl e ms
5 12
406 Referenc es
Discussion Topic s and Problem s
412
References
9 Engineered System s for Air Pollution Control 514
5 14
Part 2 . Air 9-1 Atm osph e ric Clea nsing Pr ocesses
9-2 Approa che s to C o ntaminant Cont ro l
516

-""""' '7 Air Quality : Definitions, Characteristics , and CON TR OL DEVICES rOR PARTICULATE CONTAM INA NTS 5 18
417
Perspectives 9-3 Gra vitati o nal Sel1! ing Ch a mb e rs 520
41 8 9-4 Ce ntrifu gal 523
AIR POLLUTION -PAS T , PRESENT , AND FUTURE
9-5 528
418 Wc t Colkctnr ,
7-1 Historical Overvi e\>.' 533
420 '-)-(, Fa hr ic F ilte r, ( Bag lHlllse Filt e rs)
'""""' 7-2 Global Impli ca tio ns of A ir P o lluti on 536
424 9- 7 Elec tr os tat ic Prcc ipi Llt ()fS (ESP ) '
7-3 Units of Measur em ent
426 CONT IWL DEV ICES FOR GASEOUS CON T AM INANTS 540
7-4 Sources of poJlutan ts
429 540
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTA N TS ')-8 Ad so rp ti(lll
545
43 1 9-9 ,\ OSor ptll )Jl
7-5 Particul a tes 557
44 2 ,-)· 10 C o nli cns"tloll
7-6 H ydroc a rb ons 559
44 5 9- 11 ( 'omo u'>1lt)n
7-7 Carbon Monoxide 56J
449 , \utt .lllIl1 t l\r
7-8 Oxides o f Sulfur

-----..,
 r

CONTENTS xi
x CONTENTS
,
607
11-10 Det ermination of Vehic le and Labor Requirements
Discu ssio n Topic s and Pr o blems 565 615
II-II Collection Routes
Refe re nces 567
TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT 618
620
r
Part 3 Solid Waste
11-12 Transfer Station s
11-13 Location of Tr a nsfe r Station s
11-14 Transfe r Means and Method s
622
622 ...t
r
PROCESSING TECHNIQUES 626
10 Solid Waste: Definitions, Characteristics , and Mechan ical Volume Reducti o n 627

r
II-IS
Perspectives 573 627
11 -16 Thermal Volume Redu cti o n
627
TYPES OF SOLID WASTES 573 11.- 17 Manual Co mp o nent Separ a tio n
ULTIMATE DISPOSAL 628
10-1 Municipal Wastes 574
574 Landfi ll ing with Sol id Wa stes 628
10-2 Indu strial Wa stes 11-18
575 De sign and Operation of La ndfill s 638
10-3 Hazard o us Wastes 11-19
Landf a rming 646
SOUR CES OF SOLID WASTES 575 11-20
Deep-Well Injection 647
575 11-21
10-4 Sour ces o f Municipal Wa stes 648
Di scu ssion Topic s and Pro blems
10-5 Source s o f Hazardou s Was tes 576 652
Reference s
PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTES 576
10-6 Ph ysical C ompo sition 576
10-7 Chemical Co mpo sitio n 582
10-8 Chan ges in Compo siti o n 588 . 12 Engineered Systems for Resource and
SOLID-WASTE MANAGEMENT A N O VERVIEW 588 653
Energy Recovery
10-9 Materials Flow in Societ y 588 653
PRO C ESSING TECHNIQUES
10-10 Reduction in Raw Mat e ria ls Usage 589
65.4
10-11 Reducti o n in Solid-W as te Qu a ntit ies 590 12- i Mechanical Size Alterati o n
Mechanical Compon ent Separation
656
10-12 Reuse of So lid-Wa ste Mat e rial s 590 12-2 656-·- ..
10-13 .. I'vlil.te l:iil.l.s.. 591 12-3 Ma gne tic and Electr o mec ha nical Separa tio n
.... 657
10-14 En e rgy Recovery 592 12-4 Drying and Dewatering
592 657
10-15 Day-to-Day Solid- Wa ste Managem ent MA TERIALS-RECOVER Y SYSTEMS
Discu ss io n Topics and Pr o blems 592 657
12-5 Materials Specification s
Refer e nce s 593 657
12-6 Proce ssing and Recover y Sy"stem s
659
)2-7 System De sign La yo ut
659
11 Engineered Systems for Solid-Waste Management 594 RE COVERY OF BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION P·RODUCTS
660
II-I Functional Elements 594 12-8 Compo sting (Aerobic Conv e rsion)
.663
17.-9 Ana erobic Digestion
SOLID WASTE GENERATION 594
RECOVERY OF THERMAL CONVERSION PRODUCTS 665
11-2 T ypica l G e neration Rat es 595
665
11-3 Estimat io n o f Solid-Wa ste Qu a ntit ies 598 12-10 C o mbu stion of Wa ste Mat erials
670
11-4 Fact o rs Th a t Affect G e nera ti o n Rat cs 598 12-11 Incin eration with Hea t Recove ry
671
12-12 Use of Refuse-D erived Fuel s (RDF)
ON-SITE HANDLING. STORAG E. t\ N D PRO C ESS IN G 598 671
12- 13 Ga sification
11 -5 On -Site Handlin g 599 672
12- 14 Pyro lysis
11 -6 On- S ite Sto rage 599 PRODUCTS 672
RE COVERY OF ENE R G Y FROM CON VERSION
11 -7 On -S ite Pr ocess in g of So lid Was tes 601 673
601 12- I 5 En ergy-R eco very Systems
COLLE CTIO N OF SO LID \Vt\ ST ES 674
12- 16 Efficiency Fact or s 675
11 -8 Co llec ti o n Servic es 601
12- 17 Deterrninati on of t .ner g} Output and EtJicicn cy
11 -9 T ypes o f Co llec ti o ll Sys tcm, 1i05
 xii CONTENTS

MATERIALS- AND ENERGY-RE CO VERY SYSTEMS 675 PREFACE

Discussion Topic s and Problems 677
Reference s 677

Appendixes
A Quantitie s and Units 679
B Conversion Fact ors 683
C Properties of Wat e r and Air 693
D· Water Quality Standards 696

Indexes II
Name Index
---"'.
Subject Index '

Eng inee rs and scientists from a n umber of re la ted di sci plin es ha ve been in vo lved
in the d evelopmc nt of an academic ba sis for th e und e rs tanding and management
of the envi ronment. Th e ' management of water qu a lit y has been dealt with in
mi crob io logy and s<Jn ita ry engi nee rin g courses; a ir po lluti o n pr o blem s have been
---. covered in c hemica l and / o r mechanical eng in ee ring co ur ses; an d th e management
of so lid waste, lo ng neglected by ac ad e m ic ian s. ha s bee n chiefly th e purve y of tho se
di rec tl y rcsponsible for hllu lin g and disposlli o pe rati o ns.
During th e la s t 10 to 13 year s, sc h oo ls of e ng ine e ring ha ve made considerable
progress towa rd b rin gi ng the principles drawn from m any re lat ed acad emic
disciplines to ge th e r a nd unif yin g th em und e r the titl e en vironm en tal eng in ee rilll).
Not s urpri si ngly. texts .in .tbis re lati ve ly. new. subject. ar.ea. have d ev<!loped a lon g·
cla ss ical , se paratist lines . Thu s, there have been a number of texts featuring In-
depth treatment of one spec ific a rea (ie .. wate r , air , so lid waste) and few text s
attempting, to tr ea t the s ubjec t 01' e n vironm e n ta l engineering as a whol e ,
The purpose of Elll'ironmental Enyineerinq is to brin g together and integrate
in a s in g le text the mor c gC ntT ti suhJect matt e r of th e three principal areas of
.envirolJmental engince rin g -- water . ai r. a nd so lid- was te management. And, as
---. .Char. 1 indicat es, thi s int egra ti on goes he yo nd binding thr ee text s in a sin g le cover.
Enl'irolltll('/I/(II Enqill('erilllj introduces a uniqu e approach to the ove ra ll
concep t o f e n viro nm e ntal enginee rin g, an ap pr oac h that e mpha sizes th e re la ti o n-
ship belll/een the princlr les observed in natural purifi cation processes a n d those
employeed in eng inecred p rocesses. First. th e ph ys ical , c he mi ca l, m a th e matical.
and biological principles of defining. quan tif y in g, ane! measuring enviro nm e n ta l
quality a rc desCribed. Next. the processrs by which n a tur e assimilates waste
material are discusscd and tlicnatul'al p ur ifica ti on rrocesses that form th e
of engi neered systems a re deta iled Finally, th e e ng ine er ing principles and p ra ctices
involved In the design and operatil)n of conven ti ona l envi ronmen tal engineering
wor ks arc C()\'ercd at len)!t ll.

xiii
 xiv PREFAn

The breadth and depth of th e matenal in thi s book preclude s complete ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
coverage in a one -se m ster or o ne-qu a rt e r course. H owever, the a rran gement of
the material lend s itself to seve ral d iffe rent course format s.

I. For introdu c to r y e ngine e ring courses at the sopho m ore or junior \i.:vel, C haps.
1.2,3 .7 ,8 . and 10 provide a n ov erv iew of the principl es involv ed in e nvir o n-
menta l en gi neerin g sys tem s. The se chapters assume a basic knowledge of
•
c hem is try. biology, ph ys ics, and math e matics . However , becau se m a n y
eng in eeri ng cu rri cu la co ntain few che mi st ry an d even fewer bi o logy or micro-
biology co ur ses . th e chapters review th ese subj ec ts in detail. Th e intr od ucto r y
sec ti o ns of Chaps. 4. S. 9, II , and 12 may be utili zed to add relevance to th e
th eo ret ica l di sc uss ion s. A course following thi s format w ill satisf y ABET
requir ement s for e ngin ee ring scie nce.
2. If th e hr st a ppr oach is use d fo r an introductory co ur se. th e remainin g chapter s
(4.5 ,6.9, II , and 12) ca n be used as a follow-up co ur se in env ironmen tal
engin eer ing design . Thi s co ur se sho uld be res trict ed to e ng ine ering s tud e nt s at
th e juni or or se ni o r leve l who ha ve co mpl eted ba s ic fluid m ec hani cs. Such a
co ur se would meet ABET' s e nginee rin g design criteria.
3. A m ore cla ss ical app roac h would be to use the first six c hapt ers as a text for
a o ne-se me ste r or o ne -quart er co ur se in water and wastewater engineering. A
second o ne-se mester / qu a rt er cour se o n air-pollution control and so lid-w as te
management would use Chap s. 7 thr o ugh 12. D es ign ed fo r juni o r- or se ni o r-
leve l e ngine e rin g st ud e nt s that have co mpl e ted ba sic tluid mechanic s, the se
tw o ' co ur ses wi ll m ee t ABET criteria for e ngin eer in g design and scie nce, o r a n
approximate o ne to o ne ratio .
4. C hapt e rs 1,2.3,7.8, and 10 can a lso bc lIsed for a companion course in en -
vironmental sc ienc e for nonen ginee rin g s tudent s , pr ov ided allowanc e is made
.. for·the iimited mar-hema ti ta lback grou n'd 6fth c' itlldenis:' .

What eve r the a ppr oac h used , th e text sho uld leave stud e nt s with a c lear
und erstanding o f th e prin c ipl es of all thr ee o f th e maj o r areas o f envir omen tal
e n ginee rin g. U se r co mm e nt s a nd sugges ti ons conce rnin g the effec ti veness of thi s
approach would be g reatly appreciated .
The a uthor s w is h to ac kn ow ledg e til e fac t th at devel op ment and publication '.:
of Environmental El7,1jineeriny wo uld not ha ve been po ss ibl e wi th o ut th e he lp and
in spirati on o f o ur former pr o fesso rs, th e c ha lle nge and mot ivation o f our stud en ts ,
the assistance and e ncoura geme nt o f ou r co lleag ue s, the patience a nd forebearance
of o ur edit o rs, and th e SUpP Grt and und e rstandin g of ou r familie s.

HOI1'ord S. Peon :
Dona ld R . R owe'
C eorql' T chohal/ogl ous
 C HAPT ER

ONE
INTRODU CTION

Environmental eng ineering ha s bee n defined as th e bran c h of eng ineerin g th a t is

co nce rn ed with protecting the en vir on me nt fr o m th e p o tentiall y d e leterious
effec ts of human act ivit y, pr o tecting human popu la tion s fro m th e effects of a dver se
env iro nm ental factors, a nd impr ov in g e n viron m ent a l .q u a lit y for human health
a nd we ll-being. [1-2J
As th e above definiti o n im p lies, hum a ns interact w ith th ei r envir o nm e nt -
so metime s adve rse ly imp acting the environmen t and some tim es bei ng adve rse ly
imp acted by p o llut ants in the env ironment. An under s tandin g o f the n a tu re o f
the enviro nm ent and of hum a n interaction w ith it is a neces ' ary prerequi s ite to
under s tanding th e work o f the env iro nm enta l e ngi neer.

1-] THE ENVIRONM ENT

Simply stated, the e n vironmen t can be defined as one's surr o undings. In terms of
the env iro nmental e ngineer's invo lvement , howeve r, a m ore sp ec ific definition is
needed. To th e envi ronmental engineer. the word environment ma y ta k.e o n g loba l
ciimen s io ns. may refer to a very loca li zed area in which a sp ec ific prob lem must be
ad dr essed, o r may, in th e case of co nt ai ned en vir on ment s, refer to a sm a ll vo lume
o r liquid. gaseo lls. or so lid materials w ithin a treatment plan t react o r.
The g loba l env ironment co nsist s of the atmos ph ere, th e hydTosphere, and
the litho sph e re in w hic h the life-s ustainin g resources of th e ea rth are co nt ained.
The atIJlOspi1l'rc.;tmixture of gases exte ndin g o utward from s urface of th e ea rt h.
cvo lved from e lemeo ts o f th e ear th that were gas ified d urin g its fo rmati o n a n d
metamorpho s is . Th e hydrosphere consists o f th e oceans, th e lakes and str ea ms.
a nd the s ha llow gro und wa ter bod ies that int erflo w wi th th e surf ace water. The
lithosphere is th e so il mant Ie th at wraps th e co re of th e ea rth .
The hiosphcre. a thin she ll that encaps ulates th e ea rth. is made lip o r the
;Itmo sphc re a nd iltlw sphere adjacent to the surface o f the earth. toge th er \\it h th e
2 INTRODuCTION
INTR OD UCTION 3

from a ca mpfire . Eve n when use o f fire became common , the relatively small
hydrosphere. It is wi th in the b iosphere that the life form s of earth. includi ng
amoun ts o f sm oke genera ted we re eas il y and rapidly dispersed and ass imilated
h umans. li ve. Life-sus taining ma teria ls In gaseo us, liquid , and so lid form s are
hy t he at m0 sp here.
cycled t hr ough th e bi os p here, provid in g s us tenance to a ll living orga ni sms.
Early civi liza tio ns o ften drank from th e same rivers in which the y bathed and
Life-s ustaining reso ur ces - air, food , and water - are withdrawn from the
dep os ited th e ir wastes, yet the impact o f sLic h u se was relatively s lig ht. as natural
biosphere. It is a lso into the biosphere that was te product s in gaseous, liquid.
clea nsin g mec hani sm s easily res tored water quality. These early human s used
and so lid form s are discharged. From th e beginning of time, th e biosphere has
caves a nd other na tur a l s helter s or else fas hioned their home s from wood, dirt,
received and assimilated the waste s generated by pl a nt a nd animal life. Natural
o r a nim a l skin s. Often no madic, ea rl y popUlations left behind few item s that were
sys tems have been ever active, dispersing s m oke from forest fires, dilutin g animal
not read ily br o ken down and absorbed b y the atmosphere, hydro sphere , or lith o -
was tes washe d int o st reams and rivers, and conve rtin g debri s of pa st ge nerati o ns
sphere. And th ose item s th a t were no t b ro ken down with time were so few in
of p lant and a nim al life int o soi l ric h enough to s upp or t future pop ula tion s.
number and so inn ocuo us as to present n o significant solid-waste problems.
F o r every na tur a l act of po ll ution, for eve ry und es irab le alteration in the
O nl y as ea rl y peoples bega n to ga ther toget her in larger , more o r less s table
ph ys ical. chem ica l, or bi o logica l chara c ter is tics o f the envir o nm e nt , fo r everv
gro upin gs did their impact upon their loca l environments begin to be significant.
in cident that eroded the qua lit y of the immed ia te , or loca l, en viro nm ent ,
[n 6 1 A.D., cooki ng a nd heating fires caused air- pollution pr ob lem s so sev ere th a t
were na tur a l acti o ns that res to red that qua lit y. Onl yi n rece nt years has it bec o me
th e Ro man philosopher Seneca co mpl a ined o f " the stink o f the sm o k y chimneys."
apparent th a t th e sustaining and ass imil at ive capac it y of the bi os p here, th oug h
By the la te e igh teenth ce ntur y, the waters o f the Rhin e and the Th a me s had
treme ndou s, is not, after a ll , infinite. Th o ug h the sys tem ha s o pe rat ed fo r milli o ns
beco me too polluted to support game fish. Fro m the Middl e. Ages the areas
of year s, it has be gu n to show sig ns o f stress, primar il y bec a use o f the impact of
where food a nd human waste were dump ed harbored rats, flies, and o th e r pes ts.
humans up o n th e environment.

Satisfying Acquired Needs

1-2 THE IMPACT OF HUMANS UPON THE ENVIRONMENT
But the se ea rl y evidenc es of pollution ove rl oa d were merely the prelude to greater
ove rl oads to come . With the d aw n o f the industrial revolution, humans were
[n a natural sta te, earth's life fo rm s li ve in eq uilibrium wi th th e ir e n vironm e nt.
bet ter able th a n ever to sa t isfy th eir age-old needs o f a ir. wa ter , food , and shelter.
T he number s and ac ti v iti es o f each speci es a re gover ned by the reso ur ces ava ilable
In creasi n gly th ey turned th e ir a tt enti o n to o th er needs beyond th ose ass oc iated
to them. Spec ies in te raction is commo n, with th e was te prod uct of one speci es o ften
With survival. By the la te nin eteen th a nd early twentieth ........... .
fo rm in g the fo od s upply o f a n o th er. H umans alone ha ve the ab ilit y to ga t her
<lppli a nces, a nd pr ocessed foods and beverages had become so p o pular as to seem .
. r.es.oy rce.s.fr()l11.tJI.':Y9.
n<;i'(heir. im mediate surr o undin gs and p rocess th ose reso ur ces
necess ities, and meeting these acquired need s had become a maj or thru slo f m o dern
in to diff e rent. m o re versa til e forms . The se a biliti es have made it poss ibl e for hum a n
indus tri a l soc iet y.
po pulati o n to thr ive and fl ourish beyo nd na t ur a l co nst raint s. But the natura l and
. U nlik e th e na tur a l need; di sc ussed earlier, a cquired need s are usually met
m an ufac tur ed wa stes ge nera ted a nd re leased into th e bi os ph e re by the se increased
by Items that must be proces sed 'or m a nuf<ict'ure'd or refined, a nd the production,
numb ers o f human be ing s have up se t the natural equilibrium.
di s tributi o n, and use o f such items usuall y resu lts in more co mplex residuals ,
Anthr opogenic, or human-induced , po llut an ts ha ve ove rloade d th e sys te m.
ma ny o f which are no t compatible with or readily assim ilat ed by the en vir o nm ent.
Th e over loading ca m e rel a tive ly la te in the cours e o f hum a n int e ract io n wi th the
Take, for examp le, a familiar modern a ppliance -- the toas ter . The she ll and
environment , perhap s because ea rly socie t ies we re primarily co nce rned wi th
the hea tin g eleme nt s ar e lik e ly to be made of stee l, the handl e of th e lift leve r of
m ee tin g natural ne eds , needs hu m ans sha re in C0m ll10n w it h mos t o f the hig he r
plas·tic. Cop per w ires and sy nth etic insulation may be used in th e connec tin g cord,
m a mm a ls. Th ese peoples had no t ye t beg un to be con cerned wi th meeting the
a nd rubb er ma y be used o n th e plug. In assess in g th e pollutants generated by the
acquired need s assoc iated w ith m ore advanced Civilizations.
manufacture and sa le of thi s simpl e app liance, it would be necessary to include all
th e resources expe nd ed in th e milli ng o f th e met a ls, the ext racting and refining of
Satisfying Natural Needs th e pe tro leum, the sh ippin g of th e vario us materials, then th e' m anufac turing,
shipping , a nd se llin g of the fini shed product. .The potential imp ac t o f a ll o f th ese
Earl y hum,!n s used nat ur a l resoui-ce s to sa tisf y th e ir need s for air, wa ter. fo o d, anc!
ac ti vities upon a ir an d wa ter quality is significan t. Furthermore, if the pollution
s he lter. The se natural. unpr ocessed reso urce s we re readi lv a vai lab le in th e
potei lli a l in vo lving the manufacture and use of the heav y equipment needed for
bi osphe re, and th e re s iclues genera ted by t he use of such reso l;rce s were genera ll y
t he ex tr ac tio n and processing of th e raw materials used in the va ri o us to as ter
compa tible wit h, o r readil y as s imilat ed by, th e eIlI· lron ment. Prllnitl ve humans
componen ts is co nsidered , the list co uld go o n ad nauseum. And the so lid- waste
a te plant and a ni mal foo d s wi th o ut eve n di ; tllrbing the atmo spher e with the s moke

4 INTRODUCTION
disposal problem s th at arise when it is time to get rid of th e toaster become a
further factor.
As a rule , meeting the acqu ired need s of modern soc iet ies gener a tes more
residuals th ar: meeting natural need s, and these residual s a re likelY to be less
compatib le with the environment and less likely to be readil y assimila ted int o the
biosphere. As societies asce nd th e so cioec onomi c ladder , th e list of acquired
needs, or luxuri es, increase s, as do th e co mpl exity of th e production chain and th e
and comp lexity of th e pollutant s generated. Consequently, th e imp act of
.raised so me alarm . It was not until th e New York
modern hum an popul a tion s· up on the environment is of major conce rn to the
enviro nment al eng ineer:
1-3 THE IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMANS
Tho ugh rivers become sta gnant, skies smok e-shro uded , a nd dumping gro und s
od o rifer ous and unsightl y, populations generally mana ge to igno re their impact
o n the environ men t unt il th ey begin to become awa re of the ill efrects that a po lluted
environment can have up o n th ei r own hea lt h a nd we ll-being . Th o ugh stag nant
rivers , smo ggy skies . a nd un sightl y dump s were aesth etically displeasing to th e
citizens of ove rcr owded cit ies of ear lier centuri es, no att empt was made to re\·erse
th e nega tive imp act human s had o n th ei r environm ent unlil it becamc ev iden t
th a t heavi ly polluted wa ter , a ir, a nd so il cou ld exert a n eq ually negat ive impa ct
on the health , the aes th et ic a nd cu ltu ra l pleasur es, and the econom ic op po rtuniti es
of human s.
Health Concerns
Elemen ts of the air, th e wa ter . and the land may hos t ·harmful biol og ical and
chem ica l agents that imp ac t th e hea lth of hum ans. A wide range of comm un icab le
. tha t has adver sely ;tfrccted many non target species. Tr aces of DDT can be found in
diseases can be spr ea d th ro ugh elemen ts of th e environm ent by hum a.n and
an imal waste product s. T his is mos t clea rl y evidenced. by the plagues of the M idclle
· th e use of DDT is no\\' b:lnnecl in the Un ited States and seve ral other co untri es. th e
Ages when disease spread t hroug h rat s th a t fed ·on co ntamin ated so lid and human
was te and disease carried by wa terb o rne para 5ites a nd bacteria ran rampa nt
thr o ugh th e populati o n of Europe.
It ha s only been in th e las t century that th e co rrelati on between wate rborne
b iological age nts and hum a n disease s has been pr oved and effective preve nti ve
me asures have been taken. Thr o ugh immuni za tion a nd env ironm ental contro l
programs , the majo r diseas es tr ansm itt ed via th e environment ha\'e all but been
eliminated in develo ped count ries. No country , however, is to tall y immun e from
o utbr eaks of env ironmen tally tr a nsmitted disease. The tran smiss io n uf viru ses
and proiozoa has pr ove d particu la rly difficu lt to co ntr ol, .and lap ses in go()d
sanitary practic e have res ulted in min o r epidemics of o ther wa terborne diseases.
P o llution of th e atm os phere has also posed severe health pr o blems Ihat are
of great concern to environme nt al engi neers. Peop le in crowded citics have
II"TRODl ' CTI ON 5
likely suffered from th e il l effects of air po lluti o n fo r centuri es, but it is o nly in thi s
century that II1creas ing ly heavy po llution has ca used hea lt h pr ob lem s so dramat ic
as to be easily a ttribut ed to air pollution . Several key incident s helped ca ll a tten ti o n
to the poten tia lly dead ly effect of air po ll ution. Severa l kille r smo gs settl ed ove r
London in th e last quarter of the nineteenth centur y. but th e tru e ex tent o f th e
air-po llution prob lem in tha t cit y did no t become apparen t until 4000 deaths and
co untle ss illnesses were a ttribut ed to th e Lond o n smog of 1952.
Th o ugh the 20 dea ths ca used by a smog ove r Dono ra, Penn sylva nia. in 1948
of 1963 clcJlmed seve ra l
hundred li ves that this co untr y began to take the fight aga inst a ir polluti on ser io u sl\".
M onit o ring o f the sulfur diox ide, lead , and carbo n mon ox ide levels in area s
as the smog-s hr o uded Los Angeles bas in has revea led th at the high leve ls of t hese
and other co nt aminan ts pose direc t and indir ect thr ea ts to human hea lth . Th ese
finding s have made air-po llut ion con tr o l a top pri o rit y of the En viro nm e nt a l
Pr otection Agenc y and a majo r co nce rn of enviro nment al engineers, who ar e
now ca lled up on to devi se man age men t program s designed to alter th e patt ern o f
air po llution begun ce nturie s ago a nd co ntinued until the pr ese nt tim e.
O ther envi ronme nt ally relat ed hea lth pr o blems also co ncern the en vIro n-
menta l engi neer. Th e wid espread ·use of chemica ls in ag riculture an d indus t ry
has intr odu ced many new co mp o und s into th e environment. Some of the se
co mp o und s ha ve been diffused in sma ll quantiti es th rougho ut the enviro nment.
whi le others ha ve been conce nt ra ted at disposa l sites. Such che mica ls ma y be
spread thr ough air. watc r, and so il, as well as thr o ugh th e food chain. and thu s
pose a pot ential thr ea t to a ll human s.
The pesticide DDT was used exte nsively d urin g the mid-c entu ry decade s and
has been instr umenta I. i.n the. eli.rpioali on .0J malari a· in· man y p arts· of·rhe· i.\lai rd·.·· ·· .. .
In addi tion, this· pestici de was used ex tens ively to co ntr ol insect pests on food and
fiber pla nts. Its beneficial use to humans was wide ly acclaimed , and its promoter.
Pa ul Mu ller. was awa rded a Nobe l prize in 1958 fo·r his contribu tio n to publi c
hea lth. Subsequ ent resea rc h. however. has shown th a t DDT is a cumul a ti ve tox in
almos t all li vin g o rg;lnisms thr o ugh o ut the wor ld - including human s. Alth o ug h
chemical is st dl being manufa ctur ed. primari ly for use in several develop in g
co untrie s. par ticular ly in tro pical zones where its benefits a re still cons idered to
o ut weigh It s liabilities.
A mo re recent example of chem ical tox ins th a t thr eaten health is th e chemica l
d ioxi n Th e format illil of this chemical. the scientific nam e o f wh ich is 2,3.7,R-
tetrach loro- dib enzo paradioxin. is an unint entional by-product of a manuf acturlll g
pr ocess used with so me herhicides anc! woo d-pre serving co mp oun ds. It is also
fo rmed in t he pr od uct io n of so me d isinfectan ts ancl ind ustri a I clean ing co m pou nd s.
Diox in is an ex treme ly toxic substance. and its pre sence in excess of I ppb (part
per billio n) in the en\' il·o nmen t;d element s becomes cause fo r co ncern . (On e pa rt
per billio n co rrespo nds to o ne drop of wa ter in a sw imming poolme:l slIring IS i"t
wiele, .\ 0 ft lo ng. and 11 ft deep.)
6 INTRODUCT ION
C hem ical s contai ni ng diox in re sidua ls have been used on a widespread basi s
during the las t few decade s. and the level of th is chemica l in th e general environ-
ment is no t currently known. The discovery o f di o xin res idu a ls in waste -di s posa l
s ites a nd in so il<; that were con tam ina ted t h roug h app lication of the paren t materia l
has ca used g reat co nce rn and ha s resu lt ed in ex pensive c lea n ing effor ts. Th e
c rea tion of a "s uperfund" in the Environme n ta l Pro tection Agency. ini ti a ll y
fund .ed at seve ra l bil lio n d o llar s. is bu t a s ta rt in the effo rt s to mi t iga te th e ha za rd s
of c hem ica ls in the enviro nm en t.
Oth e r C onc ern s
C lean ai r and wa terare an aesthe tic de lig ht , yet ci ty dw e llers ha ve a ll bu t forgo tt e n
the s mell o f clea n a ir. a nd clear. sparklin g lakes. river s. :lI1d st reams are becoming
increasing ly rare. Litt ered street s and highw ays ' o tTe nd . rather than deli g ht. and
unfe nced junk ya rds and u nc o n tro lled d umps give fu rt her evidence o f th e aest het ic-
al ly d ispleas ing e ffec t o f improp er so lid-wa ste di s pos a l technique s.
O u r c ult ura l as we ll a s our aes th etic heritage is a lso be ing los t to poJlut io n.
The Parthen o n in Athens. t he Sta tue of L rberty in N ew Yo rk ha rbor. the s ta tue s
a nd frescoes in Ve nice have withstood the o ns lau g ht of the cleme nt s for ce nturie s,
ye t are in incre as ing danger of being dest royed by t he constituen ts o f a p o llu ted
atmosphere.
And po ll ution po ses econom ic threats to hu man popu lations Lake E fl e o nce
su p po rt ed a thrivi ng fis h ing ind ustry a nd a ll th e a tt endant proce ss ing a nd s hi ppin g
fac il ities assoc iat ed with th a t indu str y. ye t th e eco no mic po tenti a l o f the lak e was
nearl y lost bef o re se ri o us cle anup effo r ts were begun . Th e s iltin g in o f r ive rs.
harbors. and rese rvoirs du e to unc o ntro lled eros io n. often exacerbated by hum a n
ac til 'itie s, threaten s to streng t he n so m e ind ustrie s'a nlle' expeiise·bfolhe"r"s.·
Erll 'ironmenta l e ng ineer s are com mitt ed to pro tec tin g huma ns fr om th e t hrea ts
a po lluted environment po se to human health. aesthetic :lnd cultural e njoy m ent,
;Ind eco no mic we ll-b ei ng.
1-4 IMPROV EM ENT OF ENVIRONM EN T AL Q UA LITY
Vitall y co ncern ed with the impr ove ment o f environmental qua lit y, the el1\'iro n-
m e nt:." engineer p la ys a n imp o r ta nt" ro le in environmen tal mana ge m ent pr ogra ms.
Such programs might be sa id to inl 'olve tllO distinct aspec ts -en vi ronme ntal
s trat eg ies and e Jlviro nm enta l ta c tics. [I-IJ LlIli m lllll e/1(o/ sr rl/r cqics are co mp l'e-
hensil'e pl ans tha t usua ll y addr ess a va ri ety o f prob le ms that co nfront a sing le a rea .
T y pica l'elll 'ir o nm e nl a l strate g ies might be a prugram to IInpn l\e the qualit y of
Lak e Erie. to im p rove the ai r quality of the Lo s Ang e les basin. or to collect a nd
p ro pe rly iJispose of tlie so lid W;lste fro m th e c it y of Philad elphia,
Enl 'ironmental strategies are lI sua lly worked O UI in public and political
Cl) nsid era ti o lls mu s t inc lu d e economic. s(lcia l. and demograph ic fa c to rs.
II ist<,ric;I1h. elll 'ironJllental CIli!lnee rs ha\ 'e Iwt l'I:lycd ;1 highh visible ru le In
INTRODUCTIqN 7
devi sing environmental st ra teg ies . Neve rthe less, th e en viro n me nt a l en g ine e r
sho uld be an imp o rtan t member of a ma nageme nt tea m th a t incl ud es per so n s
drawn from a wide va riety of disc iplin es. Th e input o f the en vir o nm ent a l eng ineer ,
especia ll y in assessing the li ke ly respo nse of th e en viro nm ent to va ri o us levels o f
co nt amin a nt load in g a nd in we ig hin g th e va ri o us tec hnic a l so luti o ns that m a y be
proposed, is a necessa r y co mp o nent o f a ny en vir o nm eni a l str a tegy.
En vir o n me nt a l eng ineers are usua lly m o re d ire ctl y assoc ia ted w ith the impl e.- .
menta tio n of the ellvironmenra/caclics tha t a re th e m ea ns fo r ach ievin g the g o a ls
se t forth in a s pecific portion o f a given en vi ro n me nt a l str a tegy. T he en gine er 's
par t in thi s imp leme nt a ti o n co ns is ts pr ima rily o f th e d es ign, co ns tru cti o n , and
o pe ra tio n o f treat m e n t fac ilit ies fo r water , a ir , a nd so lid was te. F o r exa mple, the
env iro nme nt a l en g ineer wo ul d be invo lved d irec tly in the a d d iti o n o f te r ti a r y
proce sses to remove p hosp horus fro m t he effluent o f a was tew a te r-tre a tment
facility empt ying into Lake E t ie. th e ins ta lla tion o f a hy dr oca rbo n re m ov al system
at a gaso lin e refine ry in Los Ange les. o r th e d esign o f a so lid -w as te pr o-
cess ing pl a nt In Phi lade lp h ia .
1-5 THE ROL E OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER
;\ S po llut a nt s en ter a ir, wa te r, o r so il, na tural p rocesses such as diluti o n, biol o gic a l
co n vers io ns, a nd c hemic a l reac tio ns conv ert was te m a teri a l to m o re acceptable
fo rms a nd d isperse t he m thr o ugh a large r vo lum e. Yet th ose na tur a l proce sses
ca n no 1'.1nger perf o rm the c leanup alo ne. T he trea tm e nt fac iliti es d es ig ned by the
e n viro nmenta l engineer are ba sed o n the princip les of se lf-cleansing obse r ved in
enKi.n(:e.re.d a tnplif y a nd op tim ize th e o per a ti o ns o bse r ved
in na ture to hand le large r vo lu mes o f po llut a nt s a nd to trea t th em m o re ra pidly .
Engineers adapt the prin c ip les o f na tur al mecha nis ms to eng in ee red sys tem s fo r
po ll u tio n co nt ro l w hen th ey co nstru ct ta ll stac k s to di sper se a nd di lute air
po llutan ts, des ign biologica l treatmen t fac ilities for th e remova l of o rga ni cs
from was tewa te r. use che mica ls to ox id ize a nd prec ipit a te ou t the ir o n a nd
manga nese in drinki ng-wa te r s u ppli es, or bur y so lid was tes in co ntr o lled la ndfill
o pera tions.
Occas io na lly, th e e n vir o n men ta l eng inee r m ust d es ig n to reve rse o r co unt era ct
na tura l proce sses. For examp le, the containers used fo r d isposa l o f haza rdo us
was tes such as to xic chemica ls and radioac ti ve m ate ri a ls mus t iso la te th ose
m a terials from the en vi ro n men t in o rder to p reven t th e onse t of the n a tur a l, b ut
hig hly u ndesirab le. processes of d ilut io n a nd d ispers io n.
As will be de m o nstr a ted thr o ugho ut thi s' tex t, a n und e rs ta nd ing o f na tural
an q engineered. purifica tio n processes. requ ires an unders tand in g of th e bio log ica l
and chemica l react io ns invo lved in these processes. T hu s, in addi tion to bem g
know ledgeab le in the ma th em a tica l, phys ica l, a nd en ginee rin g sCiences , . the
envi ro nmenta l e nginee r mu s t a lso be we ll grounded in th e subjec t areas o f c hemi st r y
a nd microbio logy. s ubjec t a reas no t usua ll y emp hasized in eng inee rl1lg c urncul a .
Inde ed . an und erstanding of bio log ica l and c hem ica l pri nciples is as esse ntt a l to
 8 INTRODUCTION

the environmental engineer as the understanding of statics and strength of materials PART
is to the structural engineer.
The environmental engineer's unique role is to build a bridge between biology
and technology by applying all the techniques made available by modern engineer-
ing technology to the job of cleaning up the debris left in the wake of an indis-
criminate use of that technoiogy. The delicare balance of our biosphere has
ONE
been disturbed. and the state in which we now find ourselves is a direct consequence
of our having ignored the limits of the earth's ability to overcome heavy pollution
loads, and of our having been ignorant of the. constraints imposed by the limits of WATER
the self-cleansing mechanisms of our biosphere.
A keen awareness of these natural constraints plays an important role in the
work of environmental engineers. For example, the laws of conservation of mass
and energy prevent the destruction of pollutants. and the engineer is bound by
these limits. The principles of waste treatment must therefore be to convert
the objectionable material to other, less objectionable forms: to disperse the pol-
lutants so that their concentrations are minimal: or to concentrate them for
isolation from the environment.
In all instances, the end products of the treatment of polluted water or air
or of the disposal of solid wastes must be compatible with the existing
ment.al resources and must not overtax the assimilative powers of hydrosphere.
atmosphere, or lithosphere. In structural engineering. the engineer can simply
specify a larger or stronger beam to carry a heavier load. The environmental
engineer, on the other hand, must accept the carrying capacity of a stream, an
airshed, or a landmass because these can seldom be changed.
It is the purpose of this text to demonstrate how the environmental engineer,
working within these constraints, uses all available technological tools to design
.-... efficient control and treatment devices that are molleled after the natural processes
...... '(hili hit'ye'so 'fbrig'p'r'eservec!olii 'by' .'.
harmony with the natural environment can the engineer hope to achieve t he goals
of the profession-the; protection of the environment from the potentially del-
eterious effects of human activity, the protection of human populations from the
.-.\
elTects of adverse environmental factors. and the improvement of environmental
quality for human health and well-being.

REFERENCES

1·1 Bella , D. A., and W. S. OvenoJl' "Environmental Planning and Ecological Pos sibilities," pr e·
sented at the annual national environmental engineering meetlf1g of ASCE, St. Louis. M o .•
October 18- 22. 1971.
1-2 "Guidelines for Environmental Engineering Visitors on ECPD Accreditation Tean'!s," Engine ers
Council for Proli::ssional.oevelopment. United Engin ee ring Cellt er, 34-5 East 47111 St.'-New York .
October 1977.
 CHAPTER

TWO
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS,
CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES

The availability" of a water supply adequate in terms of both quantity and quality
is essential to human existence. Early people recognized the importance of water
from a q uanti ty viewpoint. Civ il ization developed around water bodies that could
support agriculture and transportation as well as provide drinking water. Recog-
nition of the importance of water qua lity developed more slowly. Early humans
cou ld judge water qua lity on ly through the physical senses of sight, taste, and smell.
Not until the biological, chemical , and medical sciences developed were methods
availab le to measure water quality and to determine its effects on human health
and well-being. .
It was not until the mid-nineteentrrcentUTy-rhatthe relationship between'hmmrn ..... . ....
waste, drinking water. and disease was documented. Several more years intervened
before the facts concerning this relationship became widely accepted and remedial
action wa s taken. In .1854,* Dr. John Snow, a public-health worker in 'London,
noted a high correlation between cholera cases and consumption of water from a
well on Broad Street. Noi only was cholera running rampant.in the
around the well, but outbreaks of the disease in other parts of the city could be
traced to indiv idua ls who had had occasion to drink from the Broad Street well.::
Although the proof was conclusive by modern epidemiology standards , the evidence
was not accepted by Snow 's contemporaries. It is alleged that he physically
removed the pump handle to prevent LIse of the contaminated water. thus abating
the epidemic. [2'-2IJ
Advances in the germ theory of disease were made by Pasteur and others in
the lafe nineteenth century , and by 190.0 the concept of waterborne disease was
well accepted. The development of the science of water chemistry roughly paralleled
that of ivater microhiology Many of the used in industrial processes

*- da le i.... listed as 18"",9 ill

II
 WATE R QUA LITY : IJEF IN ITIONS . C HARA CT ER IST ICS, AND PERSP ECT IVES 13
11 WATER
Atm os ph e re
and agriculture ha ve been identified in wat e r. H owev er , th e effor t to id entif y
.(her chemical ' compounds which may alre ady be fo und in tr ace qu a ntiti es in
many wa ter supplies and (6 delermirietheir effect b ti hum a n he a lth was onl y
begun . It is likel y th a t new analytic a l technique s will b e de ve lo p ed th a t
identify compounds not yet known to exi st in water, and it is co ncei va ble th a t Condensation

-lese materials will also be linked to human hea lth . Thu s, th e sc ience o f wa ter '
quality will rem a in a ch a llen ge for engineers a nd sc ienti sts fo r yea rs ·to co me .
Lik e all science s, the scien ce o f wa ter qu a lit y h as de velo p ed its ow n t ermin o logy
and the means of quantifying these terms . The purp ose of thi s ch a pt er is to intr o -
d.uce the re ad er to the modern co n cepts o f water qu a lity . Th e mea ns b y w hic h th e
.• ature and extent of contaminant s in wat e r a re me as ur ed a nd ex pr essed a re'
Qresented alon g with th e so ur ces of vari o us co nt a min a nt s that find th e ir way int o
Earth 's
.: aler. An under standing of the m a terial in thi s ch a pter will b e ess enti a l in su b- surface
chapter s dealing with water-quality ch a nges in b o th n a tur a l and eng in ee red
.}s tem s.

_-1 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND WATER QUALITY

-Water is o ne o f th e m os t a bund a nt co mp o und s fo un d in na tur e, cove rin g a ppr ox i-

-- ;
u

;;=l
,n a tely thr ee-fourth s o f the surfa ce o f the ea rth . In spit e o f thi s a ppar ent ab un d an ce , Aquif er< o
...s;evera l fac tor s serve t o limit th e a m o unt of wa ter a va ila ble fo r human use. As
in T a ble 2-1 , ov er 97 pe rcent o f the to ta l wa te r suppl y is co nt a ined in th e
100/, 011
..Qce a ns and other saline b o di es of wa ter a nd is n o t readil y usa ble fo r m os t purp oses.
)f the rem a inin g 3 p e. ce nt , a littl e o ver 2 per ce nt is tied up in ice ca ps a nd g lac ie rs Fi gll rl' 2- 1 H ;.dr o log1 c cycle
alon g with atrp o spheri c and soil moi sture , is inacce ss ibl e. [ 2- 17J Thu s. fo r
:, e ir ge ner al li velih oo d a nd the supp o rt o f th e ir va ried techni cal a nd ag ric ultur a l
activitie s, hum an s mu st depend up o n the rem a inin g 0.62 per ce nt fo und in fres h- Wat e r is ina COllstan t sta te of mot io n. as depic ted in t he h yd ro logi c cyc le s h ow n
-"ater lak es, ri ve rs , and g ro undw a ter supplie s. in Fig. 2- 1. Atmo sph e ric \Ia ter condenses and fall s to th e ea rt h a s ra in. snow. o r
so me othe r form of rrec ip ita tio n. On ce o n t he ear th 's surf ace. wate r flOW S into
-:-Tab le 2-1 World wat e r distribution strea ms, lakes. and eV'entu a lI y th e oceans. or rer co lates th ro u gh t he so il and into
VoJum e. 10 ' 2 m '
aLJu ifer s t ha t eventua ll y di sc harg e int o s u rface wa te rs. T h ro ug h evaporat ion
Locati o n
fr o m surfa ce waters or by evapotran sriration from p lants. wate r mo lecu les return
La nd ar eas to the a t mosrh e re tll repea l the cyc le . Although th e move me nt t hr o ug h so me p a rts
Fresh wa ter ta kes 125 0.009 of the cyc le may be re la ti vely rar id . comr lete recyc ling o f g rou ndwa ter mu st o fte n
Sa line lakes a nd i nland seas '104 0.008
be mea su red in gco logic ti me.
Ri vers (ave rage insta nt aneo us vo lume) 125 0.000 1
67 0.005 Wat e r in n atur e is mo st nedriy pure in its ev aporation stat e. Beca use the ve r y
So il mo ist ure
G roundwater (above dept h o r 4000 m ) 8,350 0.6 t act of co nd e nsa tion usua ll y require s a surface. o r nucle i. wate r ma y
Ice ca ps a nd glac iers 29,200 2. 14 imp uri ties the VC I'Y mo ment of co nde nsa li o n. Ad dit io n a l im pu rit ies are'added
37,800 2.8 as th e liqu id w; lt e r t ravels t hrou g h Ihe rema ind e r of t he hvdrolof!.ic cv cle and comes
Total land a rea (rounded)
int o co n tac t w it h m ate ri a ls 'in the a nd on o r henea til th e of the ea rr'h
(wa ter VO pM) 13 0.00 1
H uman ac ti vi til:s contr ib ute furthcr Impuritte s In the fo rm of indu st rial a nd d o-
Ocea ns 1.320,000 97.3
mes ti c w;lstes. ag l'icu ltu ra l chemica ls. a nd <lt her . less obv ious co n ta mi nan ts.
-To ta l all iL'catlon s trc'unded) 1.360.000 100 Ultimately. the se ImJlure wa ters will Co tllr lete the hyd ro logic cycle and re t ur n to
the ,lltll os ph c rc ;,s re lalll'ely rur e water 1l1()i<:c u ies. H owever. it IS w,ltcr q ual itv
So urce : Ad a rt ed fr,)]l1 T lx ld . 12- t 7J

14 WATER
Di sso lved Collo ida l Suspend ed or non fiil e r"ble
Size of particl e. 11m
10 - 2 10 - 1 10 100
I I ! I
iO- 8 10- 1
Size of p"rtici e, mm
Figure 2-2 Size cl.s sification of solids in waler. (Fr oln ;V/e!calj & Eddy , In c. [l-R].)
in the int ermed iate s tage which is of grea test co ncern becau se it is tIle qu a lity at
thi s stage th at will affect human use of the water.
The impuritie s acc umulated by wa ter thr oughout the hydr o log ic cycle and as a
result of human ac tivities may be in both suspended and disso lved fe rm. Suspe nd ed
mat erial co nsists of particle s larger than molecular size th at are supp or ted by
bu oya nl and visco us fo rces within the water. Disso lved material co nsists of
mo lecu les o r io ns (see Sec. 2-7) that are he ld by the molecular stru cture of water.
Co lloids are vei- y sma ll particle s that tec hnica lly are suspe nd ed but oft en ex hibit
man y of the cha rac ter istics of disso lved substa nces. Size ran ges of disso lved,
co llo idaL a nd suspended sub stances are shown in Fig. 2-2.
Wal eI' pulluriol1 ma y be defined as the presence in wa ter of impuritie s in
such quantity and of such nature as to impair the use of the wa ter for a stat ed
purp ose. Thu s the definition of water qua lity is predicted on the intended use of
the water , and a gross det erminati o n o r the qu antit y of suspended and d isso lved
impuriti es. whi le useful III so me cases, is no t sufficient to co mpl etely define water
qua lit v. Man v pa rameters have evo lved that qualitativ elv reflect the impact
tha t pti i-i ii'es .have onseIec tec! ',y',iter . i- -
. " .. .... ". ······obje·ci·i()nable by-products. Biologically active (live) sllspended solids may include
been deve loped that quantitativ ely measure these par a meter s. Standard ;'v1 elhod s
/01' Ih e Ex aminali ol1 of WaleI' and Wa sl ew(J(er. [2- I SJ has been the auth orita tive
stand ard for test procedures fo r many yea rs. For detailed cove rage of the subject
. the intere sted reader is referred to this' publi ca tion and to an Enviro nmental
. Protection Agency publica ti on that offers sim ila r informatio n. [2-9J
A kn owledg e of the pa rameters most commo nly assoc iated wi th wa ter- and
wast ewa ter-treatment processes is essenti a l to the en vironm ental engineer.
The remai nd er of thi s chapter will be devoted to a discllss ion of param eters used
to assess the ph ysical. che mica l. and bio log ical charac teristics of water. T esting
procedur es described for each param eter are based on tho se desc ribed in Stal/dard
,V/di wris [2- 15J
- of ab out 180°C is necessa ry to evaporate the occl uded wa ter.
Physical Water-Quality · Parameters
Ph ysica I para meter S define t hDse cha racterist ics of \\'ater t ha t respond to t he senses
of sight. t(lucll. taste. or sme ll. Suspend ed so lids. lurbiclity . co lol-. taste and odor.
;Ind temperatu re fall into this ca tego ry.
WA TE R QUA LIT Y: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 15
2-2 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
As noted ea rlier, so lids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolve d ..
forms. Althou gh so me dissolved so lids may be perceived by the phy sical senses ,
they fall more appropriately under the ca tegory of chemica l par ameters and will
be discussed more fully in a later section.
Sources
So lids suspended in water may consist of inorganic o r organic particles or of
im miscible liquids. Inorganic so lids such as clay , silt, and o ther soil constituents are
co mm on in surface water. Organic material such as plant fibers and biological
so lids (a lga l ce lls, bac teria, etc .) are also commo n co nstituents of surface waters.
The se materials are ofte n nat ur al co ntaminant s resulting from the erosive action
of wa ter fl ow ing over sur faces. Because offne filtering capacity of the soil, suspended
material is seld o m a co nstitu ent of groundwater.
Other suspe nded material may result from hum an lise of the water. Dome s tic
wastewa ter usua lly contai ns large quantitie s of suspended so lids th at are mostly
org anic in nature. Industria l use of water may result in a wide variety of suspended
impurities of either orga nic or inorganic nature . Imm'iscible liquids such as oils
and greases are often constituent s of wastewater.
Impacts
Suspended materi al may be objectionab le in water fo r severa l reasons. It · is
aesthet ica lly displea sing and provides adsorpt ion sites for chemical and biological
agents. Suspended organi c so lids ma y be degraded biologica lly, resulting in
disease-ca using orga ni sms as well as orga nisms suc h as tox,in-producin g stra ins of
a lgae .
iVI eas urement
Th ere are seve ral tests avai lab le for measuring so lids. Most are gravimetric 'tests
in volving the ma ss of resid ues. The total solids t esc quantifie s all the so lids in the
water. suspend ed and dis so lved, orga nic and inorgan ic. Thi s parameter is measured
by eva porating a samp le to dr yness and weighing the residue. The 'tota l quantity
of residue is exp ressed as milligr ams per liter (mgj L) o n a dry-mass-of-so lids
basis. A drying temperature sligh tly above boiling (I04 c C) is sufficient to drive off
t he liquid and the water ad so rbed to the sllrface of the particle s, wh ile a temperature
. Mos t suspended so lids can be remo ved from water by filtration . Thus , the
suspended fraction of the so lids in a water samp le can be app rox imated by filter-
ill[! the wa ler , dr ying th e residue and filler to a co nstant weight at 104°C (± l C).
Lieterminillg the ma ss of the residue retained on the filter. The results of this
O/lSIJ,,"i/ei/ soliris II:'SC are also expressed as dry mass per vo lume (mil ligramsper
 16 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 17

liter). The amount of dissolved solids passing through the filter s, also expressed as Use
milligrams per liter, is the difference between the total-solids and suspended-
Suspended solids, where such material is likely to be organic and/or biological
solids content of a water sample.
in nature , are an important parameter of wastewater. The suspended-solids
It should be emphasized that filtration of a water sample does not exactly
parameter is used to measure the quality of the wastewater influent, to monitor
divide the solids into suspended and dissolved fractions according to the definitions
several treatment processes, and to measure the quality of the effluent. EPA has
Some colloids may pass through the filter and be measured along
set a maximum suspended-solids standard of 30 mg/L for most treated waste-
With the dIssolved fraction while some of the dissolved solids adsorb to the filter
water discharges.
material. The extent to which this occurs depends on the size and nature of the
solids and on the pore size and surface characteristics of the filter material. For
this reason, the termsfilterable residiles and Iloll{ilrerableresidues are often used.
2-3 TURBIDITY
Filterable residues pass through the filter along with the water and relate more ·
closely to dissolved solids, while nonfilterable residues are retained on the filter
A direct measurement of suspended solids is not usually performed on samples
and relate more closely to suspended solids. "Filterable residues ,. and" non-
from natural bodies of water or on potable (drinkable) water supplies. The nature
filterable residues" are terms more frequently used in laboratory analysis while
of the solids in these waters and the secondary effects they produce are more
the" dissolved solids" and "suspended solids" are terms more frequently used in
important than the actual quantity. For such waters a test for turbidity is com-
water-quality-management practice. For most practical applications, the distinc-
monly used.
tion between the two is not necessary.
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered
Once samples have been dried and measured, the organic content of bot h total
by suspended material in water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced
and suspended solids can be determined by firing the residues at 600°C for J h.
by both size and surface ·characteristics of the suspended material, turbidity is
The organic fraction of the residues will be converted to carbon dioxide, water
not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended solids. For example, one
vapor, and other gases and will escape. The remaining material will represent the
small pebble in a glass of water would produce virtually no turbidity. If this
JJ1orgamc, or fixed. residue. When organic suspended solids are being measured ,
pebble were crushed into thousands of particles of colloidal size, a measurable
a filter made of glass fiber or some other material that will not decompose at the
turbidity would result, even thoughthe mass of solids had not changed.
elevated temperature must be used. The following example illustrates the calcula-
tions involved in suspended solids analysis.
Sources
.. .... " ..... .2: I .:. pt;t.er!l)!I,l!ng. . .o( sllSpended. solids :. A filter.able resid ue
Most turbioity in surface water s results from the erosion of colloidal material
analysis is run on a sample or water as rollows. Prior to filtering, the crucible and filter
such as clay, silt, rock fragment s. and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibers
pad are kept overnight in Ihe drying oven. cooled. and the dry mass (tare mass) or the
pair determ1l1ed to be 54.352 g. Two hundred and fifty milliliters or the sample is drawII and microorganisms may also contribute to turbidity. Household and industrial
through a hlter pad contained in the porous-bottom crucible. The crucible and filter pad wastewaters ma y contain a wide variet y of turbidity-producing material. Soaps ,
are then placed 111 a drY1l1g oven at 104°(, and dried untit a conSlant mass of 54.389 g is cietergents. and emulsifying agents produ ce stable colloids that result in turbidity.
reached. Determ1l1e the suspended solids concentration of Ihe sample. Although turbidity llle<ISttrCme nts are not .commonly run on wastewater. diS-
SOLUTION charges of wastewaters may. ilicrease the turbidity of natural bodies of water. .
I. Determine the mass of solids removed.
Tare mass + solids = 5-1.3S9 g Impacts
- Tare mass = 54.352 g
When turbid water in a small. transparent container, such as a drinking glass.
Mass of solids = 0.037 g is helel up to the light. an aesthetically·displeasing opaqueness or "milky" colora-
.= 37 mg tion is J.pp:lrent. The col1oiLialm<lterial a ssocia ted with turbidit y provide s adsorp-
2. Determine the concentration of the solids. tion sites for chemicals that Illay be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors
ano for biological organisms that mav be harmfuL Disinfection of turbid wa ter s
mg solids x 1000 mL!L
= conc in mg ·L is diffi c ult because o f the adsorptive of some colloids and because
I11L of sample . th e solids Illay partiall y shield organisms fr o m the disinfectant.
37 x 1000 In natural water bodies. turbidity may impart a brown or other color to wetter.
...----.- = 148 l11 o :L
e
250 depending o n the light-absurhing prop e rti es of the so lids. and may interfere with
18 WATER
lig ht pe netr a tio n and phot osy nthetic rea ctio ns in str ea ms a nd la kes. Accumula-
tion o f turbidity- cau sing particle s in po ro us streambeds res ult s in sediment de-
pos its th at ca n ad versel y affect the fl o ra and faun a of the s tream.
Measurement
Turbidit y is measured ph o to metric a ll y by determining th e perce nta ge of light of a
given inten s ity that is either absorbed o r sca ttered . Th e o rig inal mea s urin g
a ppar a tu s, ca lled a J ackson ltIrbidim eler . was based on light abso rpti on and
employed a long tube and standardi zed candle. The candle was plac ed beneath
the g lass tub e that was th en hou se d in a b lack metal s hea th so that th e light fro m
the candle cou ld only be see n from above the apparatus. The wa ter sa mpl e was
th en ·p ou red s low ly int o the tub e until the lig ht ed ca ndl e was no lon ge r vis ible,
i.e., complete absorp tion had occurred. The g lass tub e was calibrated with reading s
fo r turbidit y produced by s uspen s ions o f silica dioxid e (Si O l ), with o ne Jackson
turbidity unit (JTU) bein g eq ual to th e turbidit y pr odu ce d by I mg Si0 2 in I L o r
di s tilled water.
In recent years this awkward ap pa ratu s ha s been re pla ced by a turbidit y
meter in which a standardi zed electric bulb produces a light that is th en dir ec ted
through a sma ll sa mple via l. In the absorption m ode, a photometer meas ures th e
ligh t inten s ity o n the s id e of the vial opposite from the lig ht so ur ce, w hile in the
sca tterin g mod e, a photometer measure s th e lig ht inten s it y a t a 90 c an gle fro m th e
lig ht source. Alth o ugh mo st turbidity me te rs in use today wo rk o n th e sca tt e rin g
principl e, turbidit y cau sed by dark s ub sta nces th ilt absorb ra th e r than rerlect
ligh t s ho uld be mea s ured by the absorption technique, h)rmazin. a c hemic al
compound , provides m o re re produ c ibl e' sta nd ards th a n S iO 2 a nd ha s rep laced it
as a refe rence. Turbidity meter readin gs a re now expr esse d as /orm m ill lIIrhidit y
lIliits. or FTU s. Th e te rm nephelometry IUrbiditr Llllits (NTU) is o ft e n used to
indicate th a t the test was ru 'n accordi ng to Ihe sc alt e rin g pr inci ple ,
Usc
Turbidit y meas ur ement s are norma lly mad e' o n "c lea n " waters as op pose d to
wastewater s. Na tur a l wa ter s ma y ha ve tUI'bid ili es ran ging fro m a few FT Us to
seve ral hundr ed . EPA drinking-waleI' s tand a rd s specify " o f I FTU .
while th e American W a ter W o rk s Assoc iati o n has SCi 0.1 FT L! as it s goal for
drink ing water. [ 2- 1]
2-4 COLOR
Pur e wa te r is co lo rless . but water in natur e is often eoki red by foreig n s ub sta nces.
Water w hose co lo r is part ly du e to s uspe nd ed maltcr is sa id 10 have lI{J{'(/rcntcolo r
Co lo r co ntributed by disso lved so lid s th ai rema lll aha 1"C lllll\';li o f suspended
mailer is kn ow n as lrue colo r.
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERIST ICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 19
Sources
After contact with orga nic debris such as leaves, conifer needles , or wood,
water pick s up tannins. humic acid, and humatesand takes on yellowish-brown
hues. Iron oxides cause reddish water, and manganese oxides cause brown or
blackish water. Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and
paper producti on, food processing, chemical production, and mining, refining,
and slau ghterho use operations may add su bstantial coloration to water in re-
ce iving streams.
Impacts
Co lo red water is not aes thetic a lly acceptable to the general public . In fact, given a
c hoice consumers tend to choose clear. nonc o lo red water of otherwise poorer
qu a lit; trea ted potable water supp 'lies with an objectionable color. Highly
co lored water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, papermaking, beverage
manufacturi ng, dairy prodlJcti o n and other foo d processing , and textile and
pla s lie pr o duction. Thus, the color of water affects its marketability fo r both do-
me stic and indu strial use.
While true co lor is not usually considered unsanitary or unsafe , the organic
co mpounds cau sing true color may exert a chlorine demand and thereby seriously
red uce the e ffec tivene ss of chlorine as a di sinfectant. Perhap s more important are
the produ c ts fo rmed by the combination of chlorine with so me color-producing
o rganics. Phen o lic compounds , common constituents of vegetative decay products, .
prod uce very o bjecliql)<ible. taste and.od.of, chlor.i l1e: .. . , .. .. . ... .
so me compo; ind 's of naturally occurring organic acids and chlorine are either
kn ow n to be. o r a re suspec ted of being. carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
. Measurement
Although severa l method s of COIOf measurement are available , methods
co mparison with standardi zed co lored materials are mo st o ften used. Color:
comparison lub es containing a se rie s of sta ndards may be used for direct com-
pari so n or water samples that have been filtered to remove appa rent color. Results
are expressed in true color units (TCUs) where one unit is equivalent to the color
produced by I mgj L of platinum in the for m of chlorplatinate ions. For colors
o ther Ihan ye llow is h-brow n hue s. especially for colored waters originating from
indu strial was te effiuent s, special tech nique s are usually
. emp loy ed.
In fieldwork . instrument s employing colorcd glass disks that are calibrated
to t he color slandards are o ften used . Because biological and physical changes
uccllrri ng during storage may affec t color. samp les s hould be tested within 72 h
of co llec t ion.
 20 WATER \VATER QUALITY : DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 21

Use ' Measurement

-,
Color is not a parameter usually included in wastewater analysis. In potable Direct measurement of material s that produce tastes and odors can be made if the
water analysis; the common practice is to measure only the true color produced cau sative agents are known. Several types of analysis are available for measuring
by organic acid resulting from decaying vegetation in the water. The resulting ta ste-producing inorganics. Measurement of taste- and odor-causing organics
value can be taken as an indirect measurement of humic substances in the water. can be made using gas or liquid chromatography. Because chromatographic
analysi s is time-consuming and requires expensive equipment, it is not routinely
perfo rmed on wat er samples . but sho uld be done if problem organics are suspected.
H o wever. becau se o f the synergi sm noted earlier , quantifying the sources does not
2-5 TASTE AND ODOR
necessarily quantify the nature o r Intensity of taste and odor.
Quantitative tests that employ the human senses of taste and smell can be
The terms taste and odor are themselves ,definitive of this parameter. Because the used for this purpo se. An example is the test for the threshold odor number (TON) .
sensations of taste and smell are closely related and often confused, a wide variety Varying amounts of odorous water are poured into containers and diluted with
of tastes and odors may be attributed to water by consumers. Substances that enough odor-free di stilled water to make a 200-mL mixture. An assembled panel
produce an odor in water will almost invariably imparLa..taste as well. The con- of fi ve to ten " noses" is used to determine the mixture in which the odor is just
verse is not true, as there are many mineral substances that produce taste but no barely detectable to t he sense of smell. The TON of that sample is then calculated,
odor. using the formula
A + B
Sources TON (2-1 )
A
Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human where A is the volume of odorou s water (mL) and B is the volume of odor-free
use may impart perceptible taste and odor. These include minerals, metals, and water required to produce a 200-m L mixture. Threshold odor numbers correspond-
salts from the soil, end products from biological reactions, and constituents of ing to variolls sample volumes are shown in Table 2-2. A similar test can be used to
wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied quantify taste, or the panel can simply rate the water qualitatively on an "accept-
by odor. Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water. while metallic salts abilit y " scale .
may give a salty or bitter taste.
Organic material, on the other hand, is likely to produce both taste.and.odor,.· .... · · .. .. ..... ..... .
A multitude of organic ch-emicals may cause taste and odor problems in water, Table 2-2 Threshold odor
with .petroleum-based products being prime offenders. Biological decomposition numbers corresponding 10
of organics may also result in taste- and odor-producing liquids and gases in water. sample "olume to
Principal among these are the reduced products of sulfLlr that impart a " ro tten .200 mL
egg" taste and odor. Also. certain· species algae 'an oily substance that
Sa mpfe vo lume (A),
may result in both taste and odor. The comb,ination.of two or more sub stances , mL TON
neither of which would produce taste or odor by itself, may sometimes result in
taste and odor problems. This synergistic effect was noted earlier in t he case of 200 1.0
organics and chlorine. 175 I I
150 U
125 1.6
100 2.0
Impacts 75 2.7
67 3.0
Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons,
50 4 .D
Because water is tliought of as tasteless and odorless, the consumer associates ,,0 5.0
taste and odor with cont"amination and may prefer to' use a tasteless. odorless 25 8.0
water that might actually pose more of a health threat. And odors produced by 10 20.0
organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics. since some 2 100
of those substances may be carcinogenic. 200
---+-- --- --_ ..
 22 WATER
Use
Alth o ugh odo rs can be a problem with wastewater. the taste and odor parameter
is on ly associated with potable water. EPA does not have a maximum standard
for TON . A m ax imum TON of 3 has been recomme nd ed by the Public H ea lth
Service a nd se rvesas a gu id e lin e rather th an a lega l standa rd . [2- lgJ
2-6 TEMPERATURE
Te mp e rature is not used to e va lu a te direc tly either potable wa te r or was tewa te r.
It is_ howeve r, o ne of the mo s t imp orta nt p arame te rs in na tur a l surface -wa ter
sys tem s. The temperature o f sur fac e wate rs governs to a large extent the biological
s pec ies present a nd their ra tes of activ ity. T empe rature has a n effec t on most
chemica l reactions th a t occur in natural wa ter system s. Temperature a lso has a
pronounced effect on the so lubiliti es of gases in wa ter.
Sources
The temperature o f natural wa ter sys tems responds to many fac to rs. th e ambie nt
temperature (temperatur e o f the surro unding atmosphere) being th e m os t un i-
ve rsa l. Generally, shallow bodies of wa ter are more affected by ambie nt temp era -
ture s than a re deeper bodies. The use of water fo r di ss ipa tion of was te heat in
indu str y and the subse qu e nt discharge of th e he ate d water may result in dramatic.
th oug h perhaps loca lized. temperature m receiving streams. Removal of
forest ca no pi es and irri gat io n return flows can al so res ult in increased stream
.. . .. . ..... .. ... te mp'eni tllte: ......... . - ..... .... . . . . .
I rnpacts
Coo ler wate rs lisu,tll y have a wide r d i\'ersity ofh io lllglc; iI s pecie s. At lower tempera-
tur es. th e rate of biological ac ti vity. i.e .. utiliza t io n of fo od s upp lies. growth.
reproduction. etc.. is s lower. If the temperature is inneased. biolog ica l act ivit y
increases. An increase of loce is usuallv s ufficient to doub le the biological acti v ity,
ife sse ntial nutrients are present. At elcv :lted tempcratllre s anti increa sed metabolic
rates. urga nisms that are mor e eflicicnt at roo d IItilizatl n n and reproduction
rlouflsh. while llthe r specie s decli'ne and ,Ire pC,rhap s e limin ,lteci a lt ogether.
Accelera ted growth of a lgae often occurs in \\arm \\a ;tcr ;llld can becoille a problem
when ce l" cluster into algae Illat s. Natural secretl(lIl o f pils by ,i1gJe 111 the mat s
and the decay pr oduc ts o f dcad a lgae ce lls Cdll n:sllit ill la sle and odor pl'oblem s,
Higher-order species: s uch as fi sh. arc ,dkclCd dram;lli ca ll y by Icmper,i tur e a nd
by dissolved oxygen le ve ls. which a rc ;( , o r tcmperatmc . Game fis h
ge nera ll y requ ire co o ler temperatur es ;Incl 11I1,!hcr dl sso l\e Ll -\lxygell le vels.
T e mpera ture c hang es a lTec t the rc,lctioll rate s ami so lubilit y le vels of chemical s.
a s ubj eci more fu lly exp lored ill later (l r L'ilaptel·. Mu s t c hemical
WATER QUA LITY : DEFINITIONS, C HARA CTER ISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 23
reac tio ns in vo lving dissolution of so lids are accelerated by increased temperatures.
The so lubilit y of gases. o n th e other hand , decreases at elevated temperatures .
Because bio log ica l ox idati o n o f o rganics in streams and impoundments ' is
pendent o n an adequate supply of dissolved oxygen, decrease in oxygen solubility
'-
is und esi rabl e. T he relationship between temperature a nd dissolved oxygen
levels is s hown in Table C-3 of the appendix.
Temperature also affect s other physical properties of water. The viscosity of
water incre ases with decreasing temperature . The maximum density of water
occ urs at 4°C, and den sity decreases on either side of that temperature, a unique
phenomenon among liquids. Both temperature and density have a subtle effect
on plankt o nic microorg a nisms in natural water systems. The relationship of
temperatur e a nd density to st ratification of impoundment s is discussed in Chap . 3.
Chemical Water-Quality Parameters
Water ha s been ca lled the universal so lvent , and chemical parameters are related
to the so lvent capabilities of water. Total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness,
fluorides , metal s, organics. and nutrients are chemical p a rameters of concern in
water-quality management. The following review of some basic chemistry related
to so lutions s ho uld be helpful in understanding subsequent discussions of chemical
par ameter s.
2-7 CHEMISTRY OF SOLUTIONS
An atom is the sm a llest un it of each of the elements. Atoms are building blocks
from w hich molecules of elements and compounds are constructed. For instance ,
tw o hydr oge n atoms combine to form a molecule of hydrogen gas:
H+ H --> H2
Adding one a tom of oxyge n to the hydro ge n molecule results in one molecule
of the compound wa ter:
1-1 2 + 0 --> H 20
A relative mass ha s been assigned to a single atom of eac h element based on a
mass of 12 for carbo n. The s um o f the atomic m ass of all th e atoms in a molecule
IS the lIlu/cclila/' mass of that m o lec ule . The atomic mass of hydrogen is I arid the
. atomic ma ss of oxyge n is 16. Thus, the molecul a r ma ss o f the hydrogen molecule is
2 a nd the mo lec u lar ma ss o f water is 18. A mole of an e lement or compound is its
molecular mass expressed in common mass units. usually grams. A mole of·
hydrogen is 2 g, while a mole of wa ter is 1g g. One mole o f a substance dissolved
in sufficien t wa ter to m a ke o ne liter of so luti o n is ca lled a one molar so lution .
Bonding of element s int o compounds is so metime s acco mplished by electrical
forces resultin g from tran sferre d electrons. When the se compounds dissociate
 24 WATER
WATE R Q UA LI TY: DEFINIT IONS. CH ARA(" TERI STI CS , A N D PERSPECT I VES 25

In water , th ey prod uce spe cie s with oppos ite c harges. An exa mpl e is so dium Eq ui va lents a re very imp o rt a nt in wa ter c hemi str y. In additi on to being use ful
chloride : in calc ul a tin g c he mica l qu a ntiti es for de s ired reac tio ns in wate r and was tewater
treatment, equ iva lents a lso pr ov ide a means o f expres s ing var iou s co ns titu ents o f
NaCI
di sso lved so lid s in a co mm o n term. An eq ui va lent o f o ne sub stance is c hemi ca ll y
The charged species a re ca lJed ions . Po sitively charged io ns a re ca lled cal ions, equa l to a n equi va lent of a ny o th e r substan ce . Th erefor e, th e co nce ntr a ti o n o f
and negatively charged ions a re ca lled ani ons. The number o f p osi tive charge s sub sta nce A ca n be expressed a s a n equiva lent co nce nt ra ti o n o f s ub str a te B by th e
must equal the number of negative c harges to pre se rv e electrica l neutr a lity in a fo llow ing meth od .
chemica l compound. The number o f charges o n an io n is referred to as the valence
of th a t ion. Thus, the va lence o f sodium (Na +) is 1, w hil e the va lence of calcium (g, L)A
---- - x (g/eq ui v)B = (gj L)A ex pre ssed as B (2-2 )
(Ca 2 +) is 2. So me compounds, ca lled radical s , als o p ossesscha rges. An exa mple o f (gjeq ui v)A
a cationic radica l is a mm o nium (NH 4 +), wh ile carb o na te (CO) 2 -) is a n a nioni c
Hi sto ric a lly, co nstitu e nt s o f d isso l ved so lid s have been repor ted in te rm s o f
radic a l.
equ iva leJll ca lc ium carbo na te co nce ntration s. Th e fo llowi ng exam ple illu strates
Wh en io ns or radic a ls react w ith eac h o th er to fo rm new compo und s, t he
thi s tec hniqu e.
reactions m ay not a lways proceed o n a o ne-t o -one bas is as was th e case fo r so diu m
ch loride . The y do , however, pr ocee d o n a n equi va lence basi s that can be 'related
Exa mpl e 2-3: Determinin g e'luiv a lenl co ncen lr a lions What is the equi va le nl ca lcium
to electroneutrality . Technically , th e equival ence o f an element o r radi ca l is defi ned
car bo nale con ce ntratio n 0 1'( 0) I 17 mg / L o fN aC I a nd (b) 2 x 10 - 3 m o l o fNa CJ ?
as th e number o f h ydrogen atoms th at e lem ent or radic a l ca n hold in comb inati o n
or can replace in a reacti o n. In mo st cases, th e equivalen ce o f a n io n is the sa me as SOLUT ION
the abso lut e va lue o f it s va lence. An eqllivalenl of a n e le ment o r rad ica l is its g ram
(iI) I , One equiva le nt o r ca lCi um ca rbona te is
molecul a r mass di vided by its equiv a lence. A m illi equi valent is th e mo lec ular
mass expressed in m illi grams d ivid ed b y the equ iva le nce a nd is o ften m o re 40 1- 12 + 3( I 0) "
useful in water c hemis tr y beca u se co nce ntr a ti o ns o f di sso lved su bsta nces are mo re -- '---2 -' = 50 g/eq uiv = 50.000 mg/ equl v = 50 mg/ mequlv
o ften in the milligrams per lit er rang e. Co mp o und s are fo rmed by th e co mbin a tion
of e lemen ts o r ra dic a ls o n a o ne-t o-o ne eq ui va lent basis. The ca lcul a tio n o f equi va- 2. On e .equivalen t o f S(l(\ IlIl11 chloride is
lent s is illustrated in Ex a mple 2-2. 23 + 35.5
= 58,5 g/equlv = 5 .5 mg / mequi v
Example 2-2 : Calculating equivalents H ow many grams o f calci um will be required to
. . . . . .... ... c o mbi'lie' w,ih'90'g'of carb<Jriiite'io fo rm'c id c ium' ca rb o na le?
3, By Eq , (2-2)
SOLUTI ON
11 7 mg!L .
l. Ca rb o na te (CO / - ) is a radica l comp ose d o f carbon an d oxygen. In thi s particul a r - _---' -,- x 50 mg / mcqui v = 100 mg / L o f NaCi as.CaCO ,
58,) mg/ mequlv
com bin a lio n. carbon has an a lomic m ass of 12 and a va lence of + 4. wh ile oxyge n ha s
a n atomic m ass of 16 a nd a va lence o f - 2. Theref o re. th e radica l ha s a to tal valen ce of (il) I , One mo le o f a su bsl:ln cc di\ide d by ils ;'a lence is o ne equ ivalent.
- 2 a nd an equival ence o f 2. One eq uiv a len l o f carb o na-Ie is
2 x 10 - .1 mo l/ L
12 + 3( 16) ..____ ..---- = 2 x 10 3 equi v/ L
- - -- = 30 g/ eq ui v I m o l/ equiv
2
2. The calcium Io n ha s an a to mic ma ss of 40 a nd a va lenc e o f + 2 , Ihe refore. o ne equ iva len t 2, Th us , 2 x 10 - .1 equi\ · L x 50.GOO mg iequi v = 100 mg.' L
o f calcium is
40. Man y so lid· su bs ta nces. particular ly th ose with cry sta llin e stru ctu re, io niz e
- = 20 g/ equi v
2 re adi ly in wat er. Wa ter m ayor ma y no t be a chel1)ical reac ta n t in th e pr ocess.
3. The numb er of eq llivalent s o r mu st eq ual th e numb er of eq ui va lent s o f ca rb o n- I n Eq, (2-3), wa ter is a reactant. w hil e in Eq. (2-4) it is not.
ale. th'ercfllre .
Ca O + H20 (2-3)
90 g .
..- ---- - = 3 equ lv or carbo n ate
30 g; equiv NaC I + 11 /') (2- 4)
The rero re. 3 equi v x 20 g/ equiv = 60 g o f calc ium. a nd th a t amoun l w ill be required to
re ac t wio h 90 g o f c'lr nl> na te. Wh en wat er is no t a reac t:lnl. it is c ust0m ar y to o mi t it from th e eq uati o n ,
 WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS , CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 27
26 WATER

If x is the I1ll1nhe r of moles of Mg2 + resulting from the disi;ociation . then OH - is

The double arrows in Eq. (2-4) indicate a reversible conditi o n. That is, the
equal to 2x. Therefore .
so lid form (NaCl) may be diss oc iating into its io nic co mpon ents (dissolution), or
the ionic component s may be recombinin g int o the so lid fo rm (precipitatioll). [X][2XJ2 = 9 x 10- 12
When the solid material is first contacted with water, the net reaction will be toward 4x J = 9 X 10.- 12
the ionic form. If a sufficient ma ss of solid is pre se nt. a condition of dynami c X = 1.3 x 10- 4 Illol / L = Mg
equilibrium will be reached in which the rate of dis so luti o n and the rate of pr e- 2x = 2.6 x 10- · m o ljL = OH
cipitation will be exactly equal. At thi s pOint , the water is saturated with the
1.3 x 10- 4 m o l/ L
dissolved specie s. 3. --- --- - -.- x 50..0.0.0.. mg!equiv = 13.0. mg,'L of Mg as CaCO J
Conditions of equilibrium can be expressed by the /"1I(/SS action equati on. For ' 0..5 mol /equiv
the generalized reacti o n 2.6 x 10 - 4 mol / L
4. - -- - --.- - x 50..0.0.0. mg/ equiv = 13.0. mg /L ofOH as CaC0 3
I mol /equlv '
A,Bv .\:A + vB
So lid compound lonie component s In addition to solid substances, many gases also dissolve in water. Elements
fro m so me of these gases may combine with water or with substances in the water
the mass action equation is to produce compounds or radicals that can be recovered in a solid form, thus
becoming a part of the dissolved-solids load. An example is carbon dioxide .
[AYEB}' (2-5)
- - -- K CO 2 + HzO H ZC0 3 I-J ' + HC0 3 - (2-7)
[AxB\.]
a nd
Tlie brackets around' t he io nic and so lid species ind icate molar co ncentrat ion s. Th e (2-8)
K value is an equilibrium constant for a given substance in pure water at a given
Both the bicarbonate (HC0 3- ) and carbonate (CO/-) are recoverable in solid
temperature.
At equilibrium, the so lid pha se does not change co ncentrati o ns becau se fo rm.
dissolution and precipitation are equal. Thu s
Table 2-3 Solubility products of selected ion pairs
and [AY[B}' = KK , = Ksp (2-6)
K ,p al Significance in
. EqllilibTinm ·equatiun···· . . .. . . .. ... '25 °(" ...... . 'envrronmental errgineering' .... .. . ..... ........ .
The quantity K ,p is known as the solubility product for the io n pair. If th e co ncentra-
tion of either or both o f the ion s is increased, the prod uct o f th e ioni c concentration MgCO , Mg' + + C O,' - 4 x 10 ' , Hardne ss remo va l, sc aling.
will exceed the K sp and pre cipitation will occur to maJJ1tain eq uilibrium co ndition s. MgtOH), Mg " + 20W 9 :x 10 - 12 Hardne ss rem oval. sc aling
Ca" + CO J
.., 5 x 10 - 9 Hardne ss remo va l, scaling
The so lubility products for several substances common to natural water systems CaCO J
Ca" + 20H- 8 x 10 - b Hardness removal
are given in Table 2-3. Use of the so lubilit y pr oduc t to calculate ionic concentra-· C'utO H),
CaSO., Ca" + SO.
,. 2 x 10 - , Flue ga s liesulfurization
tion s is illustrat ed in the following example. Cu(O H), Cu " + 20H 2 x 10 - 19 Heavy me tal removal
Zn(O H ), Zn' " + 2 0H 3 x 10 - 17 Heavy metal removal
Example 2-4: Determining equilibrium concentrations The sol u bili lY prodllct for the NI(OH), Ni ]+ + 20W 2 x 10 - I b H eavy metal removal
dissociation of Mg(OH), is shown in T a b.Ie 2-3 as 9 x I () - 12 De term ine Ih" co ncentra· ("r(O I'/) , ;:"" C'r" I- lO H (, x 10 - 3J H eavy metal removal
AI( OI'l) J AI' . + lO lr I x 10 - 32 Coagulation
t io n o f M g" a nd OH - a t eq uilibrium. ex pressed as milligra:ns pe r liler or (":1('0 3 ,
Fc(O H ), Fe" + ,O W (, x 10 - j(, Coagulation, iron re m ova l. corrosion
Fc(O H) , Fe" + 201-1 5 x 10 - " Coagulation, If all rem()\·;!I, corrosion
SO l. UT IO N 1'v11l(O H ), Mn" + ,OW I x 10 - Jb Mangan ese re mo val
MII(Ol -!) , Mn " + 20W X 10 " 1-> Mangane se removal
I. W rite the equa ti on for the reac ti on ·C :, (PO.) , 3Ca " + 2 P0 4
,- I x 10 " 27 Ph os phalc rem oval
CaHPO. Ca" + HPO / x 10 - 7 Phosphate rem ova l
Mg(OH) , == M g" + l O ll ' C a F , :.= Ca " I- 2 r -
.,. cr
.,x 10 - I I Flu o rid a li o n
'I Ag 3 x 10 - 10 Chloride anal ys is
2, The so lubil ity producl equa t ion become s :.= Bal ' + SO.,' I x 10 - 10 Sulrale analy sis

S o"r,l' : Adarleli from Sawyer and M cCa rt y. [2·12].

28 WATER WATER QUAL rlY : DEFINITIONS. CHARACT ERIST ICS, AND PER SPECT IVES 29

2-8 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
The material remaining in the water after filtration for the suspended- so lid s
considered to be dissolved. This material is left as a solid residue upon
evaporation of the water and constitutes a p a rt of total so lids discussed in Sec .
2-2.
Sources
Dissolved material results from the solvent action of wa ter on so lid s. liquid s, a nd
gases. Like suspended material. dissolved substances ma y be organic or inorganic
in nature. Inorganic substances which may be dissolved in water include minerals,
metals. and gases . Water may come in contact with these substances in the a tmo-
sphere, on surfaces , and within the soil. Materials from the decay product s of
vegetation. from organic chemicals, and from the organic gases are common
organic dissolved constituents of water. The solvent capabi lit y of water makes it
an ideal means by which waste products can be ca rried away from industrial
sites and homes.
specific cOl/dl/cral1ce, is a fun c tio n o f its ionic str ength. Specific conductance is
meas ured by a co nductivit y me ter employing the Wheatstone bridge prjnciple.
Th e stand a rd procedure is to measure the conductivity in a cubic-centimeter
field at 25°C a nd expre ss the res ul ts in milli siemens per meter (mS / m).
U nfort un a tely, specifi c cond uc ta nc e and concentration of TDS are not
re la led o n a o ne-Io -o ne bas is. Only io nized sub stance s con tribute to spec ific
conductance. Organic mo lcc ule s and co mp o unds that di sso lve with o ut ioni z ing
are not measured. Additionally. t he magnitude of the specific conductance is
influenc ed by th e va lence of Ih e ions in so luti on , their mobility, and relative
number s. Th e te mp eratur e a lso has an import a nt effect, with specific conductance
increasi ng as I he water temp era l ur e increases. Conversion of units to milligrams
per liter o r milliequi valent s per lite r mu s t be made by use of an appropriate
cons tant. A multiplier ranging fro m 0.0 55 to 0.09 is used to convert millisiemens
to milligrams per liter. [ 2-1 5J T o use spec ific co nductance as a quantitati ve tes t,
s ufficie nt anal ys is for filte ra ble residue must be run to determine the conver s ion
factor. For thi s rea so n. spec ific co ndu ctan ce is m os t often used in a qualitative
se nse to mo nitor changes in TDS occ urring in natural stre ams or treatment
pr ocesses .

Impacts Use
Beca use no distinct io n amung the co nstituents is made. the TDS parameter is
Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. Di ss olved mineral s, gases.
and organic constituents may produce aesthetically displ eas ing co lor , ta stes. and in c lud ed in the a nal ysis o f wa te r and wastewater only as a gross measurement of
odors. Some chemicals may be toxic. and some of the dissolved organic con- th e disso lved material. Whil e thi s is o ften sufficient fo r was tewater s, it is frequently
stituents have been shown to be carcinogenic. Quite often , two or more dissolved des irabl e to know more about th e co mp os ition of the solids in water that is in-
tended for use in· p otabl e suppli es. agric ultur e. and some industrial proce sses .
substances-especially organic substances and members o f the halogen group -
will combine to form a conlpound whose characteristics a're' mO ore" obje<iioriaofe-.. , .. ' .. ,.. .. -' .. . When th is is·the·case: tests forsev er at 'Oflhc'j'onic CO"m;(rtuents of TDS are made.
than those of either of the original materials.
Not all dissolved substances are unde sirab le in water. For example. esse ntiall y Ion Balance
pure. distilled water has a flat taste. Additionally, water has an equ ilibrium state The ion s us ually acc o unting fo r th e vas t maj o rity of TDS in natural water s arc
wit·h respect to dissolved constituents. An undersaturated water will be" aggres- listed in Tab le 2-4. Those Ii.<;ted uncler maj o r constituents a re often sufficient to
sive" and will 'more readily dissolve materials with which it comes in contact.
Readily dissolvable material is sometimes added to a relativeJy pure water to
Table 2-4 Common ions in natural waters
reduce its tendency to dissolve pipes and plumbing.
Major con stituen ts, Secondary co nstituents.
1.0- 1000 mg! L O.O t· I O.n rng. L '
Measurement
Sodium fron
A direct measurement of total dissolved solid s can be m ade by evaporat ing to
Catcium StrollliUn1
dryness a sample of watet which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids. M agnesium Pota ssiulll
The remaining residue· is weighed and repre sent s th e IOwl dissolved solids (T DS) Bien rbona Ie Ca r bonale
in the \vater. The TDS is expressed as milligrams per liter o n a dry-ma ss basis. Sutfal c Nltrale

The organic and inorga;1ic fractions can be determined by firing the residue at Chloride Flu or1(k
BL)rOn
as discussed in Sec. 2-2.
S, i1 Cl
An approximate analysis for TDSis often made by determining the electrical
conductivity of the water . The ability of a water to conduct electricity. kno\\'n ;I S th e
30 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS , CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 31

charact erize th e dissolved-solids content of wa ter. These are called common ions It is important to arrange the cations and anions in the order shown for convenience
and are often meas ured individually and summ ed on an eq ui va lent basis to in determining types of hardness and the quantities of chemicals needed for
repre se nt the approximate TDS. As a check , th e sum of th e anions should equal so ftenin g, a subject m o re fully devel oped in · a later chapter of this text.
th e sum of the cations beca use electroneutralit y mu st be preserved. A sig nific an t Several o f the constituents of dis solved solids have properties that necessitate
imbal ance suggests that additional cons tituent s are pre se nt o r that a n err o r has spec ia l .attenti on. These constituents include alkalinity, hardness, fluoride, metals ,
been made in th e ana lys is of o ne or more of th e iOIlS. The fo llow in g exam ple orga nics, and nutrients.
illu str a tes the io n balance p roced ure.
Example 2-5: Testing for ion balan ce Tes ts for common ions are run o n a sam ple of
wa ter and th e result s ar e show n be low. ·If a 10 per ce nt e rr or in the bala nce is acce pt ab le, 2-9 ALKALINITY
should the analy sis be co nside red complet e?
Co nstituent s Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize
Ca' > = 55 mg / L HCO , - = 250 mgl L hyd ro gen io ns. Alkalinity is thu s a me asure of the ability of water to neutralize
Mg2+ = 18 mg/ L SO.' - 60 mg/ L aci d s.
Na + = n
mg/ L C I = 89 m gi L

SOLUTtON
Sources
l. Conve rt the co ncen tr a ti o ns of cations a nd anion s fro m milli grams per liter to milli-
equ iva lents per liter and slim them . Cons tituent s of alkalinity in natural water systems include C0 32 -, HC0 3- ,
----.--------- ------_ ._------- ----- OH - , HSi0 3 - , H 2 B0 3 - , HPO/ -, H 2 P0 4 -, HS -, and NH30 [2-3] These
Ca tions Anion s co mpound s result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and
a tm osphere_ Pho sphates may also originate from detergents in wastewater
[on Cone , Equiv , Eq uiv co ne, Ion Cone , E4Uiv, Equiv cone, discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from ag ricultural land. Hydrogen
mg / L mg / mequiv meq / L mg i L sulfide and ammonia m ay be pr od ucts of microbial decomposition of organic
Ca 2 , material.
55 40/ 2 2.75 HCO , - 250 6 1/1 4.10
M g2+ 18 243 / 2 1.48 SO.
2-
60 96/ 2 1.25
By far th e most co mmon constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate (HC0 3 -),
Na+ 98 23/ I 4.26 cr 89 ... 355 / I . . .. . 2.5 1 ca rb onat e (CO/ - ), and hydr ox ide (OH - ). In addition to their mineral origin,
- these su bstance s ca n originate from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere
T o tal io ns 8.49 786
and a product of microbial decomposition of organic material. These reactions
a re as fo llows:
2. Calcu la te per ce nt of er ror.
8.49 - 7.86 CO 2 + H2O H 2 C0 3 * (dissolved CO 2 and
---- 100 = (2-9)
7.86 carbonic acid)

H2C0 3 * H+ + HC0 3- (bicarbonate) (2-10) .

Theref o re, accept ana lysis.

A co mm o n iOIl balance ca n be displayed conve nien tl y in th e form of a bar

HC0 3 -: H+ + C0 3 2 - (carbonate) (2-11 )
diagram. A bar diagram for th e water in Example 2-5 ca n be drawn as shown be low. +
CO/ - + H 2O H C0 3 - OH - (hydroxide) (2-12)

rn c(juiv / L 0 2.75 4 . )':\ The reaction represented by Eq. (2-12) is a weak rea ction chemically. Howev:er ,
ut ilization o f th e bicarbonate ion as a carbon so urc e by algae can drive the reaction
to th e right and resu lt in su bstanti a l accum ulatio n of OH - .. W ater with heavy
a lga l g rowth s often has pH va lues as high as· 9 to 10.
!-leo ) (T Because the reac tions repre se nted by the above equations inv o lve hydrogen or
hyd rox ide ions, the rela ti ve qu a ntitie s of the alkalinity s pecie s are pH dependent.
m e'll/iv , L 0 4.10 5.3:' ! .Xh The se relati o nship s a re show n graphi ca lly in Fig. 2-3.
 32 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPEC TI VES 33

100
r-- 14
90

80
1\\ 12

HC0:i 10
....l 70
eo
E
60 \ / r\ 1:
c.
8
olr +,
L

\
,l-
u
U .50 \ \/ \ 6
I
-------,--------
c'"
,S 40 \ / 'L 4

2
I HCO:; + I
I
-;;;
-'"
:;;:
30 \ / \ / oL----------------------------------------------------
\ C0 3 ! \/ Milliliters of titrant
20 Figure 2-4 Alkalinity titration curye

10 \ "- B 2 C0 3 '
V J\ If acid is added slowly to water and the pH is recorded for each add it ion, a
[7 OW V \
o
V titration curve similar to that shown in Fig, 2-4 is obtained, Of particular significance
are the inflection points in the curve that occur at approximately pH 8,3 and pH 4.S,
6,5 7 7.5 8 8.S 9 9.5 10 10.5 II
The conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate [Eq. is essentially complete
pH
at pH 8.3. However, because bicarbonate is also an alkalinity species, an equal
Figure 2-3 Alkalinityspecies vs. pH. Values are calculated for water at 25°C containing a total alkalinity amount of acid must be added to complete the neutralization. Thus, the
of 100 mg/L as CaC03. (From Sawyer and McCorry [2-12].) tion of carbonate is only complete at pH 8.3. Because the conversion of
hydroxide to water is virtually complete at pH 8.3 (see Fig. ()ft.h.e
and of t.he carbonate have been measured at. pH 8.3. At pH 4.S all of the
Impacts bicarbonate has been converted to carbonic acid [Eq. I S)], including t.he
In large quantit.ies, alkalinity imparls a bitter taste to water. The principal bicarbonat.e resulling from t.he reaction of t.he acid and carbonate [Eq.
jection to alkaline water, however, is the reactions that can occur between alkalinitv Thus, t.he amount of acid required to titrate a sample to pH 4.S is equivalent to the
and certain cations in the water. The resultant precipitate can foul pipes and othe-r total alkalinity of the water. This 'point is i1iustra'ted in t.he following example.
water-systems appurtenances.
Example 2-6: Determining total alk'alinity A sample of water has an initial pH.
of 10. Thirty milliliters of 0,02 N H 2 S0 4 is required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5.
Measurement What is the total alkalinity of Ihe waler in milligrams per liter as CaCO,')

Alkalinity measurements are made by titrating the water with an acid and de- SOI.ti nON
termining the hydr9gen equivalent. Alkalinity is then expressed as milligrams per Because each rnilligr;llll of ().02 ;V H 2 SO'4 will neutralize I Illg of alkalinity. t h ere IS
Ii.ter ofCaCO J . If 0.02 N H 2 S04 used in the titration, then 1 mL of the acid will 30 rng of alkalinity in the 200-nlL sample. Therefore. the concentration of alkalinity
neutralize 1· mg of alkalinity as CaC0 3 . Hydrogen ions from the acid react with expressed as milligrams per lite'r will he
the'alkalinity according to ihe following equations:
30 mg 1000 rn L
H+ + OH- x 150 mg j L
H 20 (2-13) 200 Illl L
C0 3 2 - + H+ HC0 3 - (2-14) If the volume of acid needed to reach the 8,3 endpoint is known. the spe c ies of
HC0 3 - + H+ H1CO, (2-15) alkalinity can also be determined. Because all of the hydroxide and
34 WATER WATER QUALITY: CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 35

of the carbonate have been neutralized at pH 8.3, the acid required to lower the
pH from 8.3 to 4.5 must measure the other one -half of the carbonate , plus all of the
original bicarbonate. If Pis the amount of acid requ ired to reach pH 8.3 and M
is the total qLiantity of acid required to reach 4.5, the following genera lizations
concerning the forms of alkalinity can be made:
if P = i'vI, all alkalinity is OH -
P = M / 2, all alkalinity is CO/-
P = 0 (i.e .. initial pH is below 8.3), all alkalinity is HC0 3 -
P < M ; 2, predominant species are CO/ - and HC0 3 -
P > M / 2, predominant species are OH - and CO/ -
In observing the pH dependency of the species in Fig. 2-3, it is noted that the
quantity of OH - becomes significant at pH less than about 9.0. Without intro-
ducing significant error, it can be assumed that the OH - of samp les with pH
less than 9.0 is insignificant. The CO/- would then be measured by 2P and the
HC0 3 - would be measured by the rema inder (M - 2P) One method of calculat-
ing the quantities of species is illustrated in the following example.
Use
Alkalinity measurements are often included in the analysis of natural waters to
determine their buffering capac ity . It is also used frequent ly as a process control
variahle in walt;r and wastewater treatment. Maximum levels of alkalinity have
not been set by EPA for drinking water or for wastewater discharges.
2-10 HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution.
At supersaturated conditions. the hardness cations will react with anions in the
water to form a so lid prec ipitate. Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness and
l1oncarbonate hardness, depending upon the anion with which it associates. The
hardness that IS equivalent to the alka linity is termed carbonate hardness, with
any rema ining hardness being ca lled noncarbonate hardness.
Carbonate hardness is sens itive to heat and precipitates readiiy at high
temperatures.

Example 2-7: Determining alkalinity species Determine the species , Ihe quantity of Ca(HCOJ)z CaC0 3 + CO 2 + HzO (2-16)
each specie, of alkalinity in Example 2-6 if the 8.3 equivalence point is reached at II mL
of acid.
Mg(HCO J )2 Mg(OH)z + 2CO z (2-17)

SOLUTION Sources
Becallse the initial pH is 10, the initial pOH of the water is4. A Jeterl1linatio ll of the OH . The multivalent metallic ions most abundant in natural waters are calcium and
concentration can be made as follows. magnes ium. O t hers may include iron and manganese in their reduced states
(Fez +, M n 2+), stront ium (Sr2+), and aluminum (AI3+). The latter are usually
10 - 4 mol OH- I equi\ 50,000 mg CaCO, . fo'uiioinriiuch.smaI1er''cjllaiiiiii'es''thaii' cafCiu'iri--ilno--mag'nesiurrCarld'
ro"i--:ilJ ....
[OW] = --'---L -- x ;;;;1OH- X- I cqulv- --
practica l purposes. hardness may be represented by the sum of the calcium and
= 5 mg / L as CaCO,
magnesium 19ns.
2. Five milli!Jters o f acid would be required to measure the OH - in a I-L sample. H o w-
ever. this sample is only 200 mL so the necessary volume of acid is:
Impacts .
200
5 --- = 1.0 mL . Soap consumption by hard waters represents an economic loss to the water usee
1000
Sodium soaps react with multivalent metallic cations to form a precipitate, thereby
3. If I mL of acid measures the OH -. then 10 mL of acill measures one-half of the carboll- losing t heir surfactant propert ies. A typical divalent cation reaction is:
ate and 10 more will be required to measure the remaining one-half of the CO /-,
leaving') mL to measure the HCO) - . (See Fig. 2-4.) Thus. the quantity of each species + cation 2+ ---> cationz+(COzCI,H33)z + 2Na+
is as follows. Soap Precipitate (2-.18)
OH - (calculated from pH) '= 5 mg i L Lathcring does not occur until all of the hardness ioils are at which
20 mg 1000 mL
point the water has been" softened" by the soap. The precipitate formed \;ly
2-
CO , = x 11l(J mg , L ness and soap adheres to surfaces of tubs, sinks, and dishwashers and may stam
. 200-mL L
clothing, dishes, and other items. Residues of the hardness -soap precipitate may
I) mg 1000 IIlL remain in the pores. so that skin may feel rough and uncomfortable. In recent
HCO J - .. _. x ·.15 mg i L
200 mL L years these prob lems have been largely alleviated by the development of soaps
Total albllnity 150 Il1g ' L Glnd detergents that clo not I'cact with hardness.
36 WATER
Boiler sca le, the res ult of the carbonate ha rdne ss precipitate ma y ca use
considerable economic loss throu gh foulin g of water heater s and hot-w a ter pipes.
Cha nge s in pH in the wa ter distributi on system s ma y also result in depo sits of
precipitates. Eicarbonates begin to convert to th e less so lu ble carbonates at pH
val ues above 9.0.
Ma gnesium hardn ess, particularl y assoc ia ted with th e sulfa te ion. has a
laxati ve effect o n per so ns un acc usto med to it. Magne sium co ncentrati ons of less
th an 50 mgj L are desirable in pot a ble wa ters, alth o ugh ma ny pub lic water supplie s
exceed thi s amount. Ca lcium hardne ss p resent s no public health .pr ob lem. In
fac t: ha rd water is appa rentl y beneficial to the human ca rdi ovasc ul ar system. [2-4J
Measurement
H ardn ess ca n be mea sured by using spect rop ho tome tri c techniqu es or chemica l
titration to determine th e quantity of calc ium a nd mag nesium io ns in a given
sa mple . Hard ness ca n be mea su red directl y by titrati o n with eth ylenediam ine
tetr aace t ic acid (EDT A) using eri oc hrome black T (EBT) as a!' ; .. . .. , .. _ LD J
reacts wi th the divalent met a llic cat io ns. forming a comp lex th at is red in co lo r.
Th e EDT A repl aces the EBT in the co mpl ex, and when th e replacem ent is co mpl ete,
th e so luti on chan ges from red to blu e. If O.O J M EDTA is used, 1.0 mL of the
titr a nt mea sures J.O mg of ha rdne ss as CaC0 3 .
Use
Analy sis for hardn ess is co mm o nly made on na tur a l water s and o n wa ters in-
tended fo r potable suppl ies and fo r certain indu stri al uses. Hardness ma y range
.... small amounts.are.co.r.nmon ly.lab eled .t ox ic : o ther meta ls fa ll int o th e no ntox ic
fro m pr actically zero to seve ra-j. hundred ; 'or 'even ' several ' thou sand ; 'IYaYts per '
million . Although accep ta bility levels vary acco rdin g to a co nsumer's acclimat io n
to hardness, a generally accepted classifica tion is as follows:
So I'l . < 50 mgi L as C"CO,
Mod e ral e ly hard . 50-- 150 mg i L as CaCO,
Hard . 150-300 mg/ L a s CaCO,
Very pard > 300 mg; L as CaCO,
The Public Health Ser vice 'standards reco mmend a maximum of 500 mg/ L
of hardnes s in drinking water. [2-18J A ma xi mum limit is not set by the EPA
standa rd s.
2-11 FLUORIDE
Generall y assoc iated in na tur e with a few types of sedim entary or igneou s rocks.
flnor ide is seldom found in appreciable qu a ntitie s in surface waters and a ppear s in
gro undw ate r in on ly a felY geograph ical regio ns. F lu or id e is toxic l\) hum ans and
\VA' I U( QUALITY' J)EFIN ITIONS, C HARACTER ISTICS, AND PERSPECT I VES 37
o ther anima ls in large quantitie s, wh ile small conce ntr a tion s can be beneficial.
Concen tr atio ns of appr ox imat ely 1.0 mg/ L in drinking wa ter help to prev ent
dental cavi t ies in ch ildren. During fo rm ation of permanent teeth , flu o ride co mbin es
chem ica lly with too th e nam el. resulting in ha rder. str o nger teeth that are more
resistant to decay. Flu o rid e is often added to drink ing water suppl ies if sufficient
quan titi es fo r good dental format ion are not natura lly present.
Excessive JJ1takes of flu o rid e ca n result in discolo ra tio n of teeth. Noticeab le
disco lora tio n, ca lled mOl/lillY. is relat ively common when fluoride conce ntration s
in drinking water exceed 2.0 mg/ L but is rar e whe n co ncentrat io ns are less th a n
1.5 mgj L Adult are no t affected by fluoride. a lth ough both th e ben efits and
li ab ilities of fluorid e during too t h-for mati o n years ca rr yove r in to ad ulth ood .
Excess ive do sages of flu o rid e can a lso result in bone flu o ros is and o ther skeleta l
abn o rm a lities. Co ncentration s of less than 5 mgj L in drinkin g wa te r are no t likely
to ca use bon e flu oros is o r related pr o blems, and so me wa ter supplies -a re known
to ha ve so mew hat higher fluori de co ncentrat ions with no disce rni ble pr051em
o ther than severe mottl;n g of lee lh . On the assum pti o n tha t peop le drink mo re
wate r in warmer clima tes, EPA drinkin g-wale l' sta nd a rd s base upp er li mi ts fo r
fl uor id e o n ambi en t temperature s. Th ese standard s a re d iscussed mo re fu lly in
Sec. 2- 18.
2-J2 METALS
All meta ls are so lu ble to some exten t in wa ter. Whil e excessive a m o unt s of a ny
meta l may pre sent hea lth haza rds. o nly th ose metal s tha t a re harmfu l in relati vely
grou p. So urces of meta ls in natura l waters include disso lutio n from na tur al
deposits a nd discharge s of d o mestic. indu stria l. or ag r icultur a l wastewaters.
Meas ur ement of meta ls in wat er is usua lly mad e by atom ic abso rpti o n spectr o-
ph oto metry.
Nontoxic Metal s
In add itio n to the hard ness ions. calc iulll and magn esi um. o th er no ntox ic meta ls
co mm o nly found in wa ter include sodium. iron. manga nese. a luminum, copp er.
and zinc. Sodium. by rar the mos t cOlllmon no nt ox ic Illetal fo und in natural waters,
IS in the ea rth 's crust is highl y reac ti ve wi th o th er element s. Th e
sa lt s o f sodium are very so lub le in water. Excess ive co ncentrat io ns ca use a bi tt er
taste ."l wa ter a nd are" health halard to'cardJ<lc and kidne y pati ent s. Sodium is
also co rr os ive to Illetal surfac es and . III large co ncentrati o ns. is tox ic to p lant s.
Iron ;lJld ma nga nese quit e frequentl y occur toge ther a ne! pre sent no health
a t co ncentratiollS normilily f'nli lld ill natur;l l wa ters. As no ted in Sec. 2-4.
iron an e! man ga nesc in vc ry small quantitie s Illay cau se co lo r pr o blems. Iron
of 0.3 Illg/ L. and ma nganese cnnce ntr atioJls as low as 0.05 mg/ L
 31) WAHR
can ca use co lor problem s. Additionall y, so me bacteria lise iron and man ga nese
co mpounds for a n ener gy sou rce, and the resulting sli me grow th may prod uce
taste a nd odo r problems.
Wh en significa nt quant ities of iron are enco unt ered in natur a l wa ter sys tem s.
it is usuall y assoc ia ted with chloride (FeC I2). bicarbo nate [Fe( HC0 3)2]' o r
s ulfate [Fe(S04)] anions a nd exists In a reduced stat e. In the presence of oxygen,
the ferrous (Fe 2 ') io n is ox idi zed to the ferric (Fe J +) io n a nd forms an insoluble
co mpound wi th hydroxide [ Fe(O Hhl Thu s. significan t quantiti es of iron wi ll
usua lly be found o nl y in sys tems devoid of oxygen such as gro und wa ters or per-
haps the bo tt om layers of str a tified lakes. Simi la rly. mangane se ions (MnH and
Mn..) ' ) associa ted wi th chlo ride, nitr ates . a nd su lfates are so luble, wh ile ox idized
compou nd s (M n J , and M n 5 +) a re virtually insolu ble. It is po ssible. how ever , for
o rganic acids de ri ved from decomposing vege tation to c he lat e iro n and ma nga nese
and prevent their ox idat ion a nd sub seq ueht p rec ipita tion in natu ra l wa ters.
"The other no nt ox ic metal s are generally found in very sm all quantiti es in
natura l wate r sys tem s. and most wou ld ca use ta ste probl ems lo ng befo re toxi c
len.:ls were reached. How eve r. co pper a nd zinc are synergetic and when both a re
present. even in small quant ities. may be tox ic to Illany bio logica l species.
Toxic M etals
As noted earli er. toxic meta ls are harmful to huma ns and other urgan isms in
sm: t11 quant ities. TOX IC meta ls that may be disso lved in wa ter IIlclud e arsenic.
barium. ca dmluill. chr o mium , lead, mercury. and sil ver. C umulativ e toxin s such as
arsenic. cadmluill. lead. a nd merc ur y a re particu la rly hazardous. Th ese metals are
concentrated by the food cha in. ther eby posing th e g rea tes t dan ge l' to orga nisms
. ' ric',ii" t he lOt>' The' th,i j ii .
Fort una tely. toxic meta ls are present in o nly minute quant it ies in most na tural
water sys tems. Alth o ug h· natural sources of all th e tO XIC me ta ls exist, significa nt
c()nu.:nt ration In "ate r can usuall y be traGed to mini ng. industrial. or agricultural
Sllurces.
2-13 ORGANICS
Many organic materia ls are so lu ble in water. Organics in na tur'al water systems
mCl)' come from natural sou rces or ma y resu lt from human activities. Mo st na tur a l
o rganics consis t of th e decay products of or gani c s.olids, wh ile synth etic o rga nics
are usual ly the resu lt of was tewa t.er discharges or agricultura l practi ces Disso lved
o rg,l nics in \vater are usuall y divided int o ·two br oa d categor ies': biodegrada ble
and n()no io(/cg radable {refractory). '
Biodegradable Organic s
HICldegr'adahlc consists of o rganic s t hat call he utilized for food by
llcclirring mlul)( ) rganisms \\'ithin a reasonahle lengrh (If time. In
WA TER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS , CHARM' T ER ISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 39
dissolved form . th ese materials usuall y consist of starche s, fa ts, proteins , alcohols,
acids. a lde hydes. a nd es ters. They may be the end product of the initial microbial
decompo sition of pla nt oranimaHissue , or they ma y result fro m domestic or
indu strial wastewater disc har ges. Although some of these materialS can cause
co lo r, tas te, a nd odor pro blems . the principal problem associated with bio-
degradable orga nics is a secon dar y effect resulting fro m the ac tion of micro-
o rgani sms o n these substance s.
Mi cro bial utili za tion of dissolved organic s can be accompanied by ox'idation
(addition of oxyge n to, or the deletion of hydro gen from, elements of the orga'nic
molecule) or by redu ct ion (addition of hydrogen to, or deletion of oxygen from,
element s of the o rganic molecule). Although it is possible for the two proce sses
to occur simultan eous ly, the ox idation pro cess is by far more efficient and is pre-
dominant when oxygen is available. In aerobic (oxygen-present) environments,
the end products of microbia l deco mpo sitio n of organic s a re stab le and acceptable
co mp ou nds. Ana erobic (oxygen-absent) decomposition result s in unstable and
objecti onab le end products. Should oxygen later become ava ilable, anaer o bic
end product s wi ll be ox idized to aerob ic end products. Th e oxyge n-demanding
natur e of biodegradable orga nics is of utm ost importanc e in na tura l water systems.
Wh en oxygen utili zat io n occurs more rapidly than oxygen can be repleni shed by
transfer from the a tm osp here, anaerobic conditions that severel y affect the ecology
of the system will resull. Thi s situation is co vered in more detail in the next chapter.
The a mo unt of oxyge n co nsum ed during micro bial utili za tion of o rganic s
is ca lled the bioc hemica l oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD is mea sured by de-
terminin g the oxygen co'nsumed from a sample placed in an air-tight container
and kept in a con tr o lled environm ent for a prese lected period of time . In the
sta ndard test: a 300-mL BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated at 20 °C
for 5 days. Light mu st be excluded from the incub a to r to prevent a lga l growth that
may pr od uce oxyge n in .the bo ttle . Because the sa turati on co ncentration for
oxyge n in water at 20°C is appr ox imatel y 9 mg/ L. dilution of the sa mple with BOD -
free, o xygen-sa turated wat er is necessary to mea sure BOD value s greater than just
a few milligrams per .liter. . '.. .
Th e BOD of ad ilut ed sam ple is calculated by
BOD = 001 - DO F (2-19)
P
where 001 a nd DO F are the initial and final disso lved-ox ygen concentrations
(mg/ L) and P is the decimal frac tio n of the sa mple in the 300-mL bottle ..
Ran ges of BOD cove red by various dilution s are shown in Table 2-5. These
val ues ass um e an initial dissolved-oxygen concentration of9 mg/ L in the mixture .
with a minimum of 2 and a max imum of 7 mg/ L of O 2 being cons umed . Calcula-
tio ns of BOD s from thi s testin g pr ocedure a re mu strated in th e follow ing example .
Example 2-8: De terminin g BOD ) The BOD of a wastewater is suspected to range from
50 to 200 mgjL. Three dilutions are prepared to cover thIS range. The procedure is the
same in cach casc. First the sample is placed in the standa rd BOD bottle and is then
 40 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CHARACTER ISTICS , AND PERSPE CTIVES 41

Table 2-5 Ranges of BOD values covered by utilized is pr opo rtional to the amo ttnt available. Mathematically , thi s can be
various dilutions expressed as follows:
"""..
By direct pipetting into elL,
By using percent mixtures 300-mL bottles - kL, (2-20)
r/r
mixture Range of BOD .mL Range of BOD
where L, isthe oxygen equivalent of the organics at time 1, and k is a reaction Con-
0.01 20,000- 70,000 0.02 30,000-105,000 sta nt. The units of L, are milligrams per liter, and the units of k are d- 1.
0.02 10,000- 35,000 0.05 12,000-42,000 Equation can be rear ranged and integrated as follow s:
0.05 4,000 - 14,000 0.10 6.000-21,000
0.1 2,000-7 ,000 0.20 3,0007 10,500 elL,
0.2 1,000-3,500 0.50 1,200-4,2 00 - = - k ell
"' 0.5 400-1 ,400 1.0 600-2,100
L,
1.0 200-700 2.0 lOO-I,050
dL,
f
i.
2.0 100-350 5.0 120- 420
5.0 40- 140 10.0 60- 210 Lo L,
10.0 20-70 20.0 30- 105
20.0 10-35 50.0 12- 42 L,
4- 14 1000 6- 21 In - - = - kl
50.0 Lo
100.0 0--7 300.0 0- 7
L, = L OI.'.- k' (2-21 )
Source: From Sawyer and McCarty, [2-12J
"".
The term Lo in this equation repre se nts the total oxygen equivalenl of the organics
at time 0, while L, represents th e amount remaining at time r, and decay s ex-
diluted to 300 mL with organic-free, oxygen-saturated water. The initial dissolved ponentially with time, as shown in Fie. 2-5.
oxygen is determined and the bottles tightly stoppered and placed in the incubator at The oxygen equivalent remaining is not the parameter of primary importance.
20°C for 5 days, after which the dissolved oxygen is again determined. .
However, the amount of oxygen llsed in the consumption of the organics, the BOD"
can be found from the L, value. If Lo is the oxyge n equivalent of the total mass of
... Wastewater , DOl , DO" O 2 used, BOD ,.
mL mg/ L mg/ L mg!L p mg /L

5 9.2 6.9 2.3 0.0167 138

10 9.1 4.4 4.7 0.033 142
20 8.9 1.5 7.4 0.067 110
=:::.:==-------
If the third value is disregarded (the final DO being less than 2.0 mg / L), th e average
BOD of the wastewater is 140 mg! L.

Most natural water and municipal wastewaters will have a population of

microorganisms that will consume the organics. In sterile waters, microorganisms
must be added qnd the BOD of the material containing the organisms must be
\' determined and subtracted from the total BOD of the mixture, The presence of
toxic materials in the water will invalidate the BOD results.
The BODs only represents the oxygen consumed in 5 day s. The total BOD . .
or BOD for any other time period. can be determined provided additional informa-
Tim e days
tion is known or obtained. The rate at which organics are utilized by micro-
organisms is assumed to be a first-order reaction: that is. the rate at which organics Fi:!lIrr non and oxygcn-t;:qul\a lc!l1
 42 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINIT IO NS , CHARACTERISTICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 43

orga nics. then the difference between th e va lue Lo a nd L, is iht: l)xygen equivalent Table 2-6 Typical values of k and Yu for various
cons um ed. o r th e BOD exe rted . Mathematicall y waters

)" L o - L, k. d - I
Y.,
WJlc r Iype base t' mgL .
h,
)" Lo - L ot'
Tap water <0. 1 0- 1.
.\' , Lo(l - e - kl) (2 -22) Surface wat ers 0. 1- 0.23 1-30
Wea k municipal wastewater 0.35 150
wh ere )" repre sents th e BOD , of the waler . Th e va lue of v, approaches Lo
Strong municipal 0.40 250
asymptotica lly. indica ting that ' the total. or ultim ate, BOD (v..) is eqUid 10 the Tr ea led eflllleni 0. 12..0.23 10-30
initial oxygen equ iva lent o f th e water Lo. Th ese relationships are shown in Fig.
2-5.
Equati o n (2-22) represen ts the BOD exe rted by the carbo n compo nent of The use of Eqs. (2- 22) and (2-23) is illustrated in the follow ing example.
th e o rgani c co mp o unds . Other co mp o nent s of orga n ics, such as nitro gen and sulfu r,
ma y also be ox idized by microorgani sms. resulting in a n oxyge n demand . Equatio ns xamPJe 2-9: BOD conversions The BOD 5 of a wa stewa ter is determined to be J 50 mg / L
sim ilar to Eq. (2-22) ca n be derived for the se reactio ns. at 20°C. The k va lue is k fl o wn tll be 0.23 per da y. What wou ld the BODs be if the test
The va lue of J.:. de termin es th e speed of the BOD reaction wi thout in fluencing were rUIl at I S" C'.'
th e m,lgnitude of the uftim ate BOD . Thi s iss how ll grap hica lly ill Fig. 2-6. Numerica l (
value s J.:. ran ge fro m ab o ut 0.1 to 0.5 d -' 1 depending o n the natur e'o f the orga nic OLl'T ION

mo lec ules. Simpl e compounds such as sugars and starche s are easi ly utilized by the
microorganisms a nd ha ve a high J.:. ra te, while mo lecu le's such as phenol s I. Determine the ultimate BOD .
a re difficult to ass im ila te an d have low k n du es. S(,lme typica l va lues of k are show n r
.5
in Tab le 2-6. •
r =--
I _ e--
U 1a
The \'a lu e of k for any give n o rgani c compound is temp eratur e-depe nd ent.
Beca use micr oo rgani sms a re mo re ac ti ve at highe r temperature s. the va lue of k 150
I__
increases wi th increas ing temperature s. The c han ge in k can he approxima ted by
the \ an't mo del: .. =. 220 .mgj L. .. . ..... ... ....... ........ .

(2-23) 2. Correct the k va lue for 15°C.

i\ va lue of 1.047 for 0 is o ft en a lth o ugh (I is known t'o \'ar: slllllC\\l!at with
te mperatur e ra nges. [2-8J
k " = 0 23( 1.04r 5)
= 0. 18

J. Calcu la te)'8
"
,l ', = .1',.( I _ e- k ')

.1'" = 220 (I _ (' - 0 . 1 8· 8 )

168 mg !L

No nhi odegradabl c Organics

So me organ ic materials are resis tant to bio log ical degradation. Ta nni c and lignic
acid s. ce llulose. and phen ols ar e o ft en fo und in natural wa ter system s. These
co nstituen ts of woo dy plant s biodegrade so slow ly th at the y are usually con-
sidered refractor y. Mo lecules with excep tio nall y stro ng bonds (some of the poly -
J-'i g ll l"(' 2-6 Ij O I) l"\L' / (1\'11 ;1 ') a lunction of reaction \..'11I1S (;\nl /.: sacc harides) and ringed struc tu res (benzene) are essen tia lly non biodegradable .

44 WATER
An example is the d eter gen t compound a lkyl ben ze ne su lfo na te (ABS) w hich ,
with its benzene ring, doe s no t biod eg rade . Being a surfactant, A BS ca uses frothin g
and foaming in wastewater tre a tment pl a nt s and increases turbidit y b y stab iliz ing
colloidal suspensions, Thi s problem was lar gely alleviated when deterg ent manu -
facturers switched to a linear a lk yl sulfonate (LAS) compound, whi ch is bio-
degradable . Many of the organics assoc iated with petr o leum a nd with it s refining
a nd processing also contain ben zene a nd are essentiall y non bi o d eg rada ble .
Some organics are n o nbi odeg rad a ble because they are tox ic to organisms.
These include the organic pesticide s, so me industrial chemicals, and hydrocarbon
co mpounds that have co mbined with chlorine.
Pe sticides , including insecticide s a nd herbicide s, have found wide-spread
use in modern society in both urb a n a nd agricultural se ttin gs. P oo r application
pr ac tice s and subsequent washoff by rainfall and run o ff m ay re sult in co ntamina-
streams. Org a nic insec ticid es are usuall y chlorinated hydr oca rb o ns
(i.e., a ldrin, dieldrin. endrin, a nd lindane), while herbicid es are usua ll y c hl oro -
phenoxys (e.g., 2A-dichloroph enoxyace tic acid and 2.4,5-trichlorophenoxy-
propionic acid). Many of the pe sticide s are cumulative tox in s and cause sev ere
problem s at the higher'end o f th e food c hain . An exampl e is th e nea r-extinction o f
the brown pelican that feed s o n fish and o ther macr oaq uatic spec ies by the in-
sec ti c ide DDT, the 'u se o f which is now banned in th e United States.
Measurement of no nbi odeg rad able orga nic s is usuall y by the chemical oxygen
d emand (COD) test. Non bi o de g rad ab le o rga nic s m ay a lso be estimated fro m a
to ta l organic carb o n (TOC) analy s is. Both COD and TOC meas ur e the bi o-
-. degradable fraction o f the o rga ni cs, so the BOD" mu st be subtracted fro m the
COD or TOC to quantify the non biodegradable o rganic s. Specific o rga ni c com-
po und s can be identifi ed a nd quantifi ed thr o ugh analysis by gas c hr o matog ra ph ...
. .. ... . ... ... . ......... .. .... .... ... .... .... .. ... ,.- . ....................
2-14 NUTRIENTS
. Nutti!!nt s are elem e nt s essential to the growtli aod repr od uction o f plaI}ts and
animals, and aquatic specie s depend o n th e surr o undin g water to provide their
. nutrient s. Although a wide va riet y of minerals and trace e leme nt s can be class ified
as nutrients , tho;e requ ired in abundance by a qu a tic spec ies a re carbon.
nitrogen. and p'hosph o ru s. Carbon is readily available from man y so urces. Carbon
dioxide from the a tmo spher e, a lk a linit y. a nd decay pr o du c ts o f orga nic m a tt er all
suppl y carbon to the aquatic sys tem. In most cases, nitr oge n an d pho sphoru s
are the nutrients that are the limitin g fac to rs in aquatic plant grow th . A discussion
of the consequences o f ove renri c hment with nitrogen a nd phosphorus is pre se nted
in Chapter 3.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N 2 ) is the prim ary co mponent of the ea rth 's a tm osphere and is
extremely stabl e. It wi ll react w ith oxygen under high-energy cond itio ns (elec tri ca l
WATER QUALITY: DEFINI TI ONS. C H ARACTERIST ICS, AND PERSPECTIVES 45
discharges o r tlame inc in era tio n) to fo rm nitrogen ox ide s. A lth o ugh a few bio-
logical spec ies are a ble to ox idiz e nitrogen gas. nitr oge n in th e aql:atic environ-
ment is derived prim a rily from so urces o th er than atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen is a consti tLien t of proteins, ch lorophy ll, and many o th er biologi ca l
co mp o und s. Upon the dea th of plants or anima ls, complex orga nic ma tt er is
broken d ow n to simpl e fo rm s by bacte ria l decomposition. Pr o teins, for ins tan ce,
ar e conver ted to am in o ae ids and further red uced to ammo ni a (NH3)' If oxygen is
pr ese nt, the ammon ia is oxid ized to nitrit e (N0 2 - ) a nd th en to nitrate (N0 3 - ).
Th e llItrate ca n then be reco ns titut ed in to li ving organic matter by photosyntheti c
plants.
Other so urces o f nitrogen in aquatic systems include anima l was tes, che m ical
(part icu lar ly c hemica l fer tili ze rs), and wa stewater discharge s. Nitrogen from
th ese sou rces may be disc ha rged di rect ly into stre a m s or enter waterways
through surface run off o r groundwa ter discharge. · N itrogen com pounds ca n be
oxid ized to nitrat e by so il bac te ri a a nd ma y be carried int o th e gro und wa te r by
perco latlllg wa ter . Once in th e aq ui fe r. nitrat es move free ly with th e g round wate r
Aow. co nt a min at ion by nitro ge n from animal , feed lo ts and sep tic -
tank d rain field s ha s heen recor d ed in numer o us insta nces. [ 2- 10,2- 11, 2- 13J
I n adchtlon to the overennchme nt p roblems a llu ded to ear lier, nitr ogen can
h3ve o the r se riou s conseque nces. Ammon ia is a gas at tempera ture s a nd pressure s
normally found In natural wa ter sys tems. The gas (N H )) exis ts in equilibriulTl
With the aqueous ion ic fo rm called ammo nium (N H .. +).
(2-24 )
The hydroxyl io n co nc entrati o n of the water. and thu s the pH. co ntr o ls th e relati ve
y ..... . .... .... . . .... ab unc.I<l nc.eo f s p ec ies Ox id a tion of N H 3 and N H4 + to nit ra te an d o n to
.
nitrate by aquatic microbe s res ult s in an additiona l bioc he mi ca l oxyge n demand
as discussed in th e pr eceding sec tion.
Nitra te po iso nin g in infant an im a ls, Incluciing humans. can ca use se ri o us
rroblems a lld even de'lth. /\p pal"ciltl y. the lower acidity ill an II1fant's in test ina l
tr3ct permit s growth o f nitrat e- red ucing bacteria th at convert the nitr a te to nitrit e
which is th e n ahsorbed int o the bloodstream. Ni tr ite has a greater affinity fo;'
hell1oglobll1 th a n cioes oxyge n and thu s rep laces oxygen in t he blood comp lex .
The body IS d enied essen tia l oxygen and. in ext reme cases. the vic tim suffocates .
Beca use oxyge n star va tio n results in a blu ish di sco lora ti on of the bodv, nitrat e
poisoning has been referred to as the " blue baby" sy ndrome. a lt houg h the
term is Illel/l cllloq/oiJincl1Iia. Once the Aora of th e intestinnl tract has full v de-
\clopecl. usually th e age of 6 mon th s, nitrat e convers ion to nitrite and's u b-
'seque nt m ethemog lohi nemia 'fro'm drinking water is se ldom a problem. For -
tun :lle ly. the natmal ox idarion of nitrite to nitr a te occ ur s quick ly so th at sign ificant
()llantilies nfnitritcs are no t found in natural \\·atcr.
Te sts for nitr oge n form s in water commonly include ana lys is for ammonia
(11ll"ludlng bo th ammonia and ammonium). nitrnte. and orga nic nitrogen Th e
results u fth e analyses are usua ll y expressecl as milligram s per ,iter of the
s pec lcs as n itrogen. Tests fo r ammonium and nitrogen nre more comll1on
46 WATER
o n was tewa ter and other polluted waters , wh ile the te st fo r nitr:lte is th e most
common o n c lea n-wat er sa mpl es and tre a ted was tewa ter s.
Phosphorus
Ph os ph or us appears exclu s ive ly a s ph os phat e (P0 4 ) - ) in aquatic en vi ro nm ents.
Ther e are seve ral form s of pho sphate , how ever. inc ludin g o rth op hos phate,
conde nsed phosphates (pyro-, meta- , and po ly ph ospha tes). and orga nica ll y bou lld
ph osp hate s. Th ese ma y be in so luble or particulate fo rm or ma y be cons titu ents of
plant or a llJlnal tiss ue. Like nitrogen. ph os phate s pa ss through the cy cle s of
decompo s iti() n and phot osy nthesis.
Ph os phate is a const itu e nt o f soi ls and is used ex tens ive ly in fertili zer to rep lace
and /o r s uppl e ment natu ra l quantitie s o n ag ri c ultural la nd s. Ph ospha te is a lso a
constituent o f anima l was te and may be co me in cor po rated into th e so il in grazing
and feedin g areas. Run o tT from ag ricu ltu ra l areas is a m ajor co ntribut o r to ph os-
phate in s urfa ce water s. The tenden cy for pho sphate to :ld so rb to so il particles
limit s its mO\'eme nt in so il moi s tur e and gro und wa ter, but res ult s ill its tran s po rt
Int o surfa ce wa te rs by ero sion.
Muni cipa l wastewater is ano th er major so urce of pho sphate in s urf ace water.
Conde nsed ph os phat es are used exten s ive ly as builders in detergents , and o rga nic
ph osph at es ar e co ns tituent s o f body was te and foo d res idue. Other so urc es inc lud e
indu st rial wa ste in which ph os phate compounds are used fo r suc h purp oses as
boiler-wZi te r co ndit ioni ng.
While p hos phat es ar e n o t toxi c and do no t re pre se nt a direct hea lth threat
to human o r o ther o rgani sm s, the y d o rep rese nt a se riou s indirect threat to wa ter
qualit y. As no ted earlier. pho s pha te is o ft e n th e limitin g nut rie nt in s urf ace wa ter s.
rapid grow th o f aquatic plant s usually
results. w ith seve re co nsequence s. Ph os phat e can a lso interfer e with wa te r-
t reatl11ent processes. Co ncen tr a tion s as low as 0.2 mg / L interfere with th e c he mical '
coag ulati u n o f turbidit v. [2-20J
Ph os phat es are mea s ur ed co lor im et ri call y. Orth o ph osphates can be mea s ured
dir ect ly. whi le co nd e nse u form s mu st be converted to o rth ophosphate by ac id
h vdl"Ulyza tiun and o rg anic pho sphate s mu st be con verted to orthopho sphate s by
<lcld dig es tio n . Resu lts l)f the analy s is are reported a s milligr:lm s per liter o f phos-
ph a te ;IS pho sphoru s. Car e ful handlin g o f sa mple s pri o r to a nal ys is is c ru c ial. F o r
eX;IIl1pi e. g lass bo ttle s sho ul d be use d for sa mpling, as bottles washed
in pl; us phate d etergen t ma y co ntaminat e sa mp les.
Biological Water-Quality Param eters
Water ilia: ser\ 'e as a m ed ium in \\ hich lit era ll y th ousa nd s o f biological sr ecies
spend pa rt. ir not ;dL ,)1' their lire cvc les. Aquatic organisl11s 1'<1nge in s ize <Ind
C(ll11plcxit:- from th e sma lles t singl e-ce ll microorganisl11 to th e larg es t fis h. All
Il1 cl11hCl"S o r th e cnm l11l1l1ity a rc, to so m c ex te nt. wa te r-qu ;d itv
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, CH ARACTER ISTICS , AND PERSPECTIVES 47
ete rs, because their presence or absence may indicate in general terms the character-
IstiCS of a given body o f water. As an example , the genera l quality of water in a
trout stream would be .ex.pected lo exceed that o f a stream in which the pre-
d o mmant spe cies o f fish IS carp . SlInIi a rl y, abundant algal population s a re associ-
ated With a water ric h in nutrients. '.
Biologist s often use a species-diversity index (re lated to th e number of species
and the relative abundance oforga .nisms in each species) as a qualitative parameter
fo r streams and lake s. A body of water ho stin g lar ge numbers of species with well-
balanced number s of individua ls is considered to be a health y system. Based on
their kn ow n tolerance fo r a given pollutant, certain organisms can be used as
mdl
. ca .torsC of the pre se nce o f pollutants. A more det a iled coverage of this t OplC
. IS
.
give n m hap. 3.
2-]5 PATHOGENS
Fr o m the perspectIve of human use and the most imp or ta nt bio-
logical organi s ms III water are pathogens, those organisms capable of infecting,
or o f transmlttmg dIseases to , humans. These orga ni sms are not na tive to aquatic
sys tems and usually require an anim a l host for growth and reproduction. They can,
however, be tr a nspo rted by natural water systems , thu s becomin g a temporary
me mber of the aqua tIc community. Many specie s of pathogens are ab le to survive
III water and maintain their infectious capabilitie s fo r sign ifican t periods of time,
These. waterb o rne pathogens includ e species o f bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
hetm1l1th s (parasitic worms). The characteristics o f the waterborne
path oge ns are listed in Table 2-7.
Bacteria
Th e word bact eria co me s fro m th e Greek word meaning " rod " or "s taff, " a
s hape characteristic o f mos t bacteria. Bacter"ia a re sin'gle-ceU microorganisms,
usually co lorle ss, and are the lowe s t fo rm of life capab le of synthesizing proto-
pla sm fr o m the surrounding env ironment. In addition io the rod s hape (bacilli)
mentioned above, bacteria may also be sphe rical (cocci) or spiral-shaped (spirilla).
Ga s tr 0 1l1test1l1al disorders a re common symptoms o f most disease s trqnsmitted
by wate rb o rne pat hogenic bacteria.
C holera , the di sease that ravaged Europe during the eighteenth and nine-
tee nth centurie s, is tran smitted by Vibrio comma. Among the most violent of the
waterborne bacteri a l disea ses, chol era causes vomiting and diarrhea that, without
treatme nt. resu lt in dehydration and death. Symptoms of typhoid. a disease
tran smitted by th e wa terbo rne path oge n, Salmoll ella typhos{l, inc lu de gas tro-
IIltestllla l di so rder s, high fever. ulceration o f the inte stines , and possible nerve
damage. Although immuni za tion o f indi vidual s a nd disinfection of water supplie s
ha ve el l mlnated cholera and typhoid in m os t part s o f the world, a re as of deve lop-
Ing cu untrIes where overc rowding and po o r sa nit a ry cond iti on s pr eva il still
 48 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFINlTIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, ANl) PERSPECTIVES 49

Table 2-7 Common waterborne pathogens Immunization of individuals has reduced the incidence of polio to a few
isolated cases each year in developed nations. Outbreaks of hepatitis are more
Organism Disease
common , with around 60,000 cases reported in the United States each year.
Bacteria Most of the hepatitis cases result from persons eating shellfish contaminated by
Francisella lUlarensis, Tularemia (deer fly fever) vir uses from polluted waters, [2-2J although an occasional outbreak will occur at
Leptospirae Leptos piro sis campgrounds or other facilities where crowds gather and where water-supply
(Wei!'s disease, swineherd's disease, protection and sanitary facilities are poor.
hemorrhagic jaundice)
Salmoneila paratyphi (A,R ,C) Para typhoid (enteric fever) Although standard disinfection practices are known to kill viruses, con-
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever, enteric fever firmationof effective viral disinfection is difficult, owing to the small size of the
Shigella (S.jfexneri, S. sonnei, S .. dysenteriae, Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) organism and the lack of quick and conclusive tests for viable virus organisms.
S. boydi!) The uI.1certainty of viral disinfection is a major obstacle to direct recycling of
Vibrio comma cholerae) Cholera (Asiatic, Indian, El Tor)
wastewater and is a cause of concern regarding the increasing practice of land
Viruses application of wastewater.
Enteric cytopathogenic human orphan (ECHO) Aseptic meningitis, epidemic exanthem,
(ECHO) {nfantile diarrhea
Poliomyelitis (3 types) Acute anterior poliomyelitis, infantile Protozoa
paralysis
The lowest form of animal life, protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex
Unknown viruses Infe ctio us hepatitis
in their functional activity than. bacteria or viruses. They are complete, self-contained
Protozoa
organisms that can be free-li ving or parasitic, pathogenic or nonpathogenic,
Entamoeba histolyti ra Amebiasis (amebic dysentery, amebic
enteritis, amebic colitis) micro sco pic or macroscopic . Highly adaptable, protozoa are widely distributed
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (Giardia enteritis, lambliasis) in natural waters, although only a few aquatic protozoa are pathogenic.
Helminths (parasitic worms) Protozoal infections are usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders
Dracunculus medinensis Dracontiasis (dracunculiasis ; dracunculosis, of a milder order than those associated with the bacterial infections discussed
medina; serpent, dragon , or guinea-worm earlier. Protozoal infections can be serious nonetheless, as illustrated by an epi-
. infection) demic in Chicago in 1933 in which over 1400 people were affected and 98 deaths
Echinococcus Echinoco ccos is (hydatidosis; granulosus; dog
resulted when drinking water was contaminated bY ,sewage containing Entamoeba
tapeworm)
Schistosoma (S. mansoni, S.japonicum, Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis or .. Bill Harris " histolytica. [2-14]. Many .cas.es .of .giardiasis,. D[·backpaekers 'disease,' have' 'been .
S. haematobium) or .. blood fluke " disease) reported in recent years among persons that drank untreated water from surface
stream s. This infection is caused by Giardia lamblia , a protozoan that may be
carried by wild animals living in o r near natural water systems.
Under' adverse environmental circumstance , aquatic protozoa form cysts
experience occasional outbreaks of these two diseases . Temporary lapses in good that are difficult to deactivate by disinfection. Usually complete treatment, in-
sanitary practices sometimes result in of gastroenteriti? caused by some cluding filtration , is necessary to remove protozoal cysts. .
of the other bacterial pathogens listed in Table ?-7.
Helminths
Viruses The life cycles of helmil1ths. or para sitic worm s, often involve two or more animal
hosts, one of which can be human , ' and water contamination may result from
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all the genetic human or animal waste that contains helminth s. Contamination may also be via
information necessary for their own reproduction. So small that they can only be aquatic spec ies of other ho sts, such as snails or insects. While aquatic sys tems can
"seen" with the aid of an electron microscope , viruses are obligate parasite s that be the vehicle fo r tran sm ittin g helminthal pathogens , modern water-treatment
require a host in which to live. Symptoms associated with waterborne viral met hod s are very effective in destro ying the se orga nisms. Th 'us, helminths pose
infections usually involve disorders of the nervous system rather than of 'the ha za rds primarily to th ose persons who come into direct con tact with untre ated
gastrointestinal tract. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause polio- water. Sewage plant opera tor s. swimmer s in recreational lake s polluted by sewage
myelitis and infectious hepatitis, and several other viruses are known to be, or o r stormwater runoff from ca ttl e feedlots. a nd farm laborer s employed IJ1 ag n-
suspected of being, waterborne. Cultural irri ga tion operat ions are at particular risk. [2-5J

b. ______________________ ___
 A. Presump tive test
50 WA T ER
r Inoc ula Ie laur yl tryp lose b ro lh ferme nta lion lub es and incubale 24 ± 2 h a l 35 C ± O.SoC

2-1 6 PATHOGEN INDICATO RS i

( I) (2)
Cas p roduced No gas, o r gas pro du c tion doubt ful
Posit ive Incub ale additi ona l 24 h
An a lysis of wa ter fo r a ll the kn ow n pa th oge ns wo uld be a very time-co nsumin g
presumptive ( lo lal 4 8 ± 3 h)
a nd expensive pr o pos itio n. Tests for specific path oge ns a re usua ll y made o nly [esl
whe n ther e is a reaso n to suspect t ha t th ose particula r o rga nisms a re present . (a ) (b)
At oth er times. th e pu rity of water is checked using ind icato r o rganisms . Cas pr o du ced . N o gas produc ed
. Positive Negalive test
An indicato r organ ism is one whose presence p res um es th at co ntami nat ion has tes t Co lifor m group ab sent
occ ur red a nd sugges ts th e natu re and exte nt of t he co ntam ina nt(s). T he idea l
B. Confirme d le st
path ogen indic a to r wo uld ( J) be ap plica ble to a ll types of wa ter. (2) al ways be
pr esent 'w ilen pa t hoge ns ar e pr esent . (3) a lways be a bsent when pa thoge ns a re l Inoculate la ury! tryplose broth fe rme ntation tu bes and incubat e 24 ± 2.h at 35 C ± O.SoC

a bsent. (4) lend itse lf to ro utin e qu a ntit a ti ve testing procedu res wit ho ut in ter-
ference from o r co nfu sio n of results beca use of ex traneo us o rgan isms. a nd (5) for ( I) (2 )
Cas p roduced No gas, Or gas pr od uc tio n doubt fu l
the sa fety of la bora to ry perso nn el. no t be a pa thoge n it self. [2-6J Transfer to In cubat e addi tiona l 24 h'
Most of the wat erb o rn e path oge ns are lilt rod ucecJ t hroug h fecal con tamina tio n confirmatory brilliant ( to tal 4 8 ± 3 h)
green lactose bi le bro th
of wa ter. Thu s. any o rga nism na ti ve to t he in tes tinal tr ac t o f hu malls and meet ing Incub"le 48 ! 3 It al
(a) (b)
the above criteri a wou ld be a good indica tor organi sm. The (lI"gani sms mos t 35 C ! O.SoC
Cas produced No .gas p rod uced
nea rl y mee ting these req ui rements be lo ng to t he fecal co lifor m g l·o up. Composed o r d oub l ful Negative tes t
. of severa l st rain s o f'bac teri a, p ri ncipa l of whic h is Escherichia coli. these orga nisms (a) ( b) Confir m as in B(l) Co lifo rm gro up ab sent
Cas p roduce d No gas produced
are fou nd exc lusive ly in t he int est ina l tract of warm -blooded a nd arc Coliform group Negative lest
exc reted in la rge n umb ers with feces . Feca l co lifo rm o rgan isms arc nonpa t hogenic confirmed Colifo rm group absent
a nd a re believed to have a lo nger surviva l time o utside th e a nim a l body tha n d l) C. Com pie led test
mos t path oge ns. Beca use the d ie-o rT rat e of feca l co liform , is loga rithm iC. the
numb er of sur viving orga nisms may be an ind icat io n of th e time la pse since
l Inoculate la ury l tryplose broth fe rmentation tubes and incubate 24 ± 2 h at 35 C ± O.SoC

conta min a tion . ( I) (2)

Th ere are o th er co liform gro up s which fl o urish o utside the intestina l tract of Gas produced. Transfer [Q confirmatory brillia nt No gas, or gas p ro du c tio n do u btful
green lac tose bile Incubale 48 ± 3 h al In cubal e addit io nal 24 h (I ot al 4 8 ± 3 h)
a nll11 als. Th ese or ga nisms a re nati ve to th e soi l anc! decayi ng vegeta tinn a nd are
.. .... 35.C.±.D.tC .. . .... . . .. .. .. . ... . . .
o ft en fo un d in wa ter tha t was in recerrt' co nt ac t' wi th' th ese· m,lwr"i!d"s".· Bc'c,ilISC'
the life cycles of so me pa th oge ns (pa rti c ular ly helminth s) may inc lu de periods (a) (b) (a) (b)
T
Gas prod uced No gas pro duce d Ga s produ ced o r No gas prod u ced
in the soil, this gro up of co lifo rm o rga ni sms a lso se rves as a n Indica to r of patho-
Transfer 10 End o o r EMB plales Negative test do ub t ful Negative te st
gens. Incub",e 24 ± 2 h at oS C ± D.5° C Co liform gro up absent Conti n ue as in C( I) Coli fo rm group
T
It is the usua l prac tice in.the United Sta tes to use the to ta l co li form gro up (those abse nt
of bot h feca l a nd no nfeca l o rigin) as indi ca tors nf the sa nitar y q ua lity of d rinkin g ( I I) (1.2)
wa ter. whi le the indi ca to r of cho ice for wa stewa ter emucn ts is the feca l co lifo rm Typic al OR alypical coliform coloni es Negative colonies
gro up. Rela ti vely simp le tests have been dev ised to deter mi ne the p resence of Transfer to agar slant and laury l try ptose bro th fermentation tube Colifo rm group
Incubale agar slanl 181024 hand lauryl tryplose brolh abse nl
co lifo rm bac ter ia In wa ter a nd to enumera te the qu a nt ity. T he tes ts 1'01' to ta l 24 ± 2 h 1048 ± 3 h at 35 C ± O.5°C
co liform orga nisms employ slightl y differen t cultu re medi a and lowe r Illcubat ion
temp erat ur es t ha n th ose used to iden tify feca l co li form organism s. ( a) (b 'j
T he membr a ne-fi lter tec hniqu e. a tec hniq ue po pu lar with cnVlrl.lllmenta l Gas produced No gas pro duced
engineers. g ives a dir ec t co un t of co lifo rm bac teria. In this tes t. a por tion of the Gram-stain portion Negative tes t
of ::lgar sian I growth Co lfform group absen l

r
sa mpl e is filtered thro ugh a memb ra ne. the po res of which d o lI ut exceed 0.45 li m .
Bact eria are retame d on the hlter tha t is t hen place d on selecti ve rned ia to pr ul1lute
(II I ) ( 1.1 2)
growth of co ii form bacteria wh ile in h ibiti ng growt h of o th er spec ies. The memb rane

Cram-negative rods present, 11 0 spores present
an d media are incuba ted a t the appro pfl ate tem perat ure' fDr 24 h. a llowing co li - Completed tesl: coliform group presen t
Gram·positive and ·negative rods hoth presen[
fo r m bac teria to grow intn vis ible co lonies th at are t hen cll un ted . The resul ts arc Repeat pro(cdu re beginning at 1.1
r
Spores or gram·pos it ive rods and sp ores pr esen t
Com ple led lest: co lif orm group abse n t

r
re pc)I"ted In n umbe l' o f o rga nisms per 100 m L of wat er
Fig ure 2-7 P roceuure J','r r u nnin g lotal coliform analysis by th e m uli ip le.[ube fe r mentat ion met h od.
(From SlanJaul Melhod s [2.15].)
 52 WATE R W ATER Q UALI T Y : DEFIN IT IONS, C HARAC T ERI ST ICS, AN D PERSPECTI VES S}

An a ltern a ti ve met hod often pref err ed by micr o bi o logists is th e mu lti p le- (M P N) o f co lifo rm ba c te ri a in J 00 m L o f the wa ter sa mp le. Th is me th od is ill us-
tub e ferm ent a ti o n test. Co lifo rm o rgan ism s ar e kno w n to ferm ent lac tos e, w it h tra ted in th e fo llow ing exam pl e.
o n e o f th e end prod u cts bei ng a g as. A brot h conta ining lac tose a nd othe r sub -
sta nces whi c h inhi b it n o nco lifo rm org a n ism s is p laced in a ser ies of test t u bes wh ich
Exam ple 2- 10 : De ter min ing th e mos t probab le nu m ber of co lifo rm s A stand a rd m u ltiple -
a re th en inoc ul a ted wit h a d ecima l fract ion of I mL (100. 10,1.0 , 0. 1. 0.0 1, et c.).
tub e fe rm e nt a tion test .is ru n o n a sa m p le o f wa te r fr o m a sur fa ce str ea m. Th e resu lts of
Th ese tub es are in c u ba ted a t th e appropr ia te tempe ra ture a nd inspec ted for
the an a lysis fo r t he c'o n fi rm ed tes t a re shown be lo w .
of gas. Thi s first stage of the pro ce dur e is ca lled the pres ump t ive l est.
a nd tu bes wi th ga s dev e lopmen t are pr es umed to have co lifo rm s pre sent. A sim ilar
tes t. ca lled th e confirm ed leSI, is t he n set up to c o nfirm the pre se nce o f co lifo rm
Size o f sa m ple. N o. po siJl ve No . nega li ve
o rga n ism s. A sc hema t ic o f"th is pro ce ss is sho wn in Fi g. 2-7. A sta tistica l me thod is mL
used in co nju nc tio n wi th Tab le 2-8 to de termin e th e m os t pr o ba ble n u m ber -----
10 4
I
Tabl e 2-8 MPN ind ex and 95 % confid ence limit s for va rious co mbin a ti ons of
0. 1 .4
positiv e results when five tub es a re used per diluti on (10 mL, 1.0 mL, 0.1 mL ) 0. 01 I 4
95 co nfid e nce 95\ co nfid e nc e O.DOI 0 5
l im its limit s
C ombin a tion MP N index C o mbi n a t io n MP N in dex
o f p osit ives /1 00 mL Low e r U pp e r of . 100 mL Lowe r Upper D ete rm ine th e m os t p rob a ble numb e r o f co lifo rm or ga n ism s.

0-0-0 <0 4-2-0 22 67

S OL UT IO N
. 0-0-1 2 < 0 .5 4 -2- 1 26 9 78
0-1 -0 2 < 0 .5 4 -3-0 27 9 80
4 < 0 .5 II 4 -3- 1 33 II 93 Se lec t a series whe re th ree tub es ea ch have pos iti ve res u lts (no t nec ess ar y, b u t reco m -
0-2-0
4-4-0 34 12 93 me nd ed): use samp le size s 10. I . and O. I
o En te r T ahl e 2-8 w ilh th e number o f pos iti ve tub es Ollt o f fi ve (4. 2, I) : T he cor res pond-
1-0- 0 2 < 0 .5 5-0-0 23 70
31 II 89 ing M P N is 26 wit h ;, ra n ge o f 9- 78 o rgani sm s pe r 100 m L p oss ible a l a 95 pe rce nt
1-0- 1 4 < 0 .5 II 5-0- 1
4 < 0 .5 II 5-0- 2 43 15 110 co nfid e nce level.
1- 1-0
1-1 - 1 6 < 0 .5 15 5- 1-0 .. II .. ...93 . .- .. ... ... ... . .
.. ' " T-2-0· · .. .. .. ..... o·.. . .. . '<'0)" " '1 5 " 5- 1- 1 46 16 120
5- 1· 2 63 21 150 ALTER NA TE S OL UT IO N

2-0 -0 < 0. 5 I, 5-2 -0 49 17 130

70 23 170 I Sele c i samp le sizes 1.0 , O. f , an d U.O f.
2-0- I I 17 5-2-1
2- 1-0 7 17 5-2· 2 94 28 220 2. h o m Ta ble 2-X, Ihe co rre spo ndin g M PN is 9 a nd Ih e 9 5 pe rce nl co nfi d e nce rang e is
2- 1- 1 9 2 21 5-3· 0 79 25 190 2 thr o ugh 2 1.
2-2-0 9 2 21 5-3- I 11 0 31 250 3. Bec <l use Ille se ries 01' sam pl es used is o ne- Ie nlh o f Ihe 10, I, an ci O. I samp le sizes used
2-3-0 12 3 28 5-3 -2 140 37 340 in l hc lab le. muil ipl y Ihe val ues by 10. T he re fo re . Ihe M PN o r l hc sam ple is 90 o rga n-
3-0-0 8 19 5-3 -3 I KO 44 51)0 ism s pe r 100 m L a nd th e 9 5 pe rce nt co nfid e nce ran ge is 20 to 2 10 .
3-0 - I II 25 5·4-0 130 35 300
3-1-0 It 25 5-4- 1 1711 43 49 0
70n Samp lin g lec h n iqu es and s uh se qu ent ha nd li ng o f the sa mpl es a re extrem ely
3- 1- I
3-2-0
3-2-1
14
14
17
4
4 34
34
46
5-4-2
5-4 -3
5-4-4
280
YiO
57
90
120
X"II
I. ()O()·
'I m[1o rt :lIlt beca use sa mp les ca n ea sil y be co nt a min a tecl . D e ta iled p roce dur es fo r
samp li ng. sa'm p'le pr epa rat io n, a nd ste riliza tio n o f labo ra to ry equ ipme nt fo r bo th
oK
--- 4-0-0
4-0 -t
13
17
31
46
5-5-0
5-5 · I
24()
350 12(1 I .OOG
th e me mbr an e filier tec hni q ue a nd t he muli ip le- tu be tec hniqu e are p rese nt ed in
SWI/r!ord At !'1hoi/ .I. [2- 15J
4 - 1-0 17 46 5-5 -2 <;40 180 1.400
It sh uu ld be em[1hasize d aga in th a t pa thoge ns arc no t Id en tified by the co li-
4- 1-1 2I 63 I 5-5-3 no }OO 3.200
') (41) 5,gOO fo rm Th e p resence of co lifo rm or ga nism s in wa te r d oes . ho we ve r. indica te
4- 1-2 26 7K 1.600
2' - ) - ) 2 2,40(1 tha i so m e por ti() n uf th e wa ler ha s recen tl y co n tac ted so il o r d eca ying vegeta ti o n
t) r h:t, hlT ll l ilro lig h the Int es tinal tra c t ora w:lrm -hl oo cl ed an im a l. T he a ss umpt ion
SOl/ r cf: Fr o m Sm ilh . r2· 14] Illlh l tilt'n ht: 11 l: I(k tha t pa th og e ns Illa ), have ac co m pa n ied th e co lifo rm bac teria.

l
5;1 WATER
WATER QUALITY: DEFI NIT IONS, C HARA CTERISTICS, AND P ERSPEC TIVES 55

Water-Quality Requirements 2-18 POTABLE-WATER STANDARDS

W ater-qua lit y requirements va ry acco rding to the pr o posed use o f the water.
Detailed de sc ripti o ns of the qualit y cr iteria for agricultural use, fish and wild life
propagat ion. s pecific indu stri a l a nd recrea ti o nal uses, and powe r ge nera ti o n are
pr ese nt ed elsew her e, [2- 7, 2-6, 2- 17]. and s uch de sc ription s are beyond th e sco pe
o f thi s text. Water unsuitable for o ne use m ay be quite sa tis fac to ry fo r another.
and wa ter may be deemed acceptabl e for a pa rti c ular use if water o f be tt er qu a lity
is no t ava ilabl e. . making drinkin g-wa ter requirements even m o re stringent.
W a ter-q uality req uir e m e nt s s hould no t be co nfu sed w ith wa te r-qualit y
sta nd ard s. Set by the po tenti ,il use r. wa ter-qualit y req uirem ent s re pr esent a known
or ass um ed need and a re base d o n th e pri o r ex peri ence o f the water use r. Waler-
quali l.'r' standard s a re se t b y a gove rnmental agenc y and repre sent a sta tut o ry
req uir e ment. For exa mpl e. a farm e r ma y hlOW fr o m prior ex per ie nce Ihat highly
sa lin e wale r will damage th e crops. bUI th ere a re n o o ffic ial wa ter- qualit y s ta nd ard s
that sa y s uch wa te r ca nn o t be used fo r irri ga ti o n purp oses.
In th e U n ited Sta tes. s tand ar d s have bee n pr o mul ga ted fo r str ea ms a nd lak es.
for public wate r s upplie s. and for was tewa ter dis c harge s: Stand a rd s fOI surface
Sta nd a rd s for drinkin g wa ter have evo lved over the years as knowledge of the nature
and elfec ts o f various contaminant s ha s grown. Current ly, it is considered desirable
tha t dr inkin g wat er be free o f suspended so lid s and turbidity, that it be tasteless
a nd odorless . th a t di sso lved in organ ic so lids be in moderate quantities , and that
o rga nic s. toxic substances, a nd pathogens be absent. As more is learned about the
co nstituent s of water. additional requirement s will probably be added to thi s list.
The World H eal th Organizat io n has establis hed minimum criteria for drinking
wate r th a t a ll na ti o ns a re ur ged to meet. The se standards are listed in T a ble 2-9.
Co untries with m o re advanced technol ogy genera lly have sta nd a rd s that
t his qua lity.
Table 2-9 Drinking-water standards of the World Health Organization
Concentrations in milli g ram s per liter

wa ters. potabl e wa ter. a nd was tewa ters a re di sc ussed in th e fo llowi ng scc ti on: W H O Internali o nal (1958) WHO Eur o pean (1961)

Per mi ssib le Excessive Maximum Reco mmen ded T o le ran ce

Chem ica l constit uen t iimit limit lim it limit limit
2-17 IN-STREAM STANDARDS ,\lI1monia (N H,) 0.5
A r st.:nic 0.2 0.2
Ca clnllulll . .. . . . . . . . . . . 0.05
F o r reaso ns o f aes t he t ics as we ll a s hea lth . it is ge ne rall y co ns ide red de s irable to
Calci um 75 200
water sys te ms at as hig h a quality leve l as po ss ible . /\11 SO o f th e Ch lo ride 350
600
s t:l! es ha ve set minimum qual it y s tand ards for a ll s urfa ce wate rs lVilhin th eir C hr omi um (hexava lent) 0.0 5 0.05
boundar ies. The se standard s o ft e n re Aec t th e be ne fi c ia l use lilad e o f til e str eam. Cn pr cr 1.0 1.5 3. 0'
That is. mo re stringent sta nda rd s are app lied to a str ea m used as a so ur ce o f water Cyanide 0.01 0.0 1
Fluo r id e 1.5
for muni ci pal rurr oses th a n to streams lIsed fo r o th er purp oses.
I ron 0 . .1 1.0 0. 1
Man y fa c to rs affec t stream qualit y. W as tewa ter di scharge s and o th e r human Le a d 0.1 0. 1
ac ti vities o ft e n ha ve s ign ifica nt imp ac t o n in- str eam wa ter qualil Y· Th ese ac ti vitie s Magne si um ·50 150 125t
m ay lend th e mse lves to con tr o l by legis la ti o n and gove rnm en t reg ulati o ns. F o r Magnesium + so d iu m sulfate s 500 1000
examp le. co nsis tent with w ha t it be lieve d to be publi c o rini o n. th e U nit ed State s Mangane se 0. 1 0.5 0. 1
Ni trat e (as NO,) 50
C o ngr ess pa sse d the Water P o lluti o n Co ntr o l Ac t o f 1972 ( Publi c 92-500)
Oxygen. di sso lwd (milllmulll) 5.0
a nd , w ith min o r modi fi ca ti o ns. renewed it in 1977. A sta ted goa l o f thi s legis la tion Ph e nolic c<)mp o und s (a s phen o ls) 0.001 . 0.002 0.001
is that a ll s urface wa ter s in th e United Sta tes be maintained a t " fisha ble , sw im- Se le nium 0.05 0.05
mab le " qualit y. Attaimn en t o f thi s go a l s ho uld re sult in a qualit y s uffic ie nt fo r Sul fat e 200 400 250
m os t wa ter uses and simpl ify tr ea tm ent proce sses for wate rs int end ed fo r po tabl e T ot ,iI so lid s ' SOU 1'00
Zinc 5.U 15 5.0
and indu stria l use.
Whil e leg is lati o n such as Public La w 92-500 ca n con tr o l so me as pects o f wa ter • After 16 h co nta ct \\1 th "ell pipes. hilt "'ato r entering a disl r iblltion sys tem s ho uld have less than
pol iutillil. geo illgy o f a wmershcd. coupled with Ol her natura l ph cno m ena . is D.I)) mg / L o f co pper.
o ft en th e co n trolling factor in wate r CJualit y. Thi s fact mu st be co ns idere d if in- t If there is 250 rn g; L o f sulf:lIc prl·soIH. Illa)!"csillrn sho uld not exceed 30 mg! L.
s tr ea m water- qu al it y s tand a rd s 10 be reali stic. S()/I/'n': Ad"p ted fr o nt Todd . [2 - 17J
56 WATER WATER QUALITY: DEFiNITIONS, CHARACTER ISTICS, AN D PERSPECTIVES 57

The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-523) mandated the U,S,
Environmental Protection Agency to establish drinking-water standards for all
public water systems serving 25 or more people orhavingJ5 or more connections,
Pursuant to this mandate, EPA has established maximum contaminant levels for
drinking water delivered through public water supply distribution systems,
These standards were published in 1975 under Title 40, Subchapter D, Part 141
of the Code of Federal Regulations, [2-19J The maximum contaminant level (MCL)
of inorganics, organic chemicals, turbidity, and microbiological contaminants
are shown in Tables D-l through D-5 of the appendix, EPA has also issued
proposed to serve as guidelines to the states with regard to the 50-
called secondary drinking-water standards, [2-16J These appear in Table D-6
of the appendix,
2-19 WASTEWATER EFFLUENT STANDARDS
The water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-500) mandated the
Environmental Protection Agency to establish standards for · wa stewater dis-
charges. Current standards require that as a minimum all municipal wastewater
be treated to "secondary" standards shown in Table D-7 of the appendix. More
stringent standards may be imposed where necessary , and in some cases less
stringent standards may ' be permitted for small flows. Indu strial di sc hargers are
required to treat their wastewater to the level obtainable by the "best available
technology" for wastewater treatment in that particular type of indu stry. If
industry discharges to a municipal wastewater collection sys tem, the industrial
waste must be pretreated 'so as to be compatible with the untreated municipal
leve ls imposed by the potable-water sta ndard s, Treatment of surface water for
potab le use will a lwa ys bc rcquired, the natur e and leve l of tre atmen t dependll1g
o n the in-st ream qu a lit y o r th e water so urce.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS
2-1 Name the phys ical wat er-qualit y parameters of concern to environmental engineers.
2-2 Discuss the so urces a nd impacts of suspended so lids.
2-3 How are suspended so lids mea surerP
2-4 An analvsi s for suspe nded so lids is run as follow s: ( I) A fibergla ss filter is dried to a
constan t ma; s of 0.137 g; (2) 100 mL o f a sa mple is drawn through the fi lter ; a nd (3) the filter
and residue ar e plac ed. in a dr ying over at 104°C until a co nstant ma ss of 0. 183 g IS reach ed.
Determine the suspended -so lids concen tra tion in milligrams per liter.
2-5 One hundred milliliters of th e frltrate from a suspended-so lids ana lysis is placed in an
evaporation dish whose tar e Illass has been determined to be 327.485 g. The co ntents of th e
dish are evaporated to dryne ss. and th e lotal mass of the dish and so lids is fou nd to he 327.5 17 g
Determine the quantit y of filterable residue (in milligrams per liter).
2-0 Th e cr ucib le. tilter pad . ;lIld so lids of Example 2- J arc rla ced in" muftle furnace at 600"C
for I h. cooling. the mass is delermlned to be 54.367 g. Dete rmin e the coneent ration o f th e
vo latile (orga nic suspend ed so lids)
2-7 The evar oration dis h and resid ue from Prob. 2-5 is placed In a Illuflle furn ace at 600 °C
for I h. Aftercooling.lts ma s, IS found to be 317.498 g. Determ ine the blt era ble vo latile(or ga nlc)
so lids of the sample in milli gra ms per Iiler.
2-S Discuss the so urces and imp ac ts of tastes and odors in \\ ater suppli es.
2-9 Ho\\' arc 1,1stes and odors mea sured 0 ____ ____ __

wastewater. 2-10 \Vil,;t',,'r'e't ,;f' il;'; ,Iter impacts

The EPA regulations define receiving streams as either "effluent-limited" of eleva ted temp eratures')
or "water-quality-limited." An eJjlue';I-limiled stream is a stream whi<;h will 2-11 Namc the chemical parameter s of concc rn 111 water -qu,rlity man;rgcment.
meet its in-stream standards if all discharges to that stream meet the secondary- 2-12 The reaclion of soda ash (Na,CO J) calc ium su lfate in water is represented by the
treatment and best-available-technol ogy s tandards. Municipalitie s a.nd indusrries follolVing chemical stat ement :
discharging to effluent-limited streams are di scha rge permits under the
National Pollution Discharg!,! Elimination System (NPDES) which reflects tlie
secondary-treatment and best-available-technology s ta nd a rds. Assumi ng that this react io n is comp lete and that th ere. is 1:;3 rng,'L nf CaSO" init ial ly
A wacer-qualit),-limiled-s£ream would 11 0 1 its proposed in-stream stand- what is tire mass of soJa ash that mu st be added \!) (II) I L of the lI'ater a nd (b) 10.000 m -
ards even if all discharges met seco ndar y-treatment and best-available-technology ol' the wat er to comp lete the reac tio ns.
criteria. Discharge s to these streams may be required to meet effluent co ndition s 2- n How man y grams of CaO arc reqUired to he t he chemical eq uival ent of 246 g of
more stringent than secondary-treatment and best-av ailable-technol ogy. Thes e Mg( HCO, );)
discharge limits are established on a case-by-case ba sis. . . 2-14 Express Ihe followin g co ncentrations of clements and compounds as milligrams per
Effluent standards . potable-water standards, al)d ill-stream standards are liter ofCaCO,.
obviously interrelated. Enforcement llf eftluent standards. along with the COnlroi
of nonpoint sources of p o llution, s ho uld result in the attainmcnt o r in-stream
standards. The impro vement of in-st ream quality s hould res ult in a better raw
water for potable supplies . However. it is impra ctical to expect surb ce waters. X7 mg. L " 'II" • IX9 mg :L Na HCO ,
even if in-stream standard s are mel. to meet all of the ma ximum contaminant
58 WATER W ATE R QUA LIT Y: DE FI NITI ONS, C H ARAC TERISTI CS, AND P ERSPECTiVES 59

2-15 Express the fo llow ing mo la r co nce ntr a ti o ns o f e lement s a nd co m pou nd s as mi llig rams 2-20 Draw a milli equivalent-per- liter ba r di a gram fo r the wa ter with the foll owing common
pe r liter of ('aCO). ion co ncentr ati o ns.

10 - 2
mol ; L /\1 3 1.8 x 10 - -' mo l ' L CaSO. 70 mg/ L M g2 ' = 28 mg / L N a + = 124 mg/L
I X '

3 165 mg/ L SO /- = 173 mg/ L C I- = 202 mg/ L

J.5x 10 - mol ; L SO/ - 2. 1 x 10 -' moli L Mg(C I) ,

32 x 10 - .I lllol i L cr 3.5 x 10 J mol i L NaO H De termine tlie erro r in th e io n bal a nce.

2-2 1 An an a lysis of wat er fro m a su rface str ea m yields the fo llowing results.
2-16 Determ ine the conce nt ra tio n of the fo ll owing ions in solution at eq u ilibrium witll the
so lid al . Ca 2 + = 60 mg/ L H C O ) - = 11 5 mg/ L

('a(O H ), Mg 2+ 10 SO/ - 96 mg/ I...

MgC0 3 Na + 7 mg/ L NO ) - 10 mg/ L

CaSO. K + = 20 mg/ L CI - II mg/ L

2-17 A was tewater con tai nin g Fe( HCO}h is discharged to a sur face pond. Ass u min): wmplete If an e rr o r o f 10 per ce nt is acc eptable , sho uld the an a lys is be considered co mple te ?
ox id at ion o r t he Fe" to Fe} ' a nd s ufficie n t 0 H for t he fo llowi ng react io n to OCCLI r
2-22 What are the so ur ces and impact s o f di sso lved in water supplies?
2-23 How are di ssolv ed s o lids mea sur ed? Ho w are TDS measurements expres sed?

d eter mine the concentratio n (mg / L as CaC'OJ) of the Fe) ' remain ing dissolved in the pond 2-24 A so lids a nal ys is is to be co ndu cted o n a sample o f wa stewater. Th e procedure is a s
wat er. follows :
2-18 A sa m ple or water from a s urfa ce s t rea m is a nal yzed fo r the co m mo n ions with the I . i\ G oc h crucibl e a nd fi lte r pad are dri ed to a constant mass of 25.439 g.
foll ow ing resu ls 2. Tw o hundred millilit e rs o f a well- sha ken sample of the wastewater is p ass ed through the
filter.
Ca' > 98 mg/ L 3. Th e crucible, filte r. pad . and rem oved so lid s a re dried to a constant mas s o f 25.645 g.
C1 - 89 mg i L 4. O ne hundred millilit ers o f th e filtr a te [ wa ter pa ss ing through the filter in (2) above] is
p lace d in an evap ora t io n dish that had been prew e ighed a t 275.419 g.
I-ICo., - = 317 rug,il .. S"Tlie 'sartip!e'i'Ii'(4) IS' eViip orared to dr yness and the di sh a nd residue are we ighed at 276.227 g.
22 mg/ L 6. Bo th the crucibl e fro m (3) and the eva p o ra tion dish from (5) are placed in a muffle furnace
at 600"C for a n ho ur. After co olin g. the ma ss of the c ru cible is 25.501 g and the mass of the
Na " 7 1 mg ' L d ish is 275.944 g.
S.04' 125 mg: L
De te rmin e th e fo llowi ng:

(a) W hat is the percen t e rro r in th e catio n-a ni on ba lance ') (a) Th e filterab le so lids (mg / L)
(h) Draw a bar diag ram for th e wa te r. '1
(h) The nonfi lterabl e solid s (m g/ L)
2-19 ,.\ of wate r was a na lyzed fo r com m o n io ns with the res ul t show l1 beIcHI·. (e) The to ta l so lids (m g/ L)
(d) Th e o rga nic frac tio n of th e fi lt erab le so lid s ( mg/ L)
I-ICo., · -. 30n mgL (e) Th e o rga nic frac ti o n o f th e no nfilt erab le so lids (m g/ L)
Na ' = liS mgL
2-25 Wh at a re th e mos t co mm o n co nst itu e nt s of a lk a linit y, an d what a re their source s and
SO"
,- -- mg i L imp ac ts')
2-26 H ow is a lka hnit y meas ur ed :)
Mg " = 36.6 mg, L
2-27 De term ine the a lk a linit y o f th e waters desc ri bed in Pr o bs. 2-1 8 to 2-2 1.
CI' = 71.D Ill): L 2-28 A 100- mL sa m p le o f wa ter is ti trated w ith 0.02 N H ,S 04 ' The initi a l p H is 9.5. a nd
Ca ' ' = 100 mg L 6.2 mL o f ac id is req u ired to reac h t he p H 8.3 endp o int. An additional 9.8 mL is requir ed to
reac h th e 4.5 endp o int. De termine t he spec ies o f a lka linit y pre sent and the co nce ntr a tio n of ea ch
Co ns t ruct a bar diagram in Illi ll lcquil a len ts per liter ror this Will er . species.
 60 WATER
WATER QUALITY: DEFINITIONS, C HAR ACT ERI STI CS, AND PERSPECTIVES 61

2-29 A 200-mL sa mple of water with an initi a l pH o f 10.6 is titr a ted with 0.02 N H 2 S0 4 , The 2-44 A BOD ana lysis is begu n o n Monday. Thirty (30) milliliters o f was te with a DO o f ze ro
sample reaches pH 8.3 after an addition o f 8.8 mL of th e acid . and an additional 5.5 mL is is Illlxed with 270 mL of dilution wa ter with a DO o f iO mg/ L. Th e samp le is th en put in th e
required to bring the sample to pH 4.5. Identif y th e spec ies o f a lkalinity present a nd det ermin e incubator. Since t he fifth clay falls on Sa turd ay a nd lab perso nnel do not wo rk o n Saturday,
the concentrations (mg / L) of each. the final DO does no t get measu red until Mo nd ay. th e seve nth day . The fina l DO is me a sure d
at 4.0 mg/ L. However. it is discove red that th e incubator was set at 30°C. Assume a k, of 0.2
2-30 The initial pH of a water sample is 7.5. A 200-m L samp le is titrated wi th 0.0 1 N H 2 S0 4 ,
The pH 4.5 endpoint is reached after the addition of 15 mL of th e acid. Determine the spec ies a t 20°C and kT = k 20 1.05T - 20. Determine th e S-d ay. 20°C BOD o f the sam ple .
..f.·
:. 1
!
of alkalinity pre se nt and the concentration (mg / L) of eac h. 2-45 Define nonbiodegradable orga nics. Give exa mpl es. discuss sources. and assess the impa ct
2-31 'Define "hardness" of water. note the two broad cla ssifica tio ns o f har dn ess. and di scuss of nonbiodegradabJe o rga nics in wa ter.
the sources and impacts of hardness . 2-46 Deline chemica l oxygen de mand (COD) and tota l o rga nic ca rbon (TOC), a nd d iscuss
2-3'2 Would hard water be accept ab le in most drinking -wa ter supplie s? Wh y or why not? how these a nd o ther tests a re used to quantify non biodegradable orga nics in wa ter.
Would ha rd water be an acceptable coolant for an indu strial plant') Wh y o r why not ') 2-47 Name th e nutrient s required in gre at es t abundance by aquati c spec ies.
2-33 How is hardness measured? 2-48 Disc ljsS the so ur ces a nd impac ts of nitro gen and phosphorus in water bodies.
2-34 Determine the carbonate hardne ss. n o ncarb o nate hardne ss. and to tal hardness o f th e 2-49 . Ho w are nitru ge n and ph os ph or us meas ured ')
water described in Probs. 2-19 through 2-21. 2-50 Define methem og lobinemia and discuss ita s a water -rela ted illnes s.
2-35 Discuss the sources and impacts of flu o ride s in drinking-water supplies. 2-51 Path oge ns arc not always bac ter ia. Name tw o pathogenic bacteria . two viruses. a nd o ne
2-36 Name the most common nonto xic meta ls fo und in wa ter supplies. iu entif y their sources. p rotozoa n somet imes found in wa ter s uppli es.
and discuss their impacts. With which wa terb o rn e pat ho ge ns are the fo llowin g di seas es associa ted?
2-37 Name toxic metal s that ma y he dissolved in water. identify th ei r principal so ur ces. a nu (a) Cholera (f) T yph o id fever
discuss their impacts. (n) Sw ine heru's ui scJse (y) Paratyphoid
2-38 Define biodegradable organics. Give exam ples. discuss so ur ces. and assess the imp act of (c) Amebic dysentery (il) Infa ntil e paralysis
biodegradable organics in water. (d) Giardiasis (i) Infectio us hepatitis.
2-39 Define biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and outline the s teps in the standard 5-d ay (1') Bacillary dysentery
BOD test. 2-53 What is an indicator orga ni sm ? Discuss th e charac teri s tics of t he idea l pathogen ind icato r
2-40 The 5-day BOD of a wa stewater is 190 mg/ L. Determine th e ultimate oxygen d erna llu. and ind icate which organisms mos t near ly exhibit th ese characteristics.
Assume k, = 0.25 r '. 2-54 D iscuss t he use o f tota l co liform and fecal co li form tests in th e measurement of pathogens .
2-4] In a BOD determination. 6 mL of wastewater co ntaining no dis so lved oxyg en is mixecl Disc uss the memb ran e· tiller technique and exp lain'h ow tes t results are reported wh en thi s
.. . .. ......... 2.94mL0f cilution water<!€>llt·aining8·. 6'n1&II..; of diss o lved oxy gen : After'a-S--'d<tyin'cubati oll technique is used .
at 20°e. the dis so lved oxygen content of th e mixture is 5.4 mg/ L. C alcul a te the BOD o f the 2-55 Disc uss the multiple-tube fermentation test. What is a pres umpti ve test ') A co nfi r med
wastewater. test ') How are resu lt s expI'essec!?
2-42 The 5-d 20°C BOD ofa wastewater is 2 10 mgi L. What will be the ultimate ROD ') What 2-56 A sample o f wastewater is a na lyzed fo r co li form o rga nisms hy the multiple-tube fer-
will.be the IO-day BOD? Hthe sample had been incubated a t 30 c C what wo uld the 5-day BOD men tati o ll method. Th e results of th e confi rmed test are as fo llows:
have been (k} = 0.23 d - ')?
Number of Number of
2-43 An analysis for BOD s is to be run on a sa mpl e of wastewater. Th e BOD is expect ed to
Sample s ize . POSili\'e results ncgolive resulls
range from 50 to 350. and the diluti ons are prepar ed ac co rdin g ly. In each case. a standard
mL. out of 5 tuhes Oll' of 5 lubes
300-mL BOD bottle is used. The dat a a re reco rdeu below.

Bottle Wastewater ,
DOt o
000 1
no. rnL DO, DO ,
(1.0001
000001
I 20 8.9 1.5
000000 I ()
2 10 9.1 2.5
9.2 5.8
4 9.2 7.5 Determine the most pr oh able number anu range of coliform o rganisms per 100 mL at the 95
percent con fidence leve l.
(a) Determine the BOD s o f th e was te wa ter. 2-57 Disc uss in-stream sta ndards. etn uent standa rds. and potable -wa ter standards. Wh o se ts
(b) If yOU know that the oxygen utili z3 tio n rate is 0.2 1 per day at 20"C, what will be th e these standard s in th e United Sta tes? Elsewhere')
BOD) if the test is run at 30°C? 2-58 What is an eflluent-limitcd stream 'J

\
62 WATER

REFER ENCES CHAPTER

2- 1 A merlean Wat e r W or ks Associa tion: .. Quality Goals ror Publ ic Wat e r -- Statement or Policy."
THREE
JAW' W A. 60 : 13 17 ( 1968)
2-2 Ber g. Gerald: Transmissioll oj Viru ses by llle WOler ROlile. Wil ey . New Yo r k. 1% 5. WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES
2-3 Camp. T. R .: Waler alld lis Impurilie s. R einhold, New Yor k , 1973 .
2-4 Environ m enlol Quality, the Eighth Annual Reporr of Ihe Coullcil of Ellvirollmel/lal QlIalily . u.s. IN NATURAL SYSTEMS
Gov. Pr inting Offic e , Was hing lOn, D.C. , December 1977 ,
2-5 Ge ldr eich. Edwin E.: .. Water Bor ne P athogens," in Ralph Mitchell (c d .), Warer Polllliioll Mi cro-
hiology, Wiley, New York, 1972.
2-6 Hahn . R oy W .. Jr . : F,mdomen{(l/'A>pecls of Waler Qual ilY Malloy eme nr, Te c hnomic , West port.
Conn .. 1972 . .
2-7 M c Kee. J . E .. and H . W . W o lr: WOler QualilY Criteria, publ. no.3-A, S tate Water R esou rc es
Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. , 1971 .
2-8 IV1etcalr & Eddy. Inc . : Wos lewo ler Ellgille<'rinq: Treatmenr, Disposal, Reuse, 2d cd., M cG raw-Hili ,
New Y or k . 1979 .
2-9 M elhods for Chenllcal Analysis of Wale r and Waste, EPA 600 / 4-79-020. U.S. EPA, Cincinnati,
March 1979.
2- 10 Milkr, J. c.: Nilralt COlllaminalioll of lhe iVoler Table Aquifer of Delo "'ar e, Report or In vestiga-
tion s no. 20. Delawa re Geologica l Survey. U ni versity or De laware , 1972. Natural form s o f pollutant s have a lways been pre sent in s urface waters. Lo n g
2-11 --- . P . S·. H ackenberry. and F. A. D e lu cca : Groulldwoler Pollulion Problems in Ihe SOlllh- befo re the 'd awn of civi liza tion , many of the impurities di scusse d in the previ o us
eastern Uniled Slares. E PA 600 {3-77 -012. U.S. E P A, 1977.
chapter we re washed from the ai r, eroded from land surfa ces. o r leac hed from the
2- 12 Sawyer, C. N .. and P . L. M cCarty' Chemi stryfo r EIII'irol/lllelllal Ellgil/eers, 3d ed .. McGraw-HilI.
New Yo rk . 1978 . soi l a nd ultim a tel y fo und th e ir way int o surface water. With few exceptions, natural
2- 13 Schmidt. K . D .. "Nitrate in Gr oundwat er o f the Fresn o-C lovis Me tr o po litan Arca. Califo rnia. " purifi ca tion processes were able to remove o r ot herwi se render these material s
Groundlo'{tier. 10 50 ( 1972). harmles s. In deed, wi thout the se se lf-cleaning processes, the wate r-dependent life
2- 14 Smit h , Alic c' !'v!icrobiology and Palhologr. M osby, St. l Ollis. 1976. o n ea rth cou ld no t ha ve deve loped as it did.
2- 15 Srandard Melhods for Ihe Examin alion 0/ WOler and W aS!elo'{tler, 15th cd ., American Pu b li c As civili za tion evo lved, human ac ti vit y increased the amount a nd changed
Health Association. Wa s hington , D.C., 198 1
the nature of polluiants entering watercourses. As settlements grew into villages ,
2- 16 Steele. E . W . a nd T . J. McGhee : Wal er Suppl y and Se ll'erage, 'St h ed., M cGraw- H ili. New ' Yo rk .
1979 . villages into town s, a nd to wns int o cities. th,e quantity' Qf increased ... _.
2- 17 T od d, D . K . Th e Waler Encyclopedia, Wate r In ro rmati on Cc nt er, POri W as hin g ton. New York . until the self-purificati o n wa ter bodies was exceeded . Smaller
1970 stream s were a ffected firs t. with la rge r s tre a ms and lakes ultim a tely becoming
2- 18 U.S . Departmenl or H calth, Educati on. and Wel rare ' Drinking Waler Srnndards. P HS bulletin po lluted. Only in recent decades have po lluti on contro l pr og ram s been initiated
no. 956, Publi c H ea lth Service. 1962 . .
in a n attempt to reduce th e co nt am inants discharged to the se :-vater bodie s to the
2- 19 U.S. Environmental Pr otec tion I\gency: "Na tio nal Interim Pr imar y Drinking Wat er Regula-
tion s. " Federal Re91.Her , pt. I V. D ecemhcr 24. 1975 . level that th e na tural pur ification pr oces ses can o nce aga in assimi la te them .
2-20 Walk er . R odge r . Waler SlIpply. TreGtmn/l , and Dislri bul ion, Prentice- H all. Englew oOd CliO-s . The self-purificati o n mechani sms of natural water sys te ms include physic a l,
N . J , 1978 . che mical, and' biologica l p rocesses. The speed a nd comp letenes s w ith which the se c
2-2 1 Vesil lnd, P. Ai.lrne Ennronmenta/ Pollution lJnd Control. Ann Arh or Science. AJln Arbor. Mich .. processes occur de pend o n man y variab les that a re sys tem- speci fic. Hydraulic
1975 .
char ac teri stics s uch as vo lu me_ rate , and turbul ence of flow , phy sical character-
istic s of bott om a nd bank ma teria l. va riations in sunlight and temperature, as
we ll as th e chemica l na tur e o f th e natural wa ter, a re a ll sys tem va ri a ble s th a t have
an influen ce'o n the natur a l purification proce sses. In na tur a l waters, the se system
var iab les a re se t by natur e and can se ldom be a ltered .
T he same physica l. c hemica l. and bio log ical processe s that se rve to purify
natura l water a lso work in engineered sys tems . In water- and wastewa ter-
trea tm ent plant s_ the rate a nd ex tent o f th ese pr ocesses a re m an aged by controlling
the sys tem var iables . A th oro ugh kn ow ledge o f the na tur al purifi ca ti o n proce sses
is thus esse ntial to the understanding of both th e ass imilat ive capacity of surface

63

1
64 WATER WATER PURIFI CA TION PROCESSES IN NATU RAL SYSTEMS 6S

waters and the operation of engin eere d sys tem s. The self-purification of natur al Example 3-1: Measuring dilution in stream s A Irea ted wastewate r enters a s tr eam as
water systems is discu ssed in thi s chapter, while wa ter purifi ca tion in engineered show n in th e accom panyi ng figure. The co n ce n tra tion of sod ium in the s tream a t poin t A is
systems is covereciinGhaps , 4 and 5.. 10 mg/ L. and Ihe flow ra te is 20 m 3 /s . Th e concentra ti on of sod ium in Ihe waste st re am is
250 m g/ L, and the flow rate is 1. 5 m) /s. D elermin e the concentralion of sodium at
,-.o inl B <Jss uming Ihal comple te mixin g has occllrred.
Physical Processes
Stream B
The major physical processes inv o lved in self-purific ation of watercourses are
dilution, sedimentation and resu spe nsion, filtration , gas transfer, and heat tran sfer.
These processes are not only imp ortan t in and of theITiselves,.but ani also of signi-
ficance in their relation to certain che mic a l and biochemical self-purificati on
processes. "
d S
()j
1.) $
::; '-..J
3:
3-1 DILUTION

Through the first dec ade s of the present centur y. wastew ater disposa l practi ces
were based on the premise that "the so lution to pollution is diluti on." Dilution
was considered the most economical means of wastewater di sposal and as such
was considered good engineering practice. [3-5, 3-25J Early workers in the field Sm. L'TIO N

devised mixing-zone concepts ba sed on the lateral, vertic a l, and longitudin a l

1. Writ e a mass ba la nce be tween poin ts A and B
dispersion ch a racteri stics of the rece ivi ng wate rs. Formulas predi ct ing spa ce and
time requirements for diluting cert ain pollutant s to preselected concentrations Mass in = Ma ss Ollt
were developed. Highly polluted water in the immediate vicinit y of the dischar ge C"u Q,.n = c,. " Q,.A + CwQw
was tolerated as.inevitable, and little th o ught was given to the low levels of material Sin ce Q,.H is the sum of the other two fl ows
transported downstream .
Although dilution is a powerful adj unct to self-cleaning mech anisms of surface
" , ..0'

waters , its success depends upon discharging relatively small qu an titie s of waste '
into large bodies of water. Growth in population and indu strial activity, with
attendant increases in water dem a nd and wastewater quantitie s, precludes th e
use of many streams for dilution of raw or po o rly' treated wastewaters. In the
United States , legal constraints further limit use of water bodies ' for wastewater
dilutiqn. Urider pre sent regulation s, allowable load s are se t ' indepen-
dently of capacity. Onl y when the standard maximum' load s result in
violation of in-stream water-quality standards is the dilution capacity considered,
and then only to determine the increment of treatment necessary .
The dilution capacity 'of a stream can be ca lculated using the principle s of
mass balance . If the volumetric flow rate a nd the concentration of a give n materi al
are known in both the stream and waste discharge , the concentration after mixin g
can be calculated as follows.
(3-1 )
where C repre se nts the concentration (mass / vol um e) of the selected material, Q is
the volumeric flow rate (volume / tim e). and the sub scri pts s, IV, and m designate
stream, waste, and mixture conditions . T he following example illu str a tes the use
of this formula.
2. In sert nume rica l val ues a nd so lve for C,. /I
10 x 20 + 250 x 1.5
C D = -- - -- --_. _ _ .
,. 20 + L5
C,.u = 26.7 mg/ L
3-2 SEDIMENT AnON AND RESUSPENSION
Sou rces of suspe nded so lids. one of th e mo st co mmon water pollutant s. include
domestic a nd ind ustria l wastewater and runoff from agric ultur a l. urban . or silvi-
cultural activities. As discussed in Sec. 2-2, th ese so lids may be'inorga'llic or organic
materials and/ o r li ve orga nisms. and they may vary in size from la rge organic
prticies to tin y, almo st in visible, co llo ids. In suspen sion, so lids increase turbidi t y
(see Sec. 2-3). a nd th e redu ced ligh t penetrati o n ma y restri ct th e ph otosy nthet ic
activity of plant s, inhib it the vision of aquatic anima ls. interfere with feeding o f
aquatic anima ls that ob ta in food by filtratinn. and be abra sive to respira;o r y
struc tur es sllch as gills of fi sh. [3-27J
 WATER PURIFI CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 67

Sett ling o ut. or sedim en tati o n. is natur e's method of rem ov ing suspended
partic les from a wa tercour se. a nd mos t lar ge so lids will settle o ut rea dil y in qui es-
cent wa ter. P a rti cles in th e co llo id al s ize range sta y in suspen sio n fo r long
peri ods of tim e. thou gh eventua lly mos t of the se wi ll a lso settl e o ut. Gas
Thi s natu ra l sed iment a tion process is not wi th o ut its dra wbacks. Anae robic c
.2 c::
co nditi o ns are likel y to develop in sed iment deposit s. a nd a ny o rga nics trapp ed in 2
th em will dec o mpo se, releasing so luble compo unds into the stream above. Sed i-
0. V 8---
ment deposit s can a lso alt er the str ea mbed by filling up th e pore space and creating .D
-< 0'"
unsuita ble cond itio ns fo r th e rep rodu ctio n of man y aquatic o rga nisms. [ 3- IX]
Th e deve lopment o f bank s clf sil r a nd mud along the bo tt om o r strea ms ca n a lte r
its co urse or haJl1rer nav iga tio n activi ties. Sediment accumu lati o ns red uce reser- Lic;uid
vo ir stora ge capacities and silt in harb ors . a nd increas e flooding du e to channe l
fill-in.
Resuspension of so lids is co rnm an in times or fl oo ding or heavy runorf. In Figur e 3-1 Gas-l iqu id contac t with gas tr ansfer
such cases. increa sed turbul ence may res uspend so lids fo rmerl y deposi ted along between the pha ses.
no rm a ll y quie scen t are;JS of a str ea m and carry them fo r cons iderab le distan ces
dow nstrea m. Eventu a ll y they wi ll agai n settk: o ul. but no t before th eir pr esence
has increased the turbidit y of th e wa ters into wh ich th ey ha ve beeJl intr oduced. equilibrium is reached . At this po int, the number of molecules leavin g the liq uid
is equa l to the number of molecules enterin g it agai n, and the liquid is said to be
sarurated with the gas. Equilibrium in thi s case implies a dynamic steady sta te,
3-3 FILTRA TJO N not a static state in which a ll movement of gas molecules wou ld stop once sa tura-
t io n occ urred.
As la rge bilS of d ebriS alo ng a streamb ed. they uften lodge OJl I·eeds o r sto nes Two characteris tics of th e a bove proce ss th a t are import a nt in water are (J)
where they remain ca ught until high waters wash th cm in to th e main st rcam agai n. solubililY. o r th e extent to which the gas is so lubl e in the water (i.e., th e concentra-
Sma ll bits of o rganic matt er o r Illo rganic cla ys and oth er sediment s may be filtered tio n of gas in th e water at equilibrium) , a nd (2) lransf er rale , or the ra te a t which
o ut by pebb les o r rocks along th e sll'ea mbed. f\ S \\·,lI er perco lates frum the surface disso luti on o r relea se occurs.
downward Into g roundwater aq ui fers. filtrati o n of (J muc h more soph isticated type
. ... . . . . .
"

. ·OCCOl'S: ;:intl.if th e ·soil1:iy e( s· 'are' ckcp .eli 6 i.igh· Ii'd' Tin'e' 'e'liol lgll: ienl o \;ill'of ·slis·_·
pended material is essentiall y co mplete by th e tillle wate r ente rs the aqu ifer. So lubilit y
Man y stream s Interc han ge freely w ith the alluvia l aquifer s und er nea th them . so
th e filtere d wa ter may reent er the str ea m at so me poi nt down stream . The so lubilit y o f a gas in equi librium with a liquid is quantified by Henry's law
and is expres sed ma thematically by

3-4 GAS TRANSFER p

X= - (3-2) .'
H
The transfer of gases into and o ut of wa ter is a n imp o rt a nt part of the natural
purifi ca tion proce ss. The repl enishment of oxygen lost to bacteria l degradati o n
o r o rga nic was te IS Jcco mrli she d by th e tr ans fer of oxyge n from the Into the
in wh ich x is the equilibrium mole fract ion of the dissolved gas at 1 aim or
.--
r
wa ter Converse ly. gases ero l\·ed in the water hy c hemica l and bi ologica l proce sses moles of gas (ng)
X= -_ ·_-
ma y be t ransferred fro m the wa ter t (1 t he a t mos pher e. A k now ledge o r the princi pies. mo les of gas (ng) + mole s of liquid (n l )
of gas transfer is esse ntial to under sta nd ing these natural processes.
Cons ider the simple system s hpw n in Fig . 3- 1 ill whic h it co nta lller of liquid
is sea led wi th a gas a bove it. If the liquid is initiall y pure Wi th n;spect to the gas.
II is tbe ' coefficient of absorpt io n (H enry's coefflciene, which is unique for each
gas-liquid system) , and P is th e pressure of the gas above the liquid. Other factors r
mo lecule s o f gas wi ll migrat e across Ihe gas-liquid inter face an d beco me disso lved
in the liquid . Alth oug h some mo lecu les o f gas will beg in leaving th e liquid <tllli
returnin g to gas th e net rC,lcti ull \Vii i be to\\al 'd the liquid ulltil a stat e of
that affeci x are tempe rat ur e (the so lubility increa ses as temperature decr eases)
and the conce ntr a tion of o th er disso lved gases and so lids (the so lubilit y decreases
as ot her disso lved material in Ihe liquid increases). r
.L
 WATER PUR IFI CAT ION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 69
L .. ; 68 WATER

If the space above the liqu id is occup ied by a mixtur e of gases, each gas wi ll 3. The saturatio n concent ration is
ha ve its own equilibrium mole fracti on. According to Dalt o n's law, each gas in a C, = 1.287 X 10 - 3 g·m o ljl x 28.9 gl g·mol x 10 3 mg/g
mixture exerts a parti al pre ssure In propor ti on to its percentage by volume in :0 37.2 mg/ l
the mixture; that is.
The so lubilit y of a ir can also be found by using its compone nts and Dalton's law. Th e
PV = (PI + P2 + P3 + ... + fln)V or P = LP; compo nents of air by volum e are approxima tely as follows:
Sub stituting into Henry 's law, we see that x for the ith gas in a mixture is
, ii p; N, 79 %
Xi = - (3-3)
, !
H; 0,
in which x;, H;. and p; ar e, respecti vely. th e equilibrium mole fraction; abso rpti o n
coefficient , and partial pressur e of"the ith gas.
4. Th e molecular mass of nitr oge n is 28 g/ mol a nd H from Tab le C-2 in the appendi x is
Absorption coefficients for seve ral gases co mmonl y fou nd in natural waters
5.29 x 10"
are given in T a ble C- 2 of the app endix. The coefficients are seen to vary substan-
tially with temperature. Although the tota l disso lv ed mat er ial a lso affects the so lu- 0.79 _5
bility, the effect is insignificant in the ran ge of dissolved material us ually found in
XN = = 1.49 x 10
, 5.29 X 10'
fresh water. To be precise ly acc urate , the partial pressure of water vapor must
lIN, - 1.49 x 10 - ' nN , = 1.49 x· 10 - 5 x 55.6
be accounted for in Eqs. (3-2) and (3-3). Co nversion of th e eq uilibrium mole
\_- - fraction x to an equilibrium concentration Cs is illustrated in the fo llowi ng ex- = 8.3 x 10 4 mo l/ L
ample . e. = 8.3 x 10 - gnlOl/l x 28 g mol x 10 3 mg/ g
4

= 23.25 mg/ l
Example 3-2: Calculating the solubility of air in water Calc ulat e the so lubilit y of air in
water at O°C a nd I atm pre ssure. Assume o th er d isso lved ma teria l is neg ligi ble. 5. The equi li brium concentration s for 0 , and CO , can be found similarly and are 16.65
and 0.02 mg/ L. respec tively.
SOLUTION

I. From Table C-2 in the appendix. Henry's cons tant for air at O°C is The equ il ibr ium ·concentr atio n of air is
23.25 + 16.65 + 0.02 = 39.92 mg/ l
........ . .. .... .. ' .. ... ....... .. f!. .7.. 'U2. x. 10."..alm/mE>1 fra.:! ion ,L
, Th e discrepancy is acco unted fbr by the rounding off of the percentage of N, . 0, _ and
at I atm pressure . The mo le frac tion o f a ir in wa ter is found by Eq. (3-2).
,.. CO, in air. .

1.0 atm Transfer Rate

= -. - _._--
-132 x Th e rate of gas tr ansfer is an important parameter in aera tion. The rate of tr ans fer
= 2.3 I x 10 " mo l fracti on is gove rned by severa l factors and is mathematically expressed as
2. One liter of water contains dC/dt = (C - C)k"
1000 gi l where dC/dl is the instantaneous.rate of change of the co ncentra tion of gas in t he
--- = '''6 g llhl l. L
18 g/ mol "' - liquid. C and C are the saturati on co ncentr ation and the actu al con centr atio n,
and respectively. and k" is a co nstan t related to given physical co nditi ons. lt should be
noted that desorption of the gas occur s when C is grea ter than C· Th e magnit u de
2.3 1. x fo - .5 = __ .• _ .. of k" is known to depend upon the 'temperature of the system. the interfacial ar ea
11 9 + 55.6
avai lable for gas transfer. and resistance to movement from one ph ase to the othe r.
n. - (2.31 x 10 - ' n.) = 2.31 x to - ' x 55.6 While the effect of temp era tur e ca n be predicted by the van't Hoff-Arrhen i us
II. = 1.287 x 10 - 3 g . Il1ol.' l ru le. the other va riabl es are system-spec ific. Th e interfacia l area a vailab le for gas
t'

..
,L
70 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 7]

transfer is measured by the total contact surface between the gas and liquid.
Larger interfacial a rea per given volume will result in greater opportunity for ga s
transfer.
The resistance to movement between the phases is most often explained by the
two-film theory of mass transfer initially postulated by Lewis and Whitm a n in
1924. According to this theory, the interface is compo sed of two distinct films ,
one on the gas side and one on the liquid side , that serve as a barrier between the
bulk phase s. This system is shown graphically in Fig. 3-2(1. In order for a molecule
of gas so mewhere in the interior of the gas phase to be transferr:ed into the interior
of the liquid phase. it must move through the bulk gas to the interfac e, across
the gas film , across the liquid film, and, finally, away from the interface and into
the bulk liquid. In systems where the liquid is :supersaturated with respec t to the
gas, movement of the gas molecule will be in the rever se direction (Fig. 3-2b).
., Bulk
u
g as
The driving force causing ma ss transfer is the concentration gradient, C s - C.
Resistance to mass transfer must be overcome for the process to occur, and each
one o f the steps lis ted above is likely to exhibit a different level of resistance. The
step which offers the most re sis tance to the movement of gas molecules becomes
the rate- limiting step. In stagnant situations (i.e .. no internal movement of the
bulk phases). movement of gas molecules to and away from the interface depends
to tally upon diffusion , and the process is verysfow. However, if internal movement
of the bulk pha ses occ urs, molecule s of gas are transferred to and away from the
interface by turbulence and eddy diffusion. and the rate of mass transfer is most
likely to be governed by one or both of the films.
In most natural water. sufficient agitation of the bulk phases exists, and the
films become the limiting factor s. In general, gases that are highly soluble in water,
such as ammonia, encounter more resistance in passing through the gas film and
-
the process is sa id to be Conversely, slightly soluble gases
suc h as oxygen and nitrogen encounter more resistance in the liquid film , and the
syste m is liquid-film-controlled with respect to these gases. Gases of intermediate
so lubi lity . such as hydrogen su lfide. encounter approximately equal resistance
through the two 'films and the system is said to be mixed-film-controlled.

E
t I---- _
Gas film
3-5 HEAT TRANSFER
______________

! / Li",," "'m Bodie s of water lose and gain heat much more slowly than do land or air masses,
. and under most c ircumstances. water temperature is fairly constant and changes
Bulk grad ually with the seaso ns. Consequently. aquatic plants and animals have not
liquid
C" >Cr dcveloped s u fllcien t ..ad.apta bi l.ilY 1.0 ..dei\l. aI:>rupI . . in.. .............
a nd only mo st hardy species survive such changes. Thus, heat increases tend
to decrease the number of species of aquatic plants and animals. [3-17J Further-
.Concentration -
(al
more , increases in water temperature affect ionic strength, conductivity. dissocia-
tion constants, so lubility, and corrosion. potential, all factors associated with
. water quality.
Given constant meteorologic conditions. water theoretically requires an in-
v Bulk finite time of exposure to attain equilibrium after a heat load. Furthermore. an "
u
tnfinite surface area would be required to cool warm water introduced into a .
ro t ps
__ _ river or basin to the equilibrium temperature . However. because temperature
"' . Gasfilill decline is nearly loga rithmic , equilibrium can be closely approached within prac-

., !
2 0
Liquid film "'"
tical limitations of tim e and su rface area. Many meteorological variables-plus
o ther factors suc h as channel characteristics (depth, width. surface area), channel
volume, etc. - affect the rate of heat transfer in bodies of water. For streams
Cl
Bulk heated by solar radiation over several miles of ht;at-Ioad area. cooling begins only
liquid in shade d areas or at night and may proceed much more slowly than cooling in
C, <C r
Figure 3-2 Two·film model of th e
streams which receive their heat load in one discharge.
interfa ce between gas and liquid: (Ill In temperate zones . heat tran sfer in reservoir s and lakes where the influence
Concentration - absorption m ode and (h) desorption of turbulence and current is negligible is controlled by a phenomenon known as
(h) mode . {iIennal sWlijic(I{ion. Fresh waters reach their maximum density at 4°C (39°F),
;"

I
i
 WATER PUR IFI CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 73
72 WATER

with density declining as water mov es toward the freezing point or grows warmer. 9°C O°C 4°C
(See Fig. 3-3.) Thus , during warm seaso ns and in impoundment s of suffic ient
depth, water divides into an upper layer of warm , circulating water known as the
epilimnion and a lower layer of cool, relatively undisturbed water known as the
hypolimnion: These two layers are sepa rated by the th ermoclin e, or meralimnion , a
Epilimnion
(h
Vertica l
l ee

(h
Ver ti ca l
region of sharp thermal gradient. This stratification is shown in Fig . 3-4a. circula rion cireu la t ion

Stratification is usually interrupted in autumn (Fig. 3-4b) as surface waters

cool and begin to sink. Wind action can then cause circulation throughout the
entire body of water so that turnov er in the lake 's strata occurs, stratification
DJr k.
sUgnan t ,
cooler Hypolimnion
t! tl
disappears, and the body of water reverts to a uniform temperature throughout its water

depth . In cold regions, surface waters freeze over as winter sets in. Waters at 2 °e
(36°F), being denser than the colder water s above. form a layer a long the bottom , 9°C
a layer in which the aquatic ecosystem survives as long as s ufficient oxygen is a va il- A ugust November January
able, despite the freezing of the lake's surface (see Fig. 3-4c). In spring, the proce ss (0) (b) (el
is reversed as ice melts and turnover occurs (Fig. 3-4d), and summer stratification
Figure 3-4 T emperalure profi les of a deep lake. show ing (a) thermal strat ification, (b) autumnal
begins as surface waters are warmed by increased solar radiation. [ 3-27J circu lalion, (e) winler stagnalio n. and (d) spr in g ove rturn. (Adapted/rom H amme r [3-8].)

Water
1.000 I Water The nature and extent o f stratification varies. depending upon the size, depth,
I
Ice I configuration, and terrain of the body of water. area- vo lume-stage relations,
1.00
orientation of prev ailing wind s, and hydrologic (or induced) inAo w and outAow
characteristics. as well as with seaso nal variations in temperatur e. [3-25J

0.9995

0.95 Chemical Processes

Na tur a l wa terco urses co nt ai n man y di sso lved minerals and gases th a t in teract
i'7 . c hemi ca ll y with o ne another in complex and varied ways. Oxidation-reduction,
0.9990
" dissolution-precipitation. cwe! o th er chemical conversions ma y alternately aid o r
Cl
obs tru ct natural purification proc esses o f natural water sys tems .
0.9 ci L-L..L-L- --'-----'-_
- 10 0 10 20 30
Temperature.oC
(b)
1,--- 0.9985 3-6 CHEMICAL CONVERSIONS
II Strict ly speaki ng. mos t of the oxidat ion-red uction conversions that playa par t in
se lf-pLmtica tioll of Ilat erClllll'SeS are biochemically mediated and w ill th e refore
Ij"
t- be discussed in subsequent sect io ns of this c hap ter Be\<Iuse the so lid s dissolved
III Me esse lltlal to the metabu li c and reproducti, ie activities o f th e m icro-
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 . urga nis ills degrade ane! stabili ze o rganic wastes. man y' of th ose processes a re
Temperature.oC
di rectly o r Indir ec tly Intlu enced by the dlssl,lutio n-pr ec ipit ation convers ions t ha t
(al
OCcur in th e watercollrses. /\s ce rtain min e rals pass Into and o ut u f soilitiun. they
become Illore or less I'eadil y availab le to the m icroo rganisms re ly upon them
Figure 3-3 C hang es in the den si ty of (a) wa ler and (bl ice wilh changes in lemperalur e. (From Warr ell
for the success ful completion of th eir life proces ses.
[3-27].)

,"'-----
L
74 WATER
Nitrogen and phosphorus are usually considered the most essential nutrients
found in watercourses. Other materials me equally important to growth of micro-
organisms and plankton. though they are needed ill lesser amoullts. Iron. mangan-
ese. copper. zinc, molybdenum. and cobalt are micronutrients lIsually present in
water Natural chemical conversions th:11 may take place ill water call change
these materials into a form thai is soluble and therefore usable by various aquatic
organisms,
Chemical conversions that occur in reservoirs and deep 1:lkes play an imponant
role in the accessibility of ph'lsphorus. Phosphorus may enter the body of ,vater
attached to particles and settle to the bottom with these particles. Phosphorus
may also enter the water as soluble orthophosphate and become incorpoTated in
biomass that eventually settles to the bottom. When ferric iron IS also present
the fo1l0wmg reaction occurs.
Fe."" + PO .. " (3-4)
The insoluble ferric phosphate IS precipitated and settles to the bottom. There. in
the relative absence of oxygen. the iron is reduced tpthe ferrous form and the lOllS
go into solution. During spring or fall turnover. the phosphorus IS lllixed through-
out the entire depth of the lake. With some of it being used by plant life and some
of It recombining with ferric Iron and reforming the IIlsoluble ferriC phosphate
compound. with that precipitate again settling to the bott()m to await reduction.
[3-19J
Chemical con\ersions th:lt take place in streams :llld lakes Gin heir tll stabilize
the pH of those bodiesofwater. For example.lilllestune and other furms otcalciulll
carbonate (CaCO}) dissolve readily in water containing CO 2 , [3 -2oJ
1-1 2 C0 3 *
H 2 CO)* == H+ + HCO:;
The hydrogen ions thus formed react with slightly soluble calcium carbonate to
yield highly soluble calcium and more bicarbonate ions.
CaC0 3 + H' == Ca2+ + I-ICO.J
The bicarbonate acts as a bufTer to protect a stream from pH fluctuations that can
be harmful to aquat ic systems.
Biochemical Processes
Many of the 'chemical reactions II1volvecl Il1 the self-purit\catIOIi process must be
biolo-gicallv mediated. These chemical reactions are not spontaneous but reqUIre
an suurce uf energy for initiation. In the case of biodegradable organics
and other nutrients. this activation energy can be supplied by microurganisms
that utilize these materials for f(loci and energy. The sum total of the processes by
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 75
which living organisms assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth, and re-
production is called metabolism. The metabolic processes and the organisms
involved are a vital part of the self-purification process · of.naturalwater systems.
METABOLIC PROCESSES
The biochemical reactions involved in metabolism are extremely complicated
and are not yet completely understood. It is 'known, however, that two types of
processes, each involving many steps, must occur simultaneously. One process,
called catabolism, provides the energy for the synthesis of new cells, as well as for
the maintenance of other cell functions. The other process, called anabolism,
provides the material necessary for cell growth. When an external food source is
interrupted, the organisms will use stored food for maintenance energy in a process
called endogenous catabolism. Each type of microorganism has its own metabolic
pathway, from specific reactants to specific end products. A generalized concept
of metabolic pathways of importance in natural water systems is shown in Fig. 3-5_
Enzymes playa major .role in biochemical reactions. Enzymes may be consid-
ered as organic catalysts that influence reactions without becoming a reattant
themselves. In biochemical processes, enzymes lower the activation energy neces-
sary to initiate reactions. The enzyme th'en reverts to its original form for reuse.
A model of enzyme-substrate (food) reactions is shown in Fig. 3-6. Enzymes are
complex protein compounds and are very specific in terms of the reactions that they
support. A microorganism thus needs specific enzymes for each reaction in its
Organics
+ Endogenous
catabolism
mil'roorganisms
+
Waste Organic
heat residue
Figure 3-5 Generalized metabolic pathway.
 \VATER PUR I FICAT ION PROCESSES I N NATl'RAL SYSTEMS 77
76 WATER

IlIlrogl:110llS
Enzyme +
s,,',,"," / • slill'ur olls --.........
WASTES DECOMPOSITION
f /Sl'''' I tJ ,
Enzyme- pro le lns } LI V I NG \)
f"IS AN I MALS /
I Z
<3 I NITI A L
{T .
s ub s trate
",<-; w cr: PRODU CT S CO 2 --
(o mpkx -
...- C0 2
OI
t
AN IMAL LI FE
<t
I
"'I ClO .
' t
1,12 S

. I I '
protein, } I c {nitrr te s
Enzy me + Prociu ct I"t s LI V ING INTERM ED I A T E . CO __ -

Figure 3-6 Enzyme reacti o n mod e l.

t
carbohyd rat es
...- 0 ,
- C0 2
PLANTS - u PRODUCTS 2

PL AN T LIFE
\ ",t,-alc, NOj
metabolic pathway , The fact that enzymes are not used up in the metabolic pro-
cesses is indeed fortunate, as this frees the microorganism to devote its energies and "'-- CO,
----- stl ll:ll ," SO.; -
resources to the building of new cel1ular material rather ' than to the constant
(a)
rebuilding of em,ymes,
Microorgani s ms are equipped with enzy mes that a re especia l1y wel1 suited '
l"drboIlJ Cl'OLJS
to the use o f parti c ular type s of organic m a tter. When the se e nzymes are a norm a l
part of a particu la r microorganism. th ey are ca lled co ns tiltlti vl:, Ce lls produce -----.......,.
special en zy me s. ca ll ed adoptive enzym es. when they are ex posed to unu suaL even
tox ic. sub stances, This accl imati o n occ ur s natura ll y. th o ugh at a relatively slow \
o rg;Jl1ll' Jell.!::-
rate. In m a ny case s. th e continued presence of a tox ic Sub st:lIlce w il1 lead to th e INI TI.,\L CO ,
PRODU CTS {
gradual development of a specific bacteria capab le of decom p os ing and utili zing H )S
th a t toxic compound, For example. phenol- splittin g bacter ia are ofte n fo und in
"" ' '' ''''s "t"ream'sHi:iCliave' j:eceived 'di sdiiiige s bf phen o lic wa ters, [ 3-1IJ
Energy is tran sferred from th e ca t<lbolic reaction to the anabo lic reaction
t
INTt RMEDI '\TE l' Jillill on;" N H ; ___
thr o ugh high-ener gy phosphate bo nd s, The remo va l o f hyd rogen or the splitting PRODU CTS CO ) - .
of the carbon - carbon bond in the catab o lic pro cess releases e nergy, A sizeable 'i'ulfllk,

frac ti o n o f thi s energy is used to add a ph os ph a te atom to adeno sine diph os phate
(ADP). converting it to adenosine triph os phate (ATP) , The ATP is transferred
to the anabolic reaction where the ex tr a pho sp hate a tom is removed. re leasing
the sto red energy to th e sy nthe sis reactioll, The resu ltin g AD P is then trans ferr ed
back to th e catabolic re ac tio n to be reen erg ized to ;\ TP. a nd th e cycle is repea ted.
Thi s proce ss is s how n g raphical1 y in Fig , 3-7. Thi s de scr ipti o n is overs imp lified.

ATP ( iI)

Figll'" .I-X "ar hnn , " " d su llur c\'cle s (II) aerobic and (h ) ""aerobiC , (Fr o m ,

'- .

ADP + I' Figure 3--7 Energy tran sfe r mod e l.

78 WATER WATER PURifi CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 79

a s ther e are man y s tep s in th e pro cess. eac h be ing m ediated by its own se t of
enzy mes. Th e read e r is referr ed e lse where fo r a mo re co mplete coverage o f the
s ubje c t. [ 3-14. 3-20, 3-7J
Ca tabo lic pr ocesses in vo lve e ith e r the oxidati o n or the redu c tio n of mat e ria l
in th es libst rClle (foo d su pp ly). Iffr ee mo lecula r oxyge n is a va ilable , it will be added
to th e s ub str a te anq t he wa ste pr odu c ts will be ox id ize d co mp o und s. I n the absence
o f free oxyge n. bo u nd oxyge n may be rem oved from oxyg en-b ea rin g com po un d s
a nd hydr oge n added to e lement s o f the substrat e. Th e result is was te produc ts
co mp osed of red uced co mp o und s. Oxida tio n rea c t io ns are m ore efficie nt bec au se
th ey relea se g rea te r a m ou nt s o f energy . Con seq ue ntl y. ae ro bic metabo lis m pre-
do min a tes when oxyge n is ava ila b le. Th is is fo rtunate becau se the ox idi zecl p rod-
uc ts o f ae ro bic pr ocesses are less objec tion a ble in na tur a l water sys tem s than the
redu ced pr odu cts o f ana e ro bic pr ocess es. H owever. anaerobic metab o lism d oes
play a n imp o rtant role in was te as s imilati o n in oxyge n-d epl eted wat ers and sed I-
ment.
Severa l interm ediat e ste ps ma y be in vo lved in th e metab o lis m o f orga ni c
ma ter ia l. Ea c h int e rm edia te step ha s its ow n end pr od ucts , some o f whi c h may
beco me s u bs tr a te in s ub se qu en t reac tio ns. Thi s is illl1strat ed by th e nitr oge n.
ca rb o n. a nd sulfu r cyc les s how n in Fig. 3-8.
Like matter, energy can be neither created nor destroyed. Energy released in
th e catabo lic proces s is transferred to the ce llular material synthesized in the
anabo lic pro cess, s tored in the waste products o f catabolism, o r released as
Ilea t or mec hanical energy. The relative quantities dispersed in the se ways depend
up o n the na ture of the reaction . as depicted in Fig . 3-9. The end products o f aerobic
catabo lism are low-energy , s table compounds , with most of the energy being
sto red in the cellu lar materi a l. By co ntra st. m os t of the energy released in a naerobic
cataboli sm remain s in the waste product s.
3-8 MICROORGANISMS IN NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS
C lass ical no mencl a ture divide s living organisms into two major subdivisions or
kin gdom s, plants and a nimal s. Th e term protista is often used to classify organ-
is ms in which there is no cell speciali za tion ; th a t is, each cell is capable of carrying
o ut a ll of th e functi o ns of that organ ism. Members of the protista group are caUed
protists and may belo ng to either the pl a nt or anima l kingdom under the classical
no mencla tur e. Mo st of th e o rga ni sms of significance in natural purification
pro cesses ·.....: bac teria . a lgae. a nd protozoa - are protists.

B1 0lllJ SS
Bacteria

Bacteria are the primary decomposers of orga nic material. Bacteri a are single -
ce ll protists th a t utili ze solub le food. Although bacteria may link together into
Aerobic Availabl e chai ns or clusters, each cell is an independent .. .capab le.of ca.Hying · out· ... .. .... .. .
p rocesses ellt..'rgy
W aSlc' hC'al
all · t he 'necess a ry 1ifHlt"rii::ti6 iiS.T3-·(4J· 'the' structures of bacterial cells typical of
na tural wa ter syste ms are illu str ated in Fig. 3-IOa. A listing of the relative abund-
a llce o f the element s compris i.n g the ce ll is pre se nted in Table 3-1. The che mical
formula fo r bacterial cell s is assumed to be C 5 H 7 O 2 N. [3-1 SJ
Ener gy fo r bac teri a l grow th and reproduction may be derived from the
Wa s.!e
pr od uc t s
bioche mical ox idation of inorganic or organ ic co mpound s. or from the reduction
o f the se co mp o unds . A few bacteria are a ble to utilize ultraviolet energy from sun-
Biomass li ght. M a terial so urces can be derived from either organic or inorganic compounds.
Bac teria are often classified accordi ng to the energy and material sources that
they require. Organisms that derive both energy and material from inorganic
so ur ces are called al.ltotrophs. while bacteria th at obtain both energy and material
from o rg a nic co mp ou nd s are called lieterotrophs. Pliotorrophs. bacteria wh ich
Available
utili ze sunlight fo r an energy so urce and in o rganic substance s for a material
pro cesses ene rgy
so ur ce . pla y an ins ignificant role in the natural water purification proce sses .
He ter o tr o phic bacteria are 'the mos t important species in th e degr adation of
o rgan ic material. Aerobic helerotroplis require oxygen in their met a bolic proces ses
while eIl/uerobic lietemtropli s utili ze o rgan ics in the absence of oxyge n . A third
Vv:ISlc pr o c!u ..... l\ g ro up . ca lledjacu/tative heterotroplis. functi o n as aerobes when oxygen is present
Fi gur e 3-9 Energy balance III U/ler Slrele (lnd ,1/ ciiiJel' [3·221 ) but sw itc h to a na er o hic pr ocesses when oxyge n becomes unavailable . A maj o r

i'

.l
 80 WATER WATER PURIF ICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 81

Cytoplasmic membrane Cy toplas m , con taining Table 3-1 Bacterial cell compo-
regu la te s transport of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ). sition
Ce ll wa ll food int o and was te produ cts contro ls anabo lism, manufa c tures
gives shape to out of ce ll. and recycles enzymes, Elemenl Dry weig ht .
ce ll and prev en ts
store s food.
destruction by
. shear forces: may Carbon SO
be 10-50 % o f Oxygen 20
ce ll weight. Nitrogen 14
H ydrogen 8
o . '.0
Ph osp horu s 3
0 '" .'0 '0.' 0' ..0' '.'0
: '.
Sulfur
-'0· .
00' . 0 0 ., o· Pota ssi um
, 0 ,.".0 0 ",
Sodium 1
Calcium OS
Ma gnesi um 0.5
Nucleus, a
Chlorine 0.5
S lim e layer of si ngle str a nd of
o rgan ic pol y m e rs deoxyribonucleic acid I ron 0.2
va ri es in thi ck ness (DNA), co nt ains ge n e ti c Allolhers 0.1
with "age" of t he ce ll code: w ith RNA regulates
and o th er env ironm e nt a l metabo lism . ,<Jour('(': r-rom Gaudyanu Gaudy
co nditi o n s: sto res food [ 1·71
aQd bi nd s food and o ther
bac te ri a int o floes.
funct ion of auto t rophic bacter ia is t he oxida tion of nitrogen and sulfur compou nd s
(a)
to stab le end prod ucts.

Protozoa
Like bacteria, protozoa are Single-ce il orga nisms that rep rod uce by binary fission.
Unlike bacteria, protozoa ingest sol id orga nics for food. Si nce protozoa are one
; to two orders of rTla!;llitLI CIc: .largertI1Cll1.pac;te.ria..lhe prot ozoa d iet often includes
..
,is well as co llo idal organics. There are many aquat ic species of
protozoa. most of which are strict aerobes. Lik e heterot rophi c bacteria , they obta in
,I.
f both energy a nd material for growth and reproduction from th e same orga nic
food so ur ce.
The mo st Important pro tozoa l gro up in natural wate r systems is th e ciliata.
Th ese orga nisms are charact erized by hairlike appendages called ,ilia and may
be eithe r free-sw imming or stalked (attached to a so lid particle). as illustrated in
r Fig :\-1 1. The free-swimming protozoa use <l rapid movement o f their ci lia to
prope l themselw s through the water in sea rch of food. The stalked pr o tozoa use
f. their cilia tll bring food in frnlll the surro undin g water. Prot ozoa are vOf<lcious
•
i" Consumer s of organic material and are impor tan t memb ers of the aquatic com-
I
munity.

Algae

(b)
Figure 3- 10 (a) Generalized struclure of a bacterial cell; (h) photomicrograph of fre,hwatn bacteria
attached 10 a su rface. Threadlike materials a re ex tr acellu lar polymers that hind Ihe organisms togelher
;\Ild 10 the surfa ce (photo courlesy"j W . C . Chararklis) .
Algae arc auto tro ph ic. photo sy nth etic organ isms anu . eve n th o ug h they uo not
utili7e orga nic compounus dire ctly. playa significant role in th e natllral purification
prc>cess. In the presence of sunlight. :J!gae metabo lize the waste pruduct s of hetero-
trorhll' hacteri:1 (C0 2 , 0 , . PO .,-'- . etc .) wh ile obt:lining energy from sunl ight.
 82 WATER
Figure 3-11 Ph otomicrograph of a stalked protozoan: n o te haIrlike cli la used in the food-gathering
proces s.
. " . . . .. . . On.e 9U.be.w'Is\e.PJ(xlnctsoflhis.reaclionisox.ygen.When s unligh t is no t a va ilable.
the algae cataboli ze stored food for energy a nd use oxy gen tn the pr ocess. Thi s
diurnal nature o f alg a l ca tab o lism is an imp ortant factor in the oxygen balance o f
natural waters that a re nutrient-rich .
Th ere ar e lite ra lly thousands of species o f algae of va ri o us sizes. s hape s, and
co lors. Algal ce lls ma y be fo und in clust ers. in lo ng filaments a ttach ed to ba nk s or
bottom materi::li. or may rem a in as single ce lls suspended in wa ter. So me spec ies
of algae ca n ha ve negati ve effect s on water qua lit y becau se th ey produce o il y
s ub st ances th a t cause t::tste anet Ddor pr o blem s.
Other Organisms
Other microorgani s ms may a lso play important ro les in the natural. pur ification
pr ocess. R o {ij l'l"S anet uu.\"(uc·ca are 'Iower -o reier a nim a ls th a t. pr ey o n bacter ia.
prot oz ()i!. Li nd al gJe. The\' flelp to maintain a baLtnce In th e p(ipulations ofprlln;t ry
produc ers ;lI1d sc n e as an imp o rt ant link in th e chai n by which o rgani c m ate rial s
a re pa ssed o n to hi g her-o rd e r animals. SI1I£lCj(' worm s s uc h as tublf ex a ncl bl ood-
worlllS. a s we ll as u th c l' helminths and in sect la rvae. feed o n sl ud ge depos its and
help to brea k down and s() lubili ze th e part icu late organics.
l
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 83
Response of Streams To Biodegradable Organic Waste
Th e self-purification of natura lw a(e r sys temsisac()mplex process that ()ften
in vo lves physical , chemical , and biological proces ses working sim ultaneously .
C hemical and biochemical reac ti o ns a re conversion processes rather than re-
mo va l proce sses. The nature, a nd perhaps phase , of the waste may be changed, .
but t he produ cts remain in th e water until phy s ical processes remove them from
suspension by sedi m entation or b y transfer to the a tmosphere . This is·illustrated
by the reaction in Eq. (3-4). Here chemical processes combine iron and phosphate
into solid form. and the physical process of sedimentation removes it from sus-
pen sion. Another example is the metabolism of organics by microorganisms.
Bioc hemical reactions convert the organics to biological solids and other end
products that ma y be recycled sev eral times (Fig. 3-8) before ultimately being
incorporated into bo tt o m sed iments or relea sed as gases to the atmosphere,
both by phy sical proce sses.
The self-purification processes can be modeled , provided the waste character-
istics and the sys tem var iabl es of the water body are known. The modeling process
is co mplicated in lake s and estuaries by dilution and dispersion characteristics
that are va riabl e with time. A complete discussion of water-quality modeling is
be yo nd the scope of this text. Ho wever. some examples will be used to illustrate
th e interaction of the physical, chemical, and biochemical processe s described
ear lier. The examples chosen relate to the as similation of organic material by
str ea ms and the resultin g effects.on the oxygen balance and the ecosystem . Al-
th o ugh these topics are the o nes mo st frequently covered in the literature on natural
purification proce sses. the reader should be aware that other self-purification
processes, with respect to other contaminants, may be of equal importance .
"-
3-9 DISSOLVED-OXYGEN BALANCE
, --
Dis so lved oxygen is o ne of the m os t important constituents ·of water
sys tems. Fi sh and o th er aquatic animal·species require oxygen , and a stream
mu st have a minimum of ab o ut 2 mg/ L of di sso lved oxygen to maintain higher .
life for ms. At leas t 4 mg/ L of di sso lved oxygen is required for game fish and some
s pecies lllay require m ore. In addition to thi s life-sustaining aspect, oxygen is
impo rtant beca use the end pr oducts of chemic a l and biochemical reactions in
anae ro bic sys tem s often pr o duce aes theti ca lly displea s ing co lo rs, tas tes. and odors.
in water.
Wh en biodegradabl e o rganic s are discharged to a stream con tai ning .di sso lved
oxyge n. microorgani sms beg in the metabulic proce sses that convert the organics,
along with the di sso lved oxyge n, int o new ce lls a nd' ox idi zed w:\ste product s.
Th e q uantit y o f oxyge n required fo r thi s conversion is the biochemical oxygen
demand discussed in Sec. 2- 13. The rate ;It w hic h the dissolved oxygen is used
will d epend on the quantit y of tlie organics. the ea se with which they are bic-
degraded .. and the d iluti on ca pac it y of the stream .
 84 WATE R WATER PUR IFICAT ION PROCESSES IN NATURA L SYSTEMS 85

The di sso lved oxygen that is used from the stre a m mu st be repl ac ed o r a n aer - bac teria l metabo lism. major a lgal ac t ivit y usua ll y occurs downs t ream fro m . rather
o bic co nditi o ns will devel o p. Tw o mech a ni sm s a re kn o wn to co ntribu te oxyge n tha n with in, t he area o f grea tes t bac teria l ac ti vity w here t he oxyge n is needed th e
to surface wa ter s; (I) di sso lu\i o n o f o xyge n fro m th e a tm os ph e re, o ft en ca lled mos t. Also, in th e abse nce o f li ght . a lgae o bt a in ene rgy from e ndoge n o us catabo l-
re a er a ti o n, and (2) producti o n o f oxyg en by a lga l ph o tosy nth es is. ism represented by th e fo llowing reactio n.

Reaeration
Th e prin c iple s bf equilibrium b et ween wa te r an d gas in co nt ac t wi th eac h o t he r
a re de sc ribed in Sec . 3-4. Equilibrium co ncent rati o n s o f oxyge n in wa ter a t vario us
temp e ra tur es a nd sa linit y va lu es ar e g ive n in T ab le C-3 o f th e a p pe nd ix. Wh e n
co ncentration s of diss o lved oxyge n drop below th e equili b rium va lue. th e n et
m o vement of o xyg e n will be . fro m th e atm os ph e'r e int o th e wa ter. The diffe ren ce
between the equilibrium co nce ntr a ti o n a nd th e ac tu a l co ncent ra ti o n is ca lled
th e oxygen defici t a nd is repr ese nt ed m a them a ti ca ll y b y
D = Cs e (3-5)
whe re D is th e di ss o lved o xygen d efic it a nd C, and e
a re th e equilibrium co nce ntra -
tio n a nd ac tu a l o xygen c on centrati o n, respec ti ve ly. T he unit s o f a ll th e term s a re
milli g ra ms pe r liter o f oxyge n. F or co n sta nt eq u ili b riu m co ndi tio ns. i.e .. C d oes
no t cha nge. th e ra te o f c h a nge in th e d e fi c it is
dD de (3-6)
cil dt
T he d eficit thu s incr e ases a t th e same ra te th a t th e o xyge n is used up .
Th e di sso lved oxyge n d efic it is th e dr ivin g fo rce for reae ra ti o n. Th e g rea ter t he
de fi c it , th e g rea ter the ra te o f reae ra ti o n. It fo llows, th en, fro m Eq. (3-6) that the
rate o f re aerati o n in cre as es as th e co n ce ntr a ti on o f di sso lved oxyge n d ecreases.
(3-8)
T h is reac ti o n contributes to the oxyge n de m a nd ra th er th a n to th e oxygen sup p ly
of th e stream.
The difference in a lga l catabo lism d urin g lig ht a nd da r k p e ri o d s res ult s in
diurnal variations in the dissolved oxyge n in strea ms wi t h heavy alga l g row ths.
T he dissolved-oxygen concentration often pea k s arou nd 2 to 4 P.M., wit h t he lowes t
leve ls occu r ring j ust before sunrise. U nfo rtu nate ly, th e excess oxygen ge n era ted
du rin g t he d ay can no t be sto red fo r use du ring th e ni ght , as it is ex pe lled to the
at mosphe re to m a in tai n equil ib riu m. In _cas es w here th e a lga l g row th is heavy,
the endogenous catabo lism may de pl ete t he di sso lved oxyge n to t he po int w here
fish ki lls occur.
Because of tli c variability o f photosy nth etica lly p ro du ced oxyge n, reae ra tion
is co ns idered th e Illos t dependab le source o f di sso lved oxyge n. "t may be necessary
however. to Inc lude p ho tosyn t hetic oxyge n in a d isso lved -oxyge n mode l for wa ters
where algal growths are heavy.
3-10 DIS S OLVED-OXYG EN MODEL
Most a ll of the di sso lved-oxyge n mo d e ls in c u rre nt use rela te in some way to the
model de\e loped hy S tree ter <lI1d Phe lps in 1925. T his m ode l.pr edic ls.c na n ges in ·
t he deficit as a fun ctio n of BOD exertion a n d st ream reaera ti on.

Algal Photosynthesis
Rate of Ox ygen Removal
In t he pr ese nce o f s unli g ht , a lga e me tabo li ze inorgan ic com po u nd s, wi t h one of t he
was te pr oduct s bein g oxyge n. The fo llow in g fo r m ula is a sim p li fi ed represe n tation The rate at \Vhich disso lved oxygen disappears from the stream coincides with the
o f thi s reac ti o n . . rate of BO D exert ion. Therefo re

(3-7) dy de
(3-9 )
III dl
algal Subs tituting into Fl] . (1-6)
cells
til' dD
T he oxyge n thu s re lea sed is imm ed ia te ly ava ilab le to reple n is h t he di sso l\ ed (3- 10)
oxyg(':n in th e wa ter. In th e pr esence of excessive nu t rien ts and hr ight su nli ght. III cil
a lgal me tabo lism m ay pro du ce S(l muc h oxygen t ha t th e water hecome s s u per-
l'onlirlllil1g :111 increase In tlie r:lte of BOD exertion results III an incre: lse in
e
sa tur a ted . Th a t is, > C, a nd th e defic it ha s a nega tive v:t1uc. th e ,:lle "f ch: ll1 gc ()f (}.\:gcn delicit . III Sec. 2-1). It was s hown tha t
Ad\ erse fac to rs associa ted wit h excessi\ 'e a Iga I gn)w t hs (li'ten (lut we igh the
be nefi ts o f the oxyge n th ey prod uce. Because algae use the waste produc ts from I' = L. o - L,

i
.. L
 86 WATER

WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NAl1JRAL SYSTEMS 87

Because Lo is the ultimate BOD a nd theref ore a fixed value.
Table 3-2 Reaeration constants
dy dL,
tit dl (3-11 ) Ranges of k, at 20'C.
Water body
base e
Recalling Eq. (2-20)
Small ponds and backwaler s 0. 1- 0.23
dL, = -kL, Sluggish st rcom s and large lakes
Large s!reams of low velocily
0.23- 0.35
dl 0.35- 0.46
Large streams of normal ,·eloci ty 0.46- 0.69
Swift streams
a nd making appropriate substi tuti o ns in Eqs . (3-11) and (3-10). the following 0.69- 1.15
relationship is ob tained . Rapids and waterfalls
Grealer than I 15

dD Source: Afler Melcatf& Eddy, Inc. [3 - 15)

-- = kL
ill ' (3-12)

which state s th a t the rate of change in the dissolved oxygen deficit at time I due opposi te effects on the deficit. Thi s is shown gr;tphically in Fig . 3-12. The rate of
to the BOD is a first-order reaction proportional to the oxyge n equivalent of the cha nge in the deficit is the sLIm of the two reactions
remaining o rga nics. A more convenient form of Eq. (3-12) is

rlJ = kiL,. (3-13)

where r D replaces the diffe·rential form as the rate of change in the oxygen deficit
due to oxygen utilization. The reaction rate constant k, is the same parameter (3-15)
described in Sec. 2-13 and is derived from lab oratory tests on the wastewater. The
The actual oxygen concentration (e, - D,) has a c haracteristic dip as shown in
rate co nstant is adjus ted for temperature changes. but is not usually adjusted for
other effects of dilution wit h the st ream water. Fig. 3-12. resulting in the term lixYif£'1/ commonly used to describe the
sag ClIIT£',
process .

Rate of Oxygen Addition

As no ted in Sec. 3-9. the rate of reaerati on is a first-order reaction.withTespecl. .. .

to the ma gn itucie uf the oxyge n deficit This is expressed mathematically by Cl'"

(3-14)
J. Equilibnuln _______ _

where r R is the rate at which oxygen become s dis so lvell fro m the atmosphere. {) is _J"
I'
the oxyge n deficit defined by Eq. (3-5), and k2 is a rate constant that is
sys tem- specific. The nega t ive sign reflects t he fac t.t hat an increa se in t he oxygen
s uppl y dlle to reaeration reduces the oxygen deticit. Factor s atlec ting kl illclude ...=1.
>, C ,
stream turbulence (a fun ctio n of velocity and channel characte ristics), surface 6
area. water depth. and temperature. Temperature corrections are mad e by Eq. 'tJ c; --+,-
(2-23) with a value of 1.016 fo r () being most common. Several models are available f"
I "-
- I
for determining numerical values for k 2 • [3-16. 3:4], the development of which is C;
I
beyond the scope of this text. A range of\a lues typically found aprlicable to various I
flow regimes is given in Table 3-2. I
I
I
The Oxygen Sag Curve

The oxygen deficit in a stream is a function of both oxygen utili z;lIion and re;ler;l-
Tiull'.
tion Inspectlun of b.Js (.3-13) and 13- 14) s hows th"l the se two proce sses ha\ .c
Figure .1-12 CharacteriSlics u f the o'ygen sag cuneo
 WATER PUR IFICAT ION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 89
88 WATER

The oxygen deficit, and therefore the oxygen concentration, at any point in The fina l so lution becomes
time after the discharge can be determined by integrating Eq. (3-15). This is not,
however, a straightforw a rd operation. Recalling from Eq. (2-21) that
Dekll = kILo ( e1k'-k,)r + Do -
k2-kl k2-k\
L, = Lo e- kll or
and rearranging Eq. (3-15), the following equation is .obtained
dD .. '
Tt + k2D = kILoe - k" (3-1 6) and in final form
k L .
which is a first-order differential equation of the D = \ 0 (e - k" _ e-k, ,) + Doe-k" (3-20)
k2 - ki . .
dy
-d + Py = Q In this equat ion. t represents the time of travel in the stream from the point
x · of discharge and is the on ly independent variable in the equation. The time of
where P and Qare functions of x, [3-1] The use of the integrat ing factor ex peS P dx) travel from the point of discharge to any given downstream 'point is:
ISnecessary for the solution of this type equation. For Eq. (3-16). the integrating X
t =- (3-21 )
factor is u
where x is the distan ce along the stream and II is the stream velocity. The units
(3-17)
of 1 must always be days. Substituting values for t, or x/u. into Eq. (3-20) , will
Multip lying both sides .of Eq . (3- 16) by the right side of Eq. (3-17) yields result in a value of D for that point in the stream .
The mos t important point on the oxygen sag curve is often the poin t of lowest
ek" _dD + k Dek" = k L e(k, - k,)1 (3-18) concentration because this point represents the maximum impact on the dissolved
dc 2 I 0
--. \ oxygen due to wastewater discharge. This point is called the cricical deficit Dc> and
The left side of this equation can be factored as follows the time of travel to this point is termed the critical cime tc' Recog nizing that the rate
of change of the deficit is zero at the maximum deficit. an expression for Dc can be
dD
ek" _ + k Dek" = _ Dek"
d ..fou l1 cl f.rornEq. U,\ 6)...
. . .. ..... dt ..... 2 . .. .. · ·· (/t .... ·· ..... . ...... .
..

Separating variables and integr at ing or

JdD ek" = kiLo J e(k,-k,}! dt

and
The. integrati on of which yields
(3-22)
(3-19)
The solution of this equa tion depends on a numerical value for cc' which is some-
what more ditficult to ob tain. First, Eq. (3-20) is differentiated and set equa l to
The constant of integrati on C can be determined from known boundary condit ions,
zero. again because Df is a maximum at cc:
that IS, D = Do at ( = O. Therefore
. k L . k k c
o= ( - kie - k",. + k 2e - " c ) - k 2 Doe- "
,t 2 \

Dividing throu gh by e- k" c

and
 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 91
90 WATER

rea rra nging b. BOD [Eq. (3-1)]:

y,Q, + y",Qw
'y'mix. = .. .
Q, + Q",

3.0 x 0.5 + 40 x 0.17

and 0.67
k k - k
" _ f) __1 l2.4mg j L
2 II kI La
Convert to ultimate BOD . (Assume kl = 0.23 for mixture')
dividing through k I ami taking the logarithm of both sides
y
= .In (k- 2 - k, k2 -- kI) y. ;= Lo = 1 - e k
If
(1,. - k )1 D ) -- - ---
2 I, "I 'q Lo
12.4
_e- O. 23 )(5
or in more convent ional form

I, Do /" - - -k I)J (3-23 )

= 18.2 mgj L

"I L o c. Disso lved oxygen:

Equations (3-22) ane! U-23) can be used to determine the critical oxygen level in 8.0 x 0.5 + 2,0 x 0.17
DO m ;, = 0.67
the stream and the position \\ hich it OCClIl·S. Th e procedure is illustrated in the
following examp le. = 6.5 mgj L

d_.Temperature:
Exa mple 3-3: Applyi ng the BOD sag curve .-\ municipal wastewater-treatmcnt plant
dischargcs secon dary cfJ-lucnt to a surl"ace stream . Th e wo rst co nditi ons arc known to 22 x 0.5 + 25 x 0. 17
occur in the summer month, whell stream tlow is low alld water tempera tur e is hi gh. Tmix = 0.67
Unda the se conditIOns. mea surcmClllS arc made in the laborat o ry and in Ihe tield to
·deterrTllne-'rhe- 'cha racleri'sl (if' ihl'" and , Irea III fl ows. The waslewalcr is
I"ound 10 have a maximum flow rai l' \)1" 15.000 rn J;uay. a DOD , 01" 40 mg iL , a dissolved
2. Correc t reaclion constants for temperature _
oxygen concenl r,lIion of2 mg L. and a Ic mp cra lu re o f2 5 C Thc stream (upslreal11 from
a. BOD reaction rate [Eq . (2-23)J:
Ihc puinl of wa<lewaler discharge) i, round 10 ha\ 'c a Illillilllum t1 0w rale 0 1- 0.5 m J/s , a
BOD , of 3 l11g ' L. a dl sso h'cd n\\gCIl concenlralion 0 1' 8 Illg/ L. and a of k" .8 = k 20 ( 1.047 12 .8 - 10)
22 ' ('. Complcl c mixin g o f Ihc \\'aslc\\"aler and SlrC:lm "almos l in"lanlane o us, and Ihc
= 0.23 x 114
\'elocilY of Ihe Il1IXIUI"C IS 02111 " . l- rol11 Ihe 11(1\\ rq!llllc. Ih(' cunSlanl is
cstimaled 10 be 0.4 ua) - , for 2(1 (. cundili,1I1'>.
Skclch Ihe dis so h'cd O\ygcl1 IHo liie a IOO· klll reach of Ille , Ircam belo w Ihe dls-
eha rge. /J. Stream reaeration rate

k 22R = k 20 (I.01612.8 - 10)

SOLl ' IION
= 0.4 x 1.05
I. Determine 'c haracrenstics l)f mixl;,re.· );"22" = 0.42 d . I = k2
I d I Il I min
( I. Q:, - IS.noo m' d X X X ---- 3. Determine initia l oxyge n deficit Do·
2<1 h (,() min 60 s
(J. At T = 22.8. the eq uilibriul11 concen tr ation of oxygen in fresh water is 8.7; therefore
= 11. 17 Ill J S
J Do = 8.7 - 6.5 = 2.2 mg/ L
Qrnlx = 11.17 + n .) = n.b7 Ill , S
92 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PR OCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 93

4. Determine the critical deficit and its location. These point s are connected by a smooth cur ve as show n in the accompanying figure
to yield the desired oxygen profile of the stream.
a. I, = _I_In[k2 (I _
k,-k, k,
Dok, -
k,Lo
k')] · (3-23)
10

= I In [0.42 ( 1-22---
0.42 - 0.26)J c,
- -
- -- ---- ----------------
}
0.42 - 0.26 0.26 . 0.26 x 18.2
8 .
1, '= 2.5 d . Do
-'
tIi
k, C
b. Dc = - Loe-k'tc
k, c 6
v
en
A
x
0.26 18.2e- 0'
= _ .6 X '.5 o
0.42
= 5.9 mg/ L
c. This condition will at a distance of
x = 0.2 m/s x 86.400 sid x 2.5 d {c :::. X/II
= 43.2 km downstream from point of discharge
75 100 125
5. Determine the deficit at points 20, 75. and 100 km from the point of discharge . o
Di st3n cc downstr eam, km
xkm
(I. 1= ---
u km/d Bot h th e po sition and magnitude 6r the critical deficit ar e related to t he sys tem
Ikm 86.400 s variabl es (/'1' " 2, L o, Do. and u). The time o f travel to the c riti ca l defi c it (rJ is
u = 0.2 m/s x --- x --- = 17.3 km/d innuenced more s trongl y by th e va lue s of /.:.1 and /.:." . while the magnitude of the
d 1000 m
deficit is m os t affec ted by th e L o va lu e. N o t o nl y do heavier load s resu lt in greater
1'0 = 20/17.3 = Ll6d defi c its. but th ey extend th e inAu e nce of th e waste farther down s tream H eavy
175 = 75/17.3 = 4.3 d load s of organics may result in th e' developmei1t 'of'a'I1ae-rubic condiri·ooS·.Und'er··
t hese conditions, o xyg en is tran s ferred in a t a high rate [Eq. (3-14)J but is used up
1'00 = 100/ 17.3 = 5.8 d
by facultative o rga ni s m s that may also be utilizing the organic material produced
b. The deficits at these times are: by a naerobic m e tabolism. In a deep s tream , true anaerobic organisms may Aourish
k L near the·bottom. Only after the strength of the waste has been sufficiently reduced
D = _ _ '_0_ (e - '" - e-"') + Doe -'" (3-20) .
k, - k, . will aerobic condition s be re sto red. Since anaerobic metabolism is a siow. proces s,
recovery of an ov erloaded st rea m will be slow and the oxygen sag will extend far
D - 0.26 x 18.2 (e'
-0 ,6x II 6 _ e-O .42Xllb)·+2.2e - 0.42XI.'6 downstream. -"
20 - 0.42 - 0.26
= 5.1 mg/ L
D 75 = 5.2 mg/ L Limitations of the Oxygen Sag Curve
D,oo = 4.1 mg/ L
Th e limit a ti o n s o f the oxyge n sag c ur ve s hould be at o nc e appar e nt Th e rate o f
.6. The dissolved-oxygen concentrations at each po int are found to be: and th e ra te o f reaeration a re each affected by many va ri ab les fo r
C 20 = 8.8 - 5.1 = 3.4 Illg!L which the mod el mak es no a ll owance . .

C n2 = 2.8 mg/ L BOD variables Th e eq uati on is ba se d on the a ss umption that th ere IS one source
of BOD w hen there m ay actually be seve ra l diff e re nt point or n onpoin t so urce s of
C 75 = 3.5 mg/ L BOD. Additional di sc harg es can be tak e n into con s ideration by s ubdi vidin g a
C'oo = 4.1 mg/ L ri ve r into short reache s, each feci by a single p o int so urce. If tributaries empty int o
94 W ATER
the m ains tr eam , any di scharge th ey may have recei ved mu st al so be tak e n Illto
co nside ra ti on, a s we ll as th e in crease in flow o f th e rece ivin g stream.
E ven when care is gi ven to co ns id er all o rga ni c lo aels intr o du ce d at di sc har ge
POlllts, the bio chemica l ox ygen demand ora str eam ma y be affected by o th er fac to rs
no t app ro ximated by t he k I co n stan t. A lga l respira t ion in th e absence of s unlight,
nitrificati o n proc ess es that in c rea se ox ygen d e m a nd , and the pr es encc o f slud ge
d e po s its in pool area s can al l in c rea se a str eam' s BOD. [3- 5, 3-8 J In s hall o w
s treams, mas ses of m icrobial growth attach ed to th e str ea mb ed lIlay be more
e tncient at utili z ing o rgani cs, and con sequ entl y co nsum e mor e di ss ol ve d o xyge n
th a n the s usp ended micr o o rgani sm s used in th e lab or at o ry BOD tes t. [3 -2 IJ
This fac t, though recognized and va lu ed in engineered tr eatment sy s tems , is o ften
ig nor ed in self-purific a ti o n stu die s.
Reaeration variables R ep lac ement of o xygen is al so affected by man y fact o rs
not taken int o considera ti on by th e _form ula s used to derive oxyg e n sag curv es ,
notably the reaeration co ntribut ion of algae p h ot os ynthesi s . F u rt he r, th e math e-
matics assumes stead y-sta te condition s all along a ri ver c ha nn e L Becau se such
steady-stat e condi tion s wo uld ind eed be rare , m o st str eams must be s ubdiv ided
and a k c va lue as signed to each reach. Even with subd ·ivisio n int o reach es, det e r-
mination o f the kl constant is probab ly th e one area most prone to error in
oxygen -sag -curve wo rk, becau se n o theoretical as sumption of flow characteristi cs
- channe l formation, ob stacl es, pool s , effect s of imp o undments , and oth e r such
var iables - is lik e ly to fit anyone particular stream perfectly.
Addi t ion s ha ve been made to the ba s ic Streeter - Ph e lp s model that incorporate
the diurnal effec t o f alga l ph o tosy nthe sis, th e nitrifi cati o n pr oce ss, and th e sedlm en-
tation-resuspension of organic material. Th ese model s a re pre sent ed e lse wher e In
the lit erature [3-22J and require a much more sophi st icilted.l lat a ba sefo r use: . . .
Confirmation of the Oxygen Sag Curve
The di ssolved- o xygen pr o file o bta in ed fr o m ma t hemalica l mod e ls s ho ul d be
con firm ed by ac tu a l field mea s u rement s. Id eall y, th e re s ho uld be a co m p reh e ns ive
samp lin g und e r condi ti on s of kn ow n waste load s and rivt:r hydr o logy. A peri o d
o f warm weat her a nd lo w flow s i·s desirable , and dail y samp lin g fo r I m o nth fo r all
param eter s is pr efe rred.· Onc e the DO d e ficit a nd th e time tll th e c ri t ica l () 2
concen tr a ti on hav e be en verified by a deLl ileci \ vat e r-qllality sline y. oxyg en sag
c ur ves ca n be use d to fo reca st str eam co nditi o n s th a t ca n he ex pec ted fo r g i\T n
Ila s te lo ad s and s tr eam fl o ws.
3-1 I ORGANIC DISCHARGE AND STREA iVI ECOLOGY
In :l·ddltl o n to \ :Hia t i;) ns In th e ·o.\v ecn cn ncc n tr at i, )n s. lll;lll.\ ,' II ,el piIysiul.
che mi cal. and bi o log ica l c han ges ill streams ;I fl n tiJe disciI:t r!,!e "r hi,, -
d eg rad a h le o rgani c maleri :Ii. T oge liJn ", ilh Ihe \' .\\gC ll "I lppl\ . Ih es<: I' r<lcc'ssc .'
WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 95
and their products grea tl y influence th e ecology (th e relationship between living
organis m s a nd th eir env ir o nm en t) o f th e str ea m. Lik e the oxyge n b a la nc e the
ec; logical balance of a s t ream rece ivi ng a biodegradable organic discharge c;n be
mod e led. M os t of the model s a ss ume t ha t t he organic waste is com p osed primaril y
of municipal wastewa ter and d o es n o t conta in s ign ifica nt quantities of mat.eri a ls
that wo uld be toxic to t he flora a nd fauna of th e strea m.
Ecolog ica l modeling usually involve s divid in g th e strea m int o reaches, o r
zo ne s, in w hich certain species or certam proce sses predominate. The model mo s t
common ly used in the United States is the o ne devised by Whipple , Fair, and
Whipp le. Thi s model d ivides the stream into four zones labeled the zones o f
degradation, active decom position, ,:eeaver)', and clean water. A summ a ry of th e
pllyslcal, c hemi ca l, a nd biological c haracte ri stic s o f ea ch zo ne is pre sented in
Table 3-3.
M a n y o f the ph ysica l c haracteristic s described in Table 3-3 may be n o ted b y
the casual o bserve r, but the chemica l c ha rac te rist ics (w ith the exception of th e
presence of highly od o rou s H l S) ca n be determi n ed o nly thr oug h samp ling and
laborator y te st in g. Biol o gical s pecies and numbers are mark edly d ifferent from
zone to zo ne, and spec ies d iversity is a prim ary means of establishing zone bound -
ari es. The change in specie s and number s of o rganisms in each s pecie s is illustrated
,. in Fi g. 3-1 1
1·
Th e food supply is a primary fac tor in determining the type o f o rga ni sms that
predom inat e. Nea r the po int o f discha rge, bacter ia, protozoa, and molds predom-
inate. Bac teria fi nd an abu nd a nt food supp ly in the form of carbo hydrates , pr o tein s,
and fats. As th ese microor gani sms decompose organic was tes, they co nv ert them
into nutri ent material s su c h as nitrates, p h osphates, a nd carbo n dioxide . The
ba c teria l populati o ns flouri s h until di ss olv ed o xygen and lor th e fo od su pply is
. ex ha us ted .· Bem use· bacteri·a··provrde··food··for . prOHizCia: ci liat es, ro tifers , and
"r '
cr ustace an s, th ese higher fo rm s of life diminish as bac ter ia die o ff.
Th e abundan t sup ply o f nutri ent materials made avai lab le by th e bacteria!
decom position of o rganic m a tter bring s abo ut still furth er changes. About midwa y
through the zo ne of ac ti ve decomposition, w here miner a l nutri en ts (notably
n it rat es ) abou nd, a lgae be g in a ra pid inc rea se. Blu e-gre e n (Phorl11idillm, Lyngbya,
a nd Oscil/atoria) and g reen alga e (Spirogyru and St igt'oc/uniul11), a n d diatoms :,
(GulIlrhon ema and Nit zschiu) may be present in thi s zo ne. [ 3-3 J ..
In the zo ne of rec ov er y. a lgae g ro wth peak s, then declines, w ith a lga l p op ula-
t iu ns III th e clean zone beginnin g to appr ox imat e th os e found in the predischarge
purtions of the stream. Blu e-gree n (f\lli croc ys Lis and Anabae na), pigmented
Ilagellate s (Euy lenu and Pandorina ), g re en al gae (Cladorlrol'u and Ankistrodesm us),
and di a tom s (l'vl f'ridio/'l andC rc/o tella) are s pecie s fo und in the zone·o f recovery.
[ 3-3J . .
. i As nutrient lo ad s de c lin e, BOD d·ecrea ses, an d DO levels r eturn to th ei r
p redi sc har ge le vels, alga e and ba c teria po pulation s return to their clea n- water
statll S, and clean-wa ter invertebrate a nd \ertebrate fauna again popu late th e
str eam. At thi s puint, the s tr eam 's natural se lf-purifi ca ti o n pr o cess ha s esse nti a ll y
bee n co mp leted, but u nl y Illso far as biod eg radabl e o rg :ll1ic wa stes a re co ncerned.
:lIi' 96 WATER
WATER PURIFI CATION PRO CF.ssES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS en
ill
-- Table 3-3 Whipple, Fair, and Whipple model for zones of stream self-purification Table 3-3 (continued)
Physical Chemica l Biologic a l Ph ysica l Chemical Bio logica l
Zone characteri s tic s characte ri s tic s characteristi cs Zo ne cha ra cl eri st ics char acteristics characteri s tic s
Degrad a ti on Th e water is turbi d ; Oxygen is redu ced to Fish and gree n algae a re Recovery \V aler IS clearer.
(Zone 2 Di sso lved oxygen Pr o tozoa, rotifers, and
there are sl ud ge about of declining ; litt o ral forms o f (Zone 4 co nte nt move s crustaceans ap pea r . Fun g i
in Fig . 3-13) deposit s a nd saturat ion. gr ee n and blue-green a lga e in Fig 3- 13) upward fr o m 40 :%. a re pre se nt to a lim ited
Roating debri s are trailin g from or sa tur at ion; · degree . A lgae ap pear 111 the
frequent ly wette d stones. nitrates are prese n t. .. fo llowing o reler:
These includ e Cyanoph ycaea,
SIi.qeoc/onium, Os cil/M oria, Chlo rophycaea. and
and Ulolhrix. Bo tt o m forms dialoms. Large plants
in slud ge include reddish (sponges, bryozoans)
worms (Tubili c ida e) si m ila r ap pear. Bottom o r ga n isms
10 ea rthw orms. s uc h a s include Tuhife x. mu sse ls,
Tuhifex and Limnodr ilus . snail s, and insect larvae.
Wat e r fungi a re typical ly Ca rp, s uc kers. a nd m o re
whit e. o live green, putt y resistant forms o f fish
g ra y, r usty brow n . occur.
Sphacro/i/us norOIlS,
Clean wafer '!atLJrirI ')Irl'am D isso lved oxyge n I S Ma yflies (Ephemerupleria).
Lep lOm ilus, a nd A chlya
(Zo ne s I cl)l1dlll l )nS {{ I t' close to sa turatIOn . s to ne fl ies (Plecoplera).
appear , as do ciliated
and 5 in rt';..iored. caddis flies (Trichoptera).
protozo a or ciliat a such as
Fig . 3-13) and gamefish arc fou nd
larchesium. £PI.'ily/is. and
VOrticel/a.
Active r\c.i:Jplc..'d rrnm r1ahbltl. ["-2]
Wat e r is grayi s h and Oxygen leve l moves Bacter ia flora fl our ish;
decompo s ition darker t ha n in be twe en of a naerobes di splace aerohes ,
(Zone 3 in degradati o n zone; sat urat ion and zero; whic h eappear toward the
Fig. 3-13) SC um may form. then as active lower e nd of t he zone.
se pti c condition s decomposi t ion Pr o tozoa follo\\ ; course of
may hav e set in . . .din:ini s he s" ,?xy.&e.n.. .... ae r.Qbic.baCle ria , fir",· ..
co nl ent ri ses. diminishing and then
Methane, hydrogen. reappeanng. Fungi fOllow a
a nd s ulfi de a re simil a r course, di sappearing / Popu latIOn o f indiVIdu a ls
---L-
give n off. und e r true se pti c co ndition s
a nd then reappearing .
Organisms are thr e adlik e
---, /--
In eac h s pecIe

"'"
a nd devel op pink. . cream,
and grayish tints . Algae are I /
present to a ve ry slight \
!"
exten t a t the lower end o f
the zo ne. TUbifex are
pre se nt on ly at th e upp e r -J," , ""-- Di sso lved
<l nd lowe r ends of the zone.
Psychoda (sewage fly) la rvae
___

--- /
oxygen

are present in al l but th e Distance downs tream _

mos t se ptic stage. Rattail
4
maggolS (EristaiJis) and
mosquito larvae (Clilex) are Was tcwa te r
found . Th ere is no fi s h li fe. dis c ha rge

Figur e 1-13 Changes In POplIl<tllon o f macroo rganis ms caused by waste d isc har ge into a e le" n s tr eam
(COl/lil/lIcd) [3-1 UI
(hulII ""l11l1l1'r . )
98 WATER
Shou ld an;lerob ic condi ti ons de ve lo p in th e zone o f ac ti ve de co mp os ition , a
drastic change in both material s and fl ora a nd faulla wo uld be observed. Reduc ed
co mp o und s, rath e r th an oxi dized e nd pr od uct s, wo uld appear , and aerobic spec ies
would g ive way to a naer o bi c and facultative o rga ni sms that , wi th o ut co mp e titi o n
fmm th e a e rob es . wou ld flouri s h In g reat numb e rs.
Application of Natural Processes in Engineered Systems
Many o f the ph ysica l, c hemical, and bio log ica l processes that fun c ti on in n atu ral
wa ter sys te ms have been in co rp o rated into eng in eere d sys tem s fo r wa ter a nd
was tewafer treatment. By carefu lly contro lli ng th e syste m va riabl es, the rate at
w hi ch th e pr ocesses occ ur is maximized a nd th e tim e required for pur ification is
minimi zed. Rea c,tions may thu s be ca rri ed to co mpletion in engi neered sys tem s
in a fraction of the tim e and space required for similar e ffi cienc ies in natur a l wate r
sys tem s. The fo llow in g secti o n gives an ove rvi ew of the applicat io n o f natural
pr ocesses in en gi neered sys tem s whilc Chaps. 4 and 5 pr ov ide a mor e co m p lete
coverage o f th e eng in eered sys tems.
3-12 PHYSICAL PROCESSES
T he phy sica l pro cesses freq uently lI sed in e n g in ee red syst em s inclu de sed im en ta-
tion , filtration, and ga s tran sfer. Th ese are the basic re mo val proce sses and m ay
be use d to remol'e mat eria ls in raw water or was tewa ter o r m ay be use d to re m ove
the products of c hemi ca l or biological pr ocesses.
...5ed i.n1entati o n.is.used to re mo ve particle s and co lloid s fro m b o th wa ter and
wastewater. Thi s term is often used sy n o n ymous ly with c larifi ca tion , a lth o ug h
there are su btle diffe rences in their meaning. In wa ter- and was tewate r'treatment
sy stems . sed im e ntati on is ca rri ed o ut in la rge bas in s o r tank s in wh ich the fl ow
IS di spersed unif o rmly to minimize turbulence th a t often keep s particle s suspe nd ed
in n a tur a l water sys tem s. When particle s arc too small to se ttl e in a re aso nable
len g th of tim e. che mic a ls may be add ed to coagulate them int o lar ger ma sses that
Ivi II m o re qu ic k Iy. The se t t led so Iid s. or slut/qt'. is rnecha n ica Ily rem ove d fr om
the bo ttom o f the tank to prevent accumulation .
Like sed im e nt a ti on. filtr atio n is use d as a su i id s-remova l ope rati on in wa ter
and . less co mm o nl y . tr eatme nt. Th e filt er mat erial mo st co millonl y
useci is a gra nul ar medium s imilar to th e sa nd a nd g r<1 ve l enco unt e red in man y
str eams and aquifer s. The mat el:ial. is size d to o ptillli ze filtrati o n rat es and parti c le
remo va l. and m ec hani s m s ar e pro vi ded for periodica ll y removing th e impulitie s
t rapped by thdi lt e r. In mod e rn practice. filtrati o n is o ft en a po lis hin g step fo ll()\I-
Illg se ttlin g o p e ra ti o n s that removc th e bu lk o f th e so li ds.
Gas-transfer operat io n s ma y be lI sed in buth \Vate r a nd Ilastcwate r tr e:ltm ent.
Depending on th e tr ea tment ob lcctll "CS. may be removed fn llll o r added tn
WATER PURIFICAT ION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 99
th e liquid . Removal o f gases that are in low co ncen trations in the atmosphere'is
enhanced by m axim iz in g contact between th e water and air, a n operation often
used to strip undesirab le gases from water intended for potable use. Oxygen, a
major co nstituent of the a tm os phere , may be ad d ed to wastewaters by much the
sa m e principle. The addi ti o n o f gases suc h as carbo n dioxide and chlorine to meet
s pec ific treatmen t objec ti ves (recarbomi tion a nd di sinfection , re spe ctively) is
us ually accomplished in cl ose d pressurized sys tem s.
3-13 CHEMICAL PROCESSES
C hem ica ls a re used in m a n y wa ter- and wastewaier-treatment proces ses. Chemicals
Illay be added to a lter equilibrium conditions and cause precipitation of undesir- .
a ble spec ies. An examp le is the addit io n o f lime to precipitate hardne ss in potable
water treatm ent a nd to precipitate phosphate in wastewater treatment. Often
the c hem ical adjus tm ent of pH is necessary to effect the desired precipitation.
Ox idi z ing agents may be used if reduced compounds are to be removed. For
exa mple , p o ta ssi um permanganate may be' added to oxidize so luble forms of
iron and m a nga nese to forms that pr ec ipit ate. Chlorine is sometimes used as an
ox idi z in g agent as well as a disinfectant in both water and wastewater treatment.
C hemi ca l coagulation, ofte n used as an adj unct to sedimentation or filtration,
co nditions sma ll particle s and co lloid s so that the y form large, sett leable flocs.
In a dditi o n to the above , many other c hemicals may be used for special
purp oses in water and was tewater tre a tment. it should be kept in mind that
c hemical pr ocesses a re conversion proces ses and that actual removal is accom-
pl is hed by physica ll y sepa ratin g the so lid, liquid , or gaseous products of the
chemica l rea c ti o n s. . .............. . . . .
3-14 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Bio logica l processe s have fou' ndlittle use in the treatment of potable water supplies
bec au se of the low levels o f biodegradable orga ni cs in the raw water. However ,:)
bio logical proces ses arc used ex ten sively in was tewa ter treatment to convert :'-
biodegradab le organics and o th er nutrient s into a more manage a ble form. Bio-
log ica l pi'o cesses for m th e ba s is fo r seco ndar y treatment in which dissolved a nd
co ll(lidal organics a rc co n verted into bioma ss that is sub se quentl y separated from
(he liquid stream. Secondary treatment sys te nis are designed to op timi ze contact
be t wee n m icroorga ni sms and o rganics uncler t he most favo rab le environmental
co ndltiull s. .
Oll ce sep;i rated,. the b iomass becomes a concentra ted was te str eam that must
he dealt wi th promptly. l3iological ·treatmellt o f thi s and ot her orga ni c wastewater
ca lled silldye digestion. is one o f th e most imp or ta nt, and m os t difficult,
rll"ocesses in wastewate r treatm ent.
 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 101
100 WATER

3-5 An indu strial wastewater is discharged into a municipal wastewater sewer. The character-
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS istics of the two wastes are as follows:

3-1 Name and briefly describe the majorphysicalprocessesinvolvediil self:purification of

watercourses . Indu strial. Muni cipa l
3-2 Two streams converge as shown in the sketch below . Determine the flow. temperature.
Flow = 3500 m' /d Flow = 17,400m' /d
. and dissolved oxygen in the merged streams at point C. BOD , = 1200 mg/L BOD , = 210 mg/ L
= 140 mg/L pol - = 2.3 mg/ L
Flow =0'
. Temp =') Determin e the characteristics of the mixture.
(DO =') 3-6 Di sc uss thermal stratification and its importance in temperature o f streams and lake s.
3-7 What are three major chemical processes that may a ltern ately aid or obstruct na tural
Flow = 3.7 m}/s / C Stream C purificati o n processes of water sys tem s?
Temp=::loC
3-8 Calculate the solubi lity of hydrogen sulfide in water at 20
c
e.
DO = '4 .5 mg/ L
3-9 Determine the solubility o f the components of air in water at 20°C and 1.5 atm pressure.
B 3-10 Wh at is the so lubility of me than e in water at 20°C?
3-11 Define (a) metabolism ; (b) catabolism: (e) anabolism; and (d) endogenous catabolism.
\ Flow = 2.5 m}/s
3-12 What are adaptive enzymes? What rol,e do they play in natural purification processes of
Temp = 17° C
bodies of water?
DO = 7.5 mg/ L 3-13 Define (a) autotrophs. (b) heterotrophs. (e) phototrophs. (d) aerobic heterotrophs.
(e) a na erobic heterotrophs. a nd en
facultative heterotrophs

3-14 Exp lain the role of rot ifers. c ru stacea. and s ludge worms in natural purification processes
3-3 Effluent from a wastewater-treatment plant is discharged to a surface stream. The character-
of bodies of water.
istics of the effluent and stream are as follows:
3-15 What a re the two mechanisms known to contribute oxygen to surface waters?
I
I: Effluent Stream
3-16 What is the oxygen deficit o fa st ream and how is this deficit represented mathematic a lly ?
3-17 Write a simplified 'formula' fonhe -photosynthetic' process by which algae' popula r iDns '
i
I'
Flow = 8640 m' id Flow = 1.2 m' /s ma y repleni sh oxygen in a body of water.
BOD, = 25 mg/ L BOD, = 2.1 mg/L
I Ammonia = 7 mg/ L
Nitrate = 10 mg/ L
Ammonia = 0 mg/ L
Nitrate = 3.0 mg/L
3-18 Write a formula for the endogenous catabolism by which algae popUlations may contri-
bute t.o oxygen demand. .
A wastewater-tr,9tment plant disposes of its effluent in.a surface stream. Charac ter istics
Chloride = 15 mg/ L Chloride = 5.0 mg/ L
of the stream and effluent are shown be low. .

Determine the stream charac teri stics after mixing with the waste has occurred. Wastewa te r Stream
3-4 Cooling tower blowdown from a power plant is discharged to it surface stream. The
Flow. m' /s 0.2 5.0
characteristics of each are given as:
Dissolved oxygen. mg/ L 1.0 8.0
Temperature, OC 15 20.2
Stream Coo ling water BOD , at 20°C, mg/L 100 mg/ L 2.0 mg/ L
K, at 20°C, d - 1 0.2
Flow = 10 m'; s Flow = 40 m' / min K , at 20°C, d - 1 0.3
Temperatur e = 15' C Temperature = 28"C
TDS = 125 mgjL TDS = 2520 mg/ L
Chromate = 0 Chrom<lte = 0.9 mg/ L
(a) Wh a t will be the dissolved oxygen co ncentration in the stream after 2.0 d ')
(b) What will be the lowes t dissolved oxygen concentration as a result of the waste
discharge?
Determine the characteristics of the stream after mixing .
 1"
102 WATER ,.f WATER PUR ifi CATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 103

3-20 A municipal wa s te wa ter-trea tm ent plant discharges 18.925 mJ / d o f tr eated wastewater ,.

l' REFERENCES
to a s tream . The wastewater has a BOD s o f 30 mg/ L with a k I o f 0.23 d - '. The temperature o f
the wastewater is 27 e
e.
and the d issolved oxyge n is 2.0 m g/ L The s t ream jus t above the po int o f r
wastewa t er di schar ge flow s at 0.65 mJ! s. has a BOD s of 5.0 mg/ L, and is 90 percent satu rated t
;
3-1 A.: by personal commun ication, 1982.
ij
.'i '
wi th oxyge n . The temperature of the s tream is 23 e e.
After mixin g, the stream and wastewater 1-' Ba bbill, H . E. and E. R. Baumann' Sewerage and Se,rage Trealmelll , Blh ed., Wi ley, New York.
1952 .
, flows a t a ve loci t y 0. 5 m /s a nd th e reae ra ti o n co n s ta nt is 0.45 d - ' .
i I 3· 3 8 arlsc h. A. F .. ami W. M. In gram : Biology of Wal eI' Po I/lilian, U.S. Dep t. o f Int e ri o r W a te r
(a) What is th e oxyge n le ve l of the st ream after 2 d ')
'J Po lluli on ('on!ro l Adrninislra lion, 1967. '
: j (b) What is th e c ritical oxyge n leve l in th e s t ream and how far downstream w ill it occur')
3-4 Churchi ll. M . A., H . L. Elm o re , and ·R . A. Bucking ham: "The Prediclion.of Stream R eae1:ation
;1 '
"
3-2 1 A wastewater-treatment plant discharges to a sma ll s tr ea m . The characteristics o f the Rales," WaleI' Polllliion Research , vo l. I , Per ga m o n, Londo n, 1964.
\vastewate r and th echaracte ri s tics o f s tr eam are give n be low. .1-5 Clark. John W .. Warr cn Viessman, Jr. , and Mark J. Hammer: Wal eI' Supply and Pol/ulion Conlrol
3d eel .. Ha rper & Row, New York, 1977. '
3-6 The"dore C.. J r .. [(olo.qical Srslems and Ihe Enrironmenl. H oughlon Mifflin, Bosl.on. 1976 .
Siream Waste .,-7 (laudy. A. 1- .. Jr .. "nd E. T. Gaudy: Microhidlo.lJy./or EIIl'ironll1l'lJlal Scien li.H.I and Engineer s.
t '" McGraw-HilI. New Y o rk. 1980.
' Flow = 10,000 m' Jd
<I Flow = 0.4 m' /s .1-k Hammer. Mark J .' Waler and Was le- WaleI' Te chnology, Wiley , New York, 1975.
BOD = 2.0 mg / L DO = 0 ms / L 3-9 Hvnes H B N : Tlw Biololj)' of' Pol/uled Wale I' , Li verpoo l University Press . Liverpoo .l , 1960.
DO = 90 % sat uration Temp erature = 21 °C 3- 10 Kemmer . Fr ank N.: The NA LCO Waler Handbook, M cGraw- Hili , New York, '1979.
Temperature = 24 C
e k, =O.23d-' 3- 11 K lei n. LOlns: IIiI'''' POlllllion II . Causes alld E(fecls, Bullerw o rlh , Lp ndon , 1962.
'"' = 0.45 d - , 3· 12 Lewis. W K and W . G . Whilman : .. Pr incip les o r Gas Abso r plion. "Ind. Eng. Chem., 16 ' 12 15
: ( 1924)
:i .1- 13 Lind sley. R . K . and J . ll . Franzini: Waler Resources Engineering. 3d cd .. McGraw-Hili , New
I York. 1979.
Determ in e the m axim um BOD s (20 "C) tha t can be discharged if a minimum of 4.0 mg/ L o f
1 3-14 McKinney. R . E.' Microhioloq),/or Sanilary Enqinee r.,·. McGraw-HilI. New Yor k, 1962.
.11! 'I oxyge n mu st b e maintained in t he s trea m .
3-22 A milk-pr oduc ts industry discharges a wastewate r t o a s tream . Characteristics of the
3- 15 Melcalr 8.: Eddy. Inc . W{fSlelJ'fI/er Engin eerinq.- Treal menl and Disposal, 2d ed .. McG r aw- Hili .
New York. 1979 .
:1, wastewater and th e s tr eam a re s hown below. 3- 16 O·Connor. D . J .. and W. E. Dobbins: "The Mec hani sms or Rcaer alio n in Nat ur al S i re a ms"
,! (a) If no treatment a t all is given to t he wastewater. what will be the lowest oxygen level J San Enq /)ir. AS.C.E.. 82 :SA6 (1956). '
,
in the s tre am as a result of the discharge" .1- 17 Park er. F. L .. an d P. A. Krenkel Thermal Polllliio n .- SWillS vf lite AN, Dep\. Environmenlal and

I! Parameter \\'a stewatcr Stream

[,
Reso urce s Engineering. Vanderbill Univcrsily. Nashvi lle, December 1969.
·3-18 Palrick , R.: .. EITecl or Suspe nd ed So lids, Organic Mall er and T oxic Malerials o n Aquatic Life

! Flow 1000 m ' /d 19.000 mJ id

··l t,
... in. .... .I:Valer. a!"1 1968. p . 90.
3- 19 RU liner. Franz. FllIlllanll'lIlals o/ Limnolo gy, 3d ed" D . G . Frey and F. E. J. Fr y (!rans.) , Uni -
ve rsily of Tornnlo Pr ess. Toronlo. 1963.
BOD , a ' 20' C 1250 mg / L 2.0 mg j L t
3-20 Sawyer. C. N .. a nd P. L. McCariy' Chem islry'/or EnvirollmenlOl Engineers 3d ed ., McGra w- Hili .
DO o
mg / L 10.0 mg j L New York , 1978.
Temperalure, ' C . 50 10 3-2 1 Srinanlhakumar. S., and A. Amirlharajah: "Organic Carbon Decay in a Slream w ith Biofilm
k,a I 20°C 0:35 d - '
K inelics." 1. In t'. Eng .. ASCE, 109( 1): 102 (February 1983).
I., a120 °C 0.55 d '" :1-22 Slee!. E. W .. and T. J . McGhee' WaleI' Supply and Sewerage. 91h ed. , McGraw-Hili, Ne\' -, York ,
1979.
T
3-23 S!recler , H . W .. and E. B. Phelps: U.S. Pub. Health bullctin no. 146, 1925.
(b) If the s tre a m is a tr ou t fis hery and the s tream s tan da rd s require a minimum D O o f
( .1-24 Tsi vog loll. E. c.: hac er Mea suremenl of Slream Reaerulion. u.s. Dep t. or Inl er ior , Water T
5.0 mg/ L what is th e maximum B OD, (20 C e) that can be discha rged by t he indus tr y? PoliUlion Con lr o l Adntinislr<I1ion. Wa shington . D .C. . J une 1976 .
3-25 Velz. Clarence. J .: Applied Sire/in ' SanilOlion, Wiley Inle rsc ience. New Yo rk, 1970.
T
3-23 Write a comp uter pr ogra m to model th e Streeter - Ph e lps equa ti on. Repeat P robs. 3- 19.
3-2 0. a nd 3-2 1 u si ng the computer.
3-24 What a r e the fo ur zo ne s in th e W hipple. Fair. and Whipple model '! Define the zo ne s by
exp la in in g wha t happens in each.
I
f
f
.1-26 Vesilind. P. Aarne: Enrir onmenlal Pol/ulion and Conlrol, A nn Arbo r Science, Ann Arb o r, Mich .,
1975 .
:1-27 Warre-n, Ch arb E.' Biology and WaleI' Pol/uli on COl1lr.o'l, Saun de rs. Philade lp hia, 197 1.
3-28 Whq'pk. C. c.: The Microscopyo('Drillkinq WaleI'. 4th eel ., rev. by G. M. Fair and M. C. Whi p ple .
Wiley. New York; 1927.
3-25 Mo s t oft he nat ura l purin ca t ion rrocesses discussed III thi s char ter have t heir co unt e rpart s
i
in proces ses for the tr eatme nt of potable water supp lies or th e t rea tm ent of wa s te -
water s. Di scuss bri e n y the ways in which the follow in g na t ura l pro cesses a re utili zed in ,
engineerin g systems: (a) scdimenta l ion. (h) filtration.
microbial ac t io n .
(e) gas tr a ns fe r. (d) precipitation. and

I
L

CHAPTER
FOUR
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER
PURIFICATION
An adequate supply o f pur e water is absolutely esse ntial to human ex iste nce . Th e
con'sequences of a contaminated water s upply can be illu str a ted by co nditi o ns
prevalent during the industrial revolution in E u ro pe when larg e numbers of
peasant s were attracted to the cities where th ey crowded together with little or
no sanitary facilitie s. Human waste. or " night so il" as it was ca lled, was to ssed int o
the streets or emptied into pits in common courtyards, often near t he s ha llow wells
that served as the neighborhood water supply. Seepage into the se wells and runoff
into nearby streams provided a direct link in the infection cycle. and o nce an out-
" ........ ... .br.eak.:oLdis.ease .occmred.it. usually .spread .rapid.ly . lhwu&h ..L!:J.e.community,. The ...... ..
resultmg loss of lIfe and suffering left sca rcely a famil y unt o uched during several
centuries prior to the 1900s.
. The development of effective water-treatment method s ha s virtually elimin a ted
major waterborne epidemics in developed countries. Thi s is no t to sugges t. how-
ever, that the problem of waterborne diseases ha s bee n e liminated . Developing
natIOns . where treated water is not available to a ll the p o pUla tio n. still experience
occ asIOnal epidemi cs of cholera and typ hoid . as we ll as manv o utbr ea ks of less
severe disease. Even highl y develop ed countries. includin g 'th e United States.
where public wat er s upplie s are almost univer sall y tl·eated. are no t to tall v immun e
from an occasional o utbreak of gastrointestinal illnesses tra cea ble to
contammated water s upplie s.
Chemical contamination of water s upplies has become a co ncern in more
recent times . Industrial facilities in developed countries produc e and use literall y
thousand s of chemica.l compounds. Along with a n ab undant arrav or household'
a ndagricultural chemicals. the se materi a ls often find th eir way int o 'water suppli es.
WhIle so me of the se chemical compounds are known tl)xicants. mut age nt s. or
carcmogens. the health effects o f many others are no t prese ntl y kn mv n . Sufllcicnt
104
I ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 105
i data are no t presently ava ilab le , to predict the consequences of in ges tin g smal l
qu an titiesof chemical s ove r lon g periods of time . It is ironic that the high stand a rd
of living that allows ind ustriali zed nation s to provide bio logically pure water to
the majority of th eir popUlations a lso res ult s in the discharge o f chemical waste
th a t may eventually have more deleterious effects on human health than th e d o-
I mest ic waste .th a t help ed sp read t he plagues of past centuries.
4-1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF WATER TREATMENT
t
f
[,
The treatment of water int e nd ed for human co nsumption is a very old practice .
f; Baker [4-6J report s references in Sa nsk rit literature dating back to 2000 B.C. to
s llch practice s as the boiling and filtering o f drinking water. Wick siphons tha t
tr a nsferred water from one vesse l to a no ther. filtering out the suspended impuritie s
r' in the process. we re pictured in Egyptian dr awi ngs of the thirteenth century B. C .
f, and were referr ed to in ear ly Greek and Ro m a n litera ture. The fact th at the se
practices were recorded in the medi ca l documents of the times indicates th a t the
connection between water a nd health had been observed. In fact, Hipp ocra tes
(460 - 354 B.C.). co nsider ed to be the father o f mo dern medicine , wrote that " ... who-
soeve r wishes to inve stig a te medicin e properly should - consider the water tha t
the inhabitant s use - for water co ntributes much to health ." [4-6J
:
These ea rl y wate r-tr ea tm ent devices were used in indi vidu a l hou seholds:
th ere is no indication o f co mmunit y wa ter supplies bt;ing treated until around the
first ce ntur y. Some of th e R o m a n aq ueduct s had settling basin s a t the head wo rk s
a nd incorpor a ted" pebb le ca tch ers" in the aqueduct channeL Th ese aqueducts
suppli ed a few priva te ta ps and pr ov ided fou ntain s'o r re servo irs for by th e
ge ne ral public. The city of Venice. situated o n isla nd s with no fres hwate r reso ur ce.
channeled ra inw a ter from roof s a nd courtyards into elaborate cisterns thr o ugh
sa nd filter s surr o undin g the reservoir. first of the se cisterns was built
the fifth century A.D . and provided private and public water suppli es for abou t 13
ce nturie s. [4-6J
Water-treatment pra ctice app are ntly lagge d during the Middl e Ages, with a
renewed intere s t emerg ing in the e ighteenth cen tur y. patents were issue d
for filtering d evices. primarily in France and England. As in ancient tim es. however ,
th ese devices were for use in pri \a te households. in stituti o ns. ships. etc. It was n ot
until th e beg inning of th e nineteenth century that th e treatment of public water
supp lies was a ttemp ted on a lar ge sca le. Th e c it y of Paisley . Scot la nd . is gene rall y
credi ted with be ing th e fir>! c ity w ith a treated wa ter sup p ly. That sy'stem consis ted
bf.sett ling opera tion s followed by fi ltr a tion and was put in se rvice in 1804. [4-6J
Thi S practIce slow ly spread throu g h Europe and by the end of th e ce ntur y. most
major municipal wate r s upplies \vere filtered. The se filters were th e "s low sa nd"
type described in Sec. 4-8 . .
The development o f wa te r tr ea tm ent in America lagge d behind the European
1JI'Clctice.The first a tt empt a t filtr ation was made a t Richmond. Virginia. in 1932 .
Thi S project was a failur e. :ll1d seve ra l years interve ned befo re anot her significan t
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 107
106 WAT ER

e O'o n \vas ma d e. [ 4- 6J After th e C ivil War . o th e r a tt e mpt s we re m a d e to fo llow 4-2 WATER-TREATMENT PROCESSES
the sa nd filtrati o n pr a ctice o f Eur o pe . few o f whi c h wer e success ful. Apparentl y
the nature o f the s lls pe nded so lid s in Americ a n str ea m s was s ignifi ca ntl y difTerent Past practice s in America have often been to obtain the purest possible source ,
fro m t hat o f th e so lid s in European stream s. and t he slow sand pr oc ess wa s no t even at the expen se of transpor ting water over long distances , and to deliver it to
as e ffec ti ve. Th e d eve lo pment of th e hydrauli ca lly c leaned rapid sa nd filt er durin g the consumer with litt le or no trea tment. Some ci ties sti ll own large tracts of land
the latt e r par t o f th e nin ete enth centur y p rov id ed a m o re wo rkabl e p roc ess. and near the headwater s of stream and re strict activi ties on t hese watersheds
to minimize contamination. Although the benefits of source protection a re recog -'
by th e e nd o f the ce ntur y it s use was wide spre ad.
Dur in g th e first two- thir ds o f th e ninete enth ce ntur y. filtr a ti o n was pr ac ticed nized as a " first line of defense" in preserving water quality . a ll na t ural waters
will require so me degree of treatment in order to meet modern drinking-water "
to improve th e aes th e tic qu a li ty o f th e drinkin g wa te r. An unkn ow n be nefit was
the re m ova l o f mi c roo rgani s ms. includin g p a th oge ns. w hic h mad e th e wa ter standa rds. The nature and exten t of treatment w ill, of course , depend upon the
m o re w ho l.eso me a s we ll. Th e acce ptanc e o f thi s fa ct in th e last quart e r o f the cen- na t ure and ex ten t of impur ities . .
tur y spurr ed th e co nstru c tio n o f the filt er plant s thr o ug ho ut E ur o pe a nd Ameri ca .
Ch emica ts Waste
At th e tu rn o f th e centur y. filtrati o n was the prim a ry defe nse aga in st wa ter bo rn e
Process add ed stream
d isease.
Acce ptan ce o f th e ge rm th eo ry o f di sease tr ans mittal led to the di s infecti o n Raw
l)f p ubli c wat e r s uppl ies . Fir st used o n a temp o rar y ba sis. di sinfec ti o n w ith blea c h wat er
pow d ers and hyp o chl o rite s wa s use d in iso lat ed cases in th e e ig ht ee n-nineti es.
T he fir st pe rm a ne nt in stall a ti o n for c hl o rin a tin g wa ter was m ad e in Belg ium in
1902. Th e p rod uc t io n o f liqu id chl o rin e began in 1909 a nd was fi rs t used fo r wat er Ae ralia n . Rem oves u nd es ir able gases and /o r
ox ida tion of iron a nd m anga ne se.
d isinfec tio n in Philadelphia in 19 13. [4-6J Ot her m ea ns o f di sinfec t io n. no ta bl y
ozo nat io n , we re d eve lo ped s imu ltan eo us ly but did no t find wid es pr ea d use. Th e
dr a stic redu cti o n in d ea ths du e to wa terb o rn e di se a ses as a res ult o f di s infec tio n S ludge removed and
Lim e di spose d of ; pos sibl e
led to the w ide s pr ead c hl o rin a tio n o f publi c wa te r s uppli es.
So/ref/in g: Remo ves ca lcillm a nd /o r m agnes iu m Sod a reco very and reu se
Oth e r wa ter -tr ea tment pr o cesses d eve lo ped m o re s low ly and less dr a mati ca lly. 2 o f lime.
ha rd ness; ma y be d o ne in o ne o r two s tages. ash
Coag ul a ti o n a s a n adjunct to se ttlin g wa s d eve lo ped a lo ng with th e' ra pid sand
." .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . .... .
filte r in Am e rica . So ftening o f ha rd wa te rs w as de m o nstrat ed in E u rope durin g
.. ... ..... . .the . nineteenth centur y but did no t find w id es pr ead lise in publi c wa ter suppli es
until we ll int o th e twe nti e th ce ntur y. Th e capa c ity o f c harc o al to re move di sso lved Bac kwa s h wa teT
F il lrari o n : Re moves re.sidual CaCO J c ry s tal s d ecanted ; sludge
o rga n ics was obse rv eu by early e xp e riment e rs in fi ltra:ti o n but d id no t find ap - Chl o rin e
an d Mg(OH) 2 Ooc le ft a ve r fr o m so ft e ni ng; 3 combined with
pli ca tio n in p ubli c wa ter s uppli es. Th e impr ove me nt o f thi s m a terial int o" ac ti- disinfec tant may be add ed to preve nt . . sludge from 2
\',lIed ca rb o n " a nd its use in wa ter-t rea tm ent p la nt s is a recen t occ tlfr ence. as is bio log ical grow th o n rilt er medium . above .
th e use o f sy nth e ti c m e mbran es fo r hype rfiltr a ti o n to re m O\'e di sso lved ino rga nic
m a teria l. .
D isin/eCi ia n . Des t ro ys patho ge ns; en o ugh Ch lorin e
M o re pr og ress ha s bee n mad e in wa te r purifi c ati o n in th e last ce ntur y th a n
adde d to prov ide a resi dual in th e
III a ll o f th e p rev io us ly re co rd ed histo ry. With few exce pti o ns. tr ea tmen t p rocesses dis tri buti o n sys tem .
deye lope d 111 th e abse nce o f sc ientifi c kn ow led ge cOllce rnin g th e bas ic p rinc ip les
UpOIl w hi c h th ey o pe ra te . and o ft en w ith littl e mea ns to quantitat ive ly assess th e ir
Sro rage: Pro vides co n tac t time for
effec ti ve ne ss . Onl y within the la st 30 to 40 year s ha s the bod y o r sc ientifi c know -·
d isinf ec tio n and s tores wat e r for peak
led ge ca ug ht up w ith the pra ctic e o r wa ter puri ficati o n. It is int eres tin g to no te de ma nds.
tha t the o f a th eo ry base has resu lt ed in few c han ges in the bas ic
processes 'o f wa ter purifi ca ti o n. U nde rsta nd ing o f sc ientifi c p rinc iples has. how-
to
e\·er. led to refi ne m e nt s o f pr ocesses. d eve lo pm e nt o f be tte r eq u ip ment , and a ll dis tribution
oye ra ll in c rease in o perating e fficie nc ies in wa ter tr eatment. Th e fo llow ing sec tio n sys tem
!li\'es a ll ove r view o f m o d e rn wa te r-t re atm e nt p mcesses. w hile th e remainin g
Figure 4- I Typ ica l plan t trea ting ha rd gro undw a ter.
o f th e c h a pt e r co ntain a d eta iled d escr ip t il)1l o f th e ind ivid ua l processes.

108 WATER
Process
Presidimentation: May be necessary if wat er
comes from fast-flowing str eams. Removes
larger suspended so lid s. Chem ica ls may be
ad ded to oxidize organics o r to arrest their
biologica l oxida t·ion.
Mixing. flocculation. settling : Removes
tur bidit y by coagu lating co ll oids and
se ttling th em o ut ; may also remove
colo r caused by large orga n ic molecule s.
Filt ration: Po lishes to remove re maini ng
tur bid ity; d isinfec tant may be added to
p reven t biologi cal gro w th o n filter medium .
Adsorp tion : May be necessary if wa ter
contains dissol ved organics; may co nsist o f
ac tiva ted ca rb o n co lu mns o r ac t-ivated
ca rb on may be added in powdered form in
opera tion sim ilar to 2 ·above.
Disinfection : Destroy s pathogen s; enough
added to provide residua l in the dis t ribution
sys tem.
Storage : Provides conta c t time ro r d isin fec tion
and sto res water for peak demand .
Figure 4-2 Typi ca l plan l Ireatin g lurbid
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PU RI FI CA TION 109
Th e processes selec ted I'or th e tr ea t ment of potabl e wa ter depend on the qua lit y
Chemica ls Wast e
added streams of the r:lw water suppl y. Mos t grou nd wa ter s are clear a nd pa t hoge n-free a nd do
no t co ntain significa nt am o unt s of o rga nic materia ls. Such waters may often be
Raw
wa te r used in potab le systems with a minim a l d ose of chlorine to prevent contamination
in the distributi on sys tem. Other grou ndwater s ma y con tain la rge qu a ntiti es of
disso lved so lids or gases. Wh en the se include excessive a mount s of iron , ma nga n-
Sludge removed
periodically and
ese, or ha rdn ess. chem ica l a nd ph ysica l tre a tme nt proces ses may be requ ired .
disposed of by Tr ea tment systems co mm o nly used to prepa re po table water fro m gro undwater
Ammonia spreading on land : are show n in Fi g. 4 ,1 . .
Surf ace wa ters o rten co nt ilin awide r var iety of co ntaminant s th a n grou nd -
water. and trea tment pr ocesses may be mo re co mplex. Mos t surface water s
Sludge remov ed co nta in turbidit y in excess of drinking-wa ter stand ard s. Alth ough fast-moving
Alum conti nuou sly ;
streams may carr y larger material in suspension , most of the so lids will be co lloidal
disposa l by
Polymers 2 land fil ling or
in size and will requIre chemica l co agulat ion fo r rem ova l. Dependin g on the geo l-
o ther sui tab le ogy of the wat ershed. hardne ss mayo r ma y not be a problem in surface water s. If
means aft er ' low levels of color and o ther orga nic mat eri a l are present, adso rpti o n ont o surfa ce-
dewatering .
ac tive m::Jterial, a pro cess not s ignificant in natu ra l water syste ms, ma y be neces-
sa ry. A wide vari ety of microo rga nisms. so me of which ma y be patho genic, are
Backw ash wa le r a lso co mmon co nstitu en ts of surfa ce wa lers. Tr eatm ent system s co mmonly useci
C hlorin e deca nt ed, and in treatin g surface W;lIers al'e shown in Fig. 4-2.
dewatered sludge
dispo sed of wi th
tha t from 2 abov e.
Water-Treatment Processes: Th eo ry and Application
S tea m fro m cleaning
It is genera lly co n\'en ient to grou p human use of water int o two br oad ca tego ries
cycle co nd e nsed and
disposed of. depending up o n the locatio!l of the use relative to the so urce. In -place use of water
. .\l.iWig'lt ion•. rCl:rCllt ion , .wildlife .propa.ga t io n . .and. the .ass imi.J.a-·.. ·
li on, and tran sportatIon llf was tewat er. Alt ho ugh hydroe lec tric powe r generatio n
requi res brief dive rsion of waler thr o ugh turbin e pen stocks, this use is a lso co n-
sid ered an in-pla ce use. Quantilati\ ·e ly. in-pla ce use is a noncon sumpti ve use and
wil l no t be cove red III this tex!.
For irriga ti o n and Indu strial ·u se. and fo r indi vid ual and publi c dome stic
supp li es, water mu st be \\ ithdra wn frc)m stream s, lake s. o r aqu ifers in Ihe natural
hyd ro log ic cyc le. Th e po llutant s mos t de leterio us to cro ps (inor ga nic sa lts and
metal s) are diflic ult and ex pensive to remove. Th e vas t quantit y of irrigation wa ter
to . used a nd the low marg.in of proli l assoc ialed with fa rmin g virt ually prec lude a ny
diqributi o n
tl'eatm enl of thi s waler. Wat er not su ited for irrigati o n is simpl y a band o ned . and
sys tem
avadab le ca pit a l is used in ste:ld to secure an alternate so urce of acce pt a ble qu a lity.
waler wilh organ ics. Man y indus tries wilh nccds 1'01' sm;t11 ::tmount s o f esse ntially potab le wa le r o btaill
their s upplie s fro m puh lil: system s. SL)me Illd usiri a l water su pp lies. such as bCl iler,
ked \V;lter. tllay require a c hcm ica l purity an o rd er nf ma gnitud e g rea teT than
po tab le water En gi lleer ing dcsi!!n fo r treatm ent of o ther types of indu stria l \\',ll e r
suppli es Illay als\) hc neceSS;11 y. ( '\Joll ng wa ter. parti cu lar ly that used on ly o nce
;Intl d ischar!,cd h;lck III II <tlurc. 1t;1; Ie\\' qualit y UlIlstr;lint s Indi\idu ;ll d OIl1 cstic
suppli es ;lrc l1 SII ;III 1' dr;1\\ 11 ft'Ulll \\ ells P I' sprin gs of accep tabl e qualit y <lnd se n 'c

lJO WATER
individual ho me s or farmstead s. Such sys tem s are seldom engineered but are
installed and operated by the home owners, perhaps with the advice of the well-
driller and the distributor of ho me water-treatment unit s.
Public water supplies, while only a fraction of th e to tal wa tel' us e, require
by far the large s t amount of efTort expended by environmental engineers in the
water-treatment field. The remainder of this chapter will be devot ed to the prin-
ciples of water purification for potable' supplie s. The proce sse s involved are
discussed first from a theoretical standpoint and then from an applications
standpoint.
4-3 AERATION
Aeration is a pr ocess sometimes used in preparing potabl e water. It may be used
to remove unde s irable gases disso lved in water (drgasijicalion) or to add oxygen
to water to convert undesirable substances to a more manageable form (oxidCl1ion).
Aeration is more often used to treat groundwater, as most surfa ce waters have
been in contact with the atmosphere for a sufficient period of time for gas tran sfer
to occur naturally.
Groundwater may contain appreciable quantities of gases slich as carbon
dioxide (C0 2 ) and hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S). Thcse gases arc biological waste
products from bac terial decomposition of organic matter in the so il or by-pr 6ducts
of reduction of sulfur from mineral deposits. Excessive carbon dioxide concentra-
tion results in a corrosive water. High carbon dioxide levels may also interfere
with other treatment processes. Hydr oge n s ulfide imparts an unpleasant taste
and odor to water, even in small concentrations. Altlwugh these gases are only
slightly soluble .at cont·ain considerably·
higher concentrations under pressures commonly fou nd in deep aquifers. Aeration
of water supersaturated with these gases serves to speed the release toward equili-
brium conditions.
Although volatile liquids such as humic; acids and phenols ca n be removed
. from water by aeration , the removal rate s are too' slow for the process to be practical
except in extreme cases where excessiw quantities must be reduced to more
manageable levels.
Iron and manganese are common elements widely distributed in nature.
In the absence o f oxidizing agent s, both of these clements are soluble in w:tter.
Forming compounds with other so luble ions. hoth iron and man ganese are
so luble in significant quantities o nly in the + :2 oxidation sta te, i.e" Fe' , and Mn +.
U pon contact with oxygen, or any other ox idi zing agents. both ferrou s iron and
manganese are ox idized to higher valances, forillin g new io nic compkxes that are
not soluble to any appreciable extent. Thu s. the jron ancl manganese may be
. removed as a precipitate after aeratiun. Chemically. these rea ctions may be
wr itten as fo llow s.
4F e 2 ' + + IOH 2 0 41·e(OH)., 1 I- 8 1-1 >
+ O2 + 2 H1 0 :2 1\'1nO 2 .:j H 0
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 111
In Eq. (4- I), Fe goes from the + 2 .to the + 3 oxidation state and in Eq. (4-2)
M n goes from the + 2 to the + 4 OXidation state. In both equations the free oxygen
(0 J IS reduced, and the anion ongmally :tssociated with the ferrous and mangan-
OtiS Ions recombin es With other cations in the solution. In both cases, the pH of the
solution IS lowered by the production of hydrogen ions.
Iron and manganese are found in appreciable amounts only in groundwater
and in water from the hypolimnion of strailfied lakes where anaerobic conditions '
exist. Aeration of this water provides the oxygen necessary to convert both elements
to t he insoluble form. Chemical oxidants, such as potassium permanganate, can
also be used for this purpose. They are sometimes used in connection with aeration
to speed up the process. When aeration is lIsed to precipitate iron and manganese,
additional treatment will be required to remove the precipitated solids.
Both degasification and oxidation are governed by the principles of gas trans-
fer that were presented in Sec. 3-4. Subtle differences in liquid-gas contact systems
can have a pronounced effect on the overall gas-transfer process . An understanding
of gas-transfer principles is essential in aerator design, and the student is en-
couraged to reread Sec. 3-4 before proceeding into the following discussion.
Liquid-Gas Contact Systems
Liquid-gas contact systems are designed to drive the water-gas mixture toward
equilibrium as quickly as possible for degasification purposes and to provide'
supersaturation of oxygen for oxidation purposes. These goals may be accom-
plished by either dispersing the water into the air or by dispersing the air into the
water.
When water is dispersed into the air, as depicted in Fig. 4-3, the interfacial
"a re;Lper..yo.lume .of..wate.r. is maximized by minimizing the drop size. This will
inc rea se the desorption rate for supersaturated solutions (Fig . 4-3a) or increase
the absorption rate for undersaturated solutions (Fig. 4-3b). In general, this ap-
proach works better for desorbing gases than for absorbing oxygen, although the
latter can be accomplished for undersaturated waters.
( ;as
fo"n
2 Bulk
gos
Loq uod
!'tlm
ra) rb)
(4-1 )
Figure 4-3 Water dispersed in air: (a) desorplion and (h) absorplion.
(4-2)
 112 WATER
In water purification plants, water-in-air system s may cons ist of fount ains,
cascade towers. o r tr ay towers . F otlntains consist of a piping grid suspended over
a catch basin. Nozzles located at the int ersec tion of the pipes are fixed to direct
the flow of wa ter upw ard. Once its kinetic energy is dissipated, th e wa ter falls
bac k into the catch basin where it is recove red. portion s of the fl ow perhap s being
recycled . The height of the spra y, and theref ore the water-air co ntact time. is de-
termin ed by th e pres sur e in the pip es, whi le the d ispers ion pattern is determined
by the nozzle charac ter istics. Nozz le size may vary from 2 to 4 cm in diameter.
Whil e smaller nozzles result in finer sprays. which yield grea ter surface- to-vo lume
.ratios , freq uent cloggi ng of small ca n resu lt in high maintenan ce cos t.
. Design parameters for sp ra y ae rators includ e system press ure, no zzle spacing .
and flow rates per nozz le. Pressures of aro und 70kPa ( 10 Ibj in 2 ) are commo n and
pr od uce fl ow rate s offrom 5 to 10 Ljs thr ough each nozz le. Grid spac ing may vary
from 0.6 to 3.5 m depend ing on the distance necessary to prevent extensive over-
lap of nozz le discharges. A typical desig n may consist of 2.54-cm nozzles on 1.25-m
centers operating at 70-k Pa pressure. resulting in an -area requirement of ap-
pro ximately 10 m 2 /(50 Ljs) o f water treated (or abou t 100 ft 2 j(Mgal /d».
Cascade low ers consis t of a series of waterfalls th at drop into smal l pools.
In thi s case the water is no t dispersed as drop lets bu t is exposed to the atmosphere
in thin sheets as it cascades down each step. Each step in a cascade tower is usually
abo ut 0.3 m in height. and as many as 10 steps may be emp loyed. Th e number of
step s det erm ines t he con tac t time between the wa ter and t he air. Head loss th rough
the system is simpl y th e height of the topmos t ste p. The casca des may be arranged
longitudin ally like stair steps or may be arranged in a ci rcle, with the steps extend ing
concen trica ll y outward from top to bot tom. Area requirem ent for cascade aera tor s
ranges from 4 to 9 m 2/(50 Lis) (40-9 0 ft 2/(Mgal/d», depending up on t he number of
_ step s used. [4-50J . need on ly be sufficient to deliver the requ ired air vo lu me at the pressure dete rmined
.. . . .. .. ... " . .. Tra J Tt1IVi-i r.n't(e 'si'ril'ilaY 'iii 'ifit ll're' i 0 t'o\\':e'r s"iii "t'I;,it i ic'r is lifted
and allowed to fall to a lowe r eleva tio n. Instead of being intercep teu in poo ls,
tr ay towe rs int ercept the flow with solid surface s over which the water mus t pass
in its downward journey. The so lid surfaces may be a series of redwood slat
tra ys which break the flow of the wa ter or a ser ies of porous-boltom tra ys contain-
ing stones, ceram ic sp heres. or other porous packing. In any case. tray mate rial
pr ov ides large sur face areas over which the fl ow is spread in thin fi lms. Po rosity
of the system mu st be sufficient to ensure circulati on of air around the surfaces.
Tray tower s are most oft en used for oxida tion of iron and manganese. Usua lly
the tr ay packing wi ll be large chunk s of coke wh ich have been precoa ted with a
st rong oxidant such as pota ssium permanganate to help initiate the ox idation
process . Films of iron and manganese so lids are depo sited on the' surfa ce o f the
medium . and th ese films serve to ca ta lyze the prec ipit at io n. reac tion. Manganese '
pr ecipit ates very slow ly below a pH of about 9. and it may be necessary . t6 raise
the pH to thi s level in orde r to speed the react ion.
In addition to the above operations, there are lIlany proprietar y devices on
th e market wh ich make use of'one or more of the basic principles just discmsed.
Informatio n on these dev ices may be ob tained from curr en t literatur e or from the
manufactur ers o r distribu tors.
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIF ICAT IO N 11 3
Bulk Bulk
liquid liquid
C, <C, C, >C,
Liquid Liquid
film fi lm
(a) (b)
Figur e 4-4 Air dispersed in waler' (a) deso rplion and (b) absorption.
Another method or ae ratin g wate r is to disperse the air into the water. Again.
bo th absorp tion and deso rption are enhanced by maximizing the interf acia l area ,
in this case by minimi zing the size of the air bubble. Figure 4-4a can be used to
illustrate the situati o n for a super sa'turated water (desorption). and the proces s
for an undersaturated wa ter (absorptio n) is shown in Fig. 4-4b. In genera l. thi s
approach work s better for absorption than for deso rp tion.
Air-in-wat er systems mo st o ften co nsist of tanks from 2.5 to 5.0 m deep thr o ugh
which the water /lows. Air is then injected th(Ough a porous bott om or through
spa rgers near the bottom. Since the energy-for this system is expended on the air,
not the water , smaller. less complicated equipment is requ ired. Blowe r capacity
by head loss thr oug h the distribu ting mechani sm, plu s the depth of the wa ter.
This type of aerat ion device has fo und -greater 'use in wastewa ter treatm ent th an
in potable water treatment.
Severa l varia tions of this proce ss may be employed. Ca rr ying ou t the proce ss
in an enclosed tank with a po sitive pressure in the atmosphe re above the liquid
wi ll speed the absorption ra te. altho·ugh.i t will also decrease the desorption rate.
An impeller placed Just above the poi n't of air injection will break the a ir flow in to
slIlaller bubb les and enhance mixin g patterns. As in the case of water-in- air
systems, there are sever al pr opri etary devices which make unique app lica tion of
the basic princip les disclls sed here.
All aera tio n ope rati ons must be well ventila ted to prevent the buildup of
gases which may be tox icant s or asph ixants.
4-4 SO LIDS SE PAR AnO N
The terms sedilllelllolioll and ('fliriliclil ion are co mm only used inter changea;l ly
with regard to prcp;II';ilIOIl llf j)'ltable \\,;ltCI' ..\lthough there ,II'C some suhtl e
t1i1lcrcllces in the Cllllll otatlllllS t'f the two word s. they hoth co nvey the of
 114 WATER WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS 115

physically separating solid material from water. Separation may occur by flotation where CD is the coefficient of drag, Ap is the cross-sectional area of the particle
if the water is denser than the solid matter. In the preparation of potable water, perpendicular to the direction of movement, and v is the velocity of the particle.
virtually all of the solids requiring removal are heavier than water; therefore, Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and in-
sedimentation with gravity as the driving force is the most common separation creases as the square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate
technique . until a steady velocity is reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving
Sedimentation may be classified into various types depending upon the charac- force:
teristics and concentrations of suspended materials. Particles whose size, shape ;
and specific gravity do not change with time are referred to as discrete particles. (4-3)
Particles whose surface properties are such that they aggregate, or coalesce, with
other particles upon contact , thus changing size , shape, and perhaps specific For spherical particles,
gravity with each contact, are called flocculating particles. Suspensions in which
the concentration of particles is not sufficient to cause significant displacement of
water as they settle or in which particles will not be close enough for velocity
field interference to occur are termed dilute suspensions. Suspensions in which the Substituting into Eq. (4-3)
concentration of particles is too great to meet these conditions are termed con-
centrated suspensions. These differences result in significantly diflerent settling (4-4)
patterns and require separate analysis. Settling in dilute suspensions is discussed
Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes. For
below. Since concentrated suspensions are most often encountered in wastewater
laminar , rransitional. and turbulent'flow, the values of CD are:
treatment , that discussion is presented in Chap. 5.
24 . (4-5)
CD = - (Iamll1ar)
Re
Type-l Settling
Discrete particles in dilute suspension, type-I settling , is the easiest situation to = -24 + - 3-2 + 0.34 (..
transItlOna 1) (4-6)
Re ReI !
analyze. If a particle is suspended in water. it initially has two forces act ing upon it:
(I) the force of gravity = 0.4 (turbulent) (4-7)

where Re is the Reynolds ............. ............................. . .. .................

in which Pp is the density of the particle , g is the gravitational constant, and Vp is the
volume of the particle; and (2) the buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as
where Pw is the density of the water. Since these forces are in opposite directions.
there will be no net force when Pp = p".. and no ·acceleration of the particle in
. Tchtion to the water will occur. If, however. the density of the particle differs from
that of the water , a net force is exerted and the particle is accelerated the direc-
tion of the force:
fnel = (p p - P,Jg Vp
This net force becomes the driving force for acceleration.
Once motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction.
This force, called the drag force, is quantified by
¢VrPwd (4-8)
Re = - - -
J1
Reynolds numb'ers less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, whil« values greater than
10· indic;lte'turblIlcnt flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow. The
shape factor ¢ is added to correct for lack of spherosity. For perfect spheres, the
value of ¢ is 1.0. For laminar flow, substitution of Eq. (4-5) into Eq. (4-4) yields:
g(pp - p,Jd 2
V = ---- - (4-9)
r 18 J1
which is known as the Stokes equation. Terminal settling velocities for the trans-
itiunal flow involve simultaneous solutions ofEqs. (4-6) and (4-4). Use of the above
equations in determining the terminal settling velocities of discrete particles in
dilute suspensions is illustrated in 'the following example.
Example 4-1: Finding the terminal settling velocit) ' of a sphere in water find the terminal
sell ling \'e!Ocily or a spherical particle with diameter 0.5 mm and specific gravity of 2.65
, clilin g Ihrou gh WOller al 20Ve
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICAT ION 117
116 WATER

SOLUTION Wat er level

I. Assume laminar flow; from Eq. (4-8) with p .. = 998 .2 kg/m 3 and J1 = 1.002 x 10- 3

N ·s/m 2 at 20°C

Vt = 18 x 1.002 x 10':3 N· s/m2

(Recall that the units of N are kg . m/s2)
v, = 0.22 mls
2. Check Reynolds number:
0.22 m ls x 5 x 10 - 4 m x '998.2 kg/ m 3
Re = ----'------,----.,---=-
1.002 x 10 - 3 N . s/m2

= 112, which indicates tran si tio nal flow

24 3
. 3. CD = ill + 112 1/2 + 0.34
= 0.84 - S"mpllng [lort

4 (2650 - 998.2) 5 10 - 4
V,2 = - x 9.81 x x
4. 3 0.84 x 998.2 Fig ure 4-5 Setll ing co lumn for analyzing lype- I sus pen sion .
v, = 0.11 ml s
Observing that the tim e of travel is equal for the two particles. it follows that
5. With v, = 0.11. repeat steps 2. 3, and 4.
Re = 55 Zo Zp
10 = - =- and
CD = 1.18 t'o L'p

v,. = 0.1 0 mls '" 0.11 m/s (see step 4)
. Direct application of Eqs . (4-4) through (4-9) is se ldom possible in water
treatment because the size of particles must be known and a correction fac to r ·
to account for departure from sphericity has to be determined. An indirect method
of measuring settling velocities of discrete particles in dilute suspensions. and of
determining settling characteristics of a suspension, was devised by. Camp. [4-11 ]
A settling column is constructed as shown in Fig. 4-5. The suspension to be tested
is placed in the co lumn and is mixed comp.letely to ensure uniform di stributi on
of the particles. The s\lspension is then allowed to se ttle. quie sce ntly .
S.uppose that a particle is just at the surface at time t;:qual zero and its set tlin g
velocity is such that it arrives at the sampling port at a later time , say I = 10 , Now.
the averaging settling velocity of this particle can be calculated as
distance traveled Zo
Vo = - time of tr ave l 10
Suppose also that another particle is initially suspended at a distance Zp above the
sampling port a nd that its se ttlin g velocity. less than Vo , is suc h th a t it
arrives at the port at the same time as the previous par(.icle. (ts se ttlin g velocity can
be calculated as
distance traveled Zp
v = --- -- -- = --
p time o f travel 10
Some ge ner a lized statement s can be made based o n th e above equatio n .
.J. ' All'particles With dianiet'els their se ttling
velocities equal or exceed l 'n . will a rri ve at or pa ss the samp ling port in time co·
2. A particle with diameter ell' < do will have a terminal set tlin g velocity vI' < Vo
and will arrive at or pa ss the sampling port in time 1o . provided it s o ri gi nal
position was at , or be low, a point Zp .
3. If the suspens io n is .mixed uniformly (i.e., all particle size s are randomly dis-
tributed from top to bottom of the co lumn) , th en the fracti o n o f particles of
size el p with se ttling velocity 1'1' which will arrive at o r pa ss the samp ling port
in time 10 will be Z p/Zo = l' / l'O' Thus. the removal efficiency o f any size particle
from suspension is the rati o of t he se ll ling ve loc ity o f th a t particle to the se ttling
ve locity Vo defined by Zo/Io·
The se principles can be used to determine th e settleabi lit y o f any given
pension . An apparatus simi lar to th ;\t shown in Fi g. is fi lled with the' suspen sion
to be tested. Theoreticall y. the depth of the water column IS not a factor ' in the
analysi s. but practical considerations dictate a depth of about:2 m. The s uspens io n
IS mixed complete ly to ensure an initially uniform di stribution of particle s. A
suspended- so lids tes t is rliF on a sam ple of th e comp let e ly mixed suspension. a nd
an initial concentratIOn CO IS determined . After the sus pensi o n is a ll owe d to se ttle
for a tim e I, a second sample IS then drawn o O'a nd an o ther concentration C t is
Il8 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAlft PURIFICATION 119

determined. All particles comprising C j must have settling velocities less than Example 4-2 : Sett ling column analysis of type-I suspension A settling analysis is run on
a type- I suspension. The column is 1.8 m deep, and data are shown below.
Z 01II l' Thu s , the mass fraction of particle s with V I < Zo/t I is
C j Time , min o 420
x = --
Co
Co ne, mg/ L 300 27
The pr ocess is repeated several time s with Xi a lways being the ma ss fraction o f
particle s with Vi < ZO/Ii' When the se values are plott ed o n a graph, as shown III What will be the th eo re tical rem ova l efficiency in a settling basin with a loading rate of
Fig . 4-6 , the fraction of particle s co rre sp o ndin g to a ny settlll1g veloc it y can be 25 m 3 / m 2 ·d (25 m id)? .. .

o bt a ined. SOUJTION
For a given detention time [0, an over all percent removal can be o btained .
All particles with settling velociti es grea ter than lio = Zol lo wi ll be 100 .percent l. Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding sett ling rates.
removed. Thus , 1 - xo fraction of particles Will be removed co mpletely Il1 tim e
1 , The re maining particles will be remo ved acc ord ing to the rati o vJvo, corre- Time , min 60 80 100 130 200 240 420
0
sponding to the shaded area in Fig . 4-6. If the equation relatlllg V and X IS kn ow n,
mass fraction remaini ng '0.63 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.37 0.26 0.09
th e a re a ca n be found by integr at io n :
xo [' . u, x 10 2 , m/min .I .55
I
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.83 0.48
x = J - Xo + Jx (4- J0)
o Vo

whe re X is the total mass fracti o n rem ove d by sedimentation. In mos t cases , 2. Pl o t mass fract ion remaining vs. settling velocity.
it is simpler to int egra te by finit e intervals as demon strated in th e following ex-
amp le.

1.0 0.9

0.8

0. 7
'0"
0. OJ)
c
VI c.
0.6
"E
t:
t::
S 0.5
U
'"
<.-
t. x = 0.06 c
0.4 E
t.x = O. I E
,; N
I

'J
0.3 0
t.x=O.1
'-'"

6.x = 0.06
6.x = 0.06 1£....l--..l_..L...L...L-..L........:L-....L---.JL--------.JL-----.......;
Seltling ve IUCIII"s." =- S; 2.0 3.0 4.0
I I, 1.0
o 00 .
Fi gur e 4-6 Co ll ection efficie ncy as a funeli ol1 of se ttli ng velocity . Ve locity, m/ min X 10- 2
 3. Determine Vo = 25 m J / m 2 • d = 1.74 X 10- 2
m/ min .
I ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PU RIFI CA TION 121

4. Determine Xo = 54 percent.
5. Determine

D.x v,
. v, by graphical integration.

llx . fl
I
II
0.06 1.50 0.09
0.06 1.22 0.07
0.1 1.00 0.10 E
0. 1 0.85 0.09 c
'.
0.1 0.70 0.07 E
0.06 0.48 0.03 0
u
0.06 0.16 0.01
.

LD.X '", = 0.46

6. Determine overall rem ova l efficiency .

" tJ.x . v,
X = I - Xo + L --
110

0.46
= 0.54 + -- Figure 4·7 Isorernov a lli!le S rrorn sell ling anal ysis.
1.74

= 0.46 + 0.26 given isoremova l line is the instantaneous veloci ty o f the fracti o n of particle s
=72% represented by that line . .
It should be noted that the velocity becomes grea ter (I.e., the slope of the
.- . Type-2 Settling isore mova l lines beco mes steeper) at grea ter depth. Thi s common characterIstI c
of flocculating sllspen sioI1s reflects the increase in particle size a nd sub sequent
Type-2 settling involves flocculating particles. in dilute suspension. Flocculating increase in settlin g veloc ity because of con tinued collision a nd aggregatIon WIth
suspensions cannot be generalized in the same manner as discrete particle sus-
other particle s.
pensions . Th'e Stokes equation cannot flocculating particles are For any predetermined de tenti on time . the overa ll percentage removed can
. ...-............. continually 'changing 'ifniie: sh'<ipe:'iiiiCi,'if a large aggregate of particles collect , be ob ta ined as illustrated in th e example below.
specific gravity because of entrapment of water in the interstitial space . So many
factors contribute to the flocculation process that it has been impos sible to develop Example 4-3: Settling column analysis of flocculaling particles A co lumn .ana lysis of. a .
. .., I ., 1 ' 1 be low . The inilial
flocculallng SLlspen slo n IS run In tIC appdf3 tu s s lOWI
so lids concen ·
a general formula for determining settling velocities. .
tration is 250 mg /L. The resulting maHix is sho wn be low What Wi ll be the .overa ll Fe-
An analysis of the settleability of a flocculating suspension similar to the analy-
moval efficiency of a settling ba sin whi c h is 3 In deep with a detention time of I h and
sis for a discrete particle suspension ju st described can be made. The settling
column must be altered somewhat to allow for sampling at several depths . As 45 min?

If
in the previous analysis. samples are drawn off at several time intervals and an- Tim e of sampling. min
alyzed for suspended-solids concentrations . These concentrations are then used Dep lh.
III 30 60 90 120 150 180
to compute mass fraction removed (instead of the mas s fracti on remaining)
at each depth and for each time. 0.5 1:13· 83 50 38 30 23
1.0 180 125 9} 65 55 43
x 100 (4-11 ) U 203 150 II 93 70
2 13 168 135 110 90 70

I
2. 0
2.5 220 I () 145 Ii } 10J 80
where xij is the fraction in percent th a t is removed at the ith depth at th e 155 I ,} 11 3 95
3.0 225
.--., jth time interval. These values are graphed as shown in Fig. 4-7, and a family of
isoremovallines is drawn similar to a contour map . The slope at any point o n any • Results or sllspended so lids lest on sample C,' mg L
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIF ICATION 123
122 WATER

SOLUTION IV Z, IV·Z;

I. Determine the rem ova l rate at each depth and time . 0.Q7 2.6 0. 18
0. 1 1.8 0. 18
0.1 1.2 0. 12
X;j = (I - C;)C o) x 100
0.1 0.8 0.08
0.1 0.45 0.04
Tim e of sampling. min 0.1 0. 15 0.0 1
Depth. LIVZ; = 0.6 1
m 30 60 90 120 150 180

0.5 47 67 80 85 88 91 tJ.,·z
5. Determine the removal efficiency, R = '0 + r --'
1.0 28 50 63 74 78 83 zo
1.5 19 40 53 63 72 77
2.0 15 33 46 56 64 72 0.6\
42 59 68
= 0.43 + -
2.5 12 28 51 3.0
3.0 10 25 38 47 55 62
= 63%

2. Plot isoconcentration lines a:; s hown in th e accompanying figure.
3. Construct vertica l lin e at 10 = 105 min.
4 . From the figure. approximately 43 percent 01' the so lids will reach the 3-m depth 111 10 ,
The y wlil pe 100 percent removed. Some percentage of the remaining particles will be
removed. Working upward along t he 10 line, tktermine increments of rem oval and
depths to the midp o int of th ese inc reme nt s.
4-5 SETTLING OPERATIONS
The sed imentation process has ma ny applications in the preparation o f potable
wa ter. Materials that may be remo ved by sedi ment a tion include suspended solids
or igina lly present in the water or dissolved so lids which have been precipitated
in the course of other tre atment processe s. S uspe nsions in water-treatment plants
are ass um ed to be dilute, a lthou gh so me zone settlin g may occ ur ne ar the bottom
of settling basins.
Cr iteri a for desi gn o f se ttlin g basins have evolved as much from practice as.
fro m the o ry .. S.ettling .. .. employed . J()r . rernoyal,in . ........... .
plants are classified as either lon g-re ctangul ar, circular. or so lid s-co ntact clarifiers.
Although the se are all continuous-flow systems , the settling theory for batch analy-
sis discussed in the previous section can be app lied_

LO'ng-Rectangular Basins
"E
::J E
cC> Long-rec ta ngu la r basins are commonly used in tre atment plant s processing large
.c
OJ)
0. fl ows. This type of basin is hyd rau lica lly more stab le, and flow co ntr o l thr o u g h
.S
c" large volumes is easier with thi s configuration. A typical long-rect angular tank
"
Vl
is shown in Fig. 4-8. Typical designs consist o f basin s whose len gth ranges from 2
to 4 times their width a nd fro m JO to 20 tim es their depth. The bottom is slightly
sloped to fac ilitat e slud ge scrap ing. A slow-mov ing mechanical sludge scraper,
usua ll y redw oo d slats o n a ch a in drive. continuously pull s th e se ttled material
into a slud ge hoppe r whe re it is pumped o ut periodically.
A long-recta ngular se ttling tank can be divided' into four differe nt functional
zones:
I. The inlet zone in which baffles intercep t th e incoming water and spread the
Tim e. IllIIl
flow ulllfo rmly both horizontally a nd vert ica lly ac ross th e tank
 124 WATER J"NGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIF ICATION 125

\
Settling zone

Sludge
scrapeJ
- '*I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
...•.. I
" I
I

o I,
Sludge
out (u) Figure 4-9 Di sc rete pdrl icle removal in Ihc se tlling zone o f a I,lng-rectangular setlling basin.

particle s fallmg Ihrou gh the settling co lumn wtll n(lW have two co mp o nents of
velocity. the vertical co mponent.

and the ho ri zont<li component. that is. the \elocity of fl ow through the se ttling
zone_

\;,het:e:4 sl.liTi of the se

velocities is the absolute ve loc it y of th e parti cles.
No\\' cOllsider th e panicle In the b<ttch ,1Ilalysis for type-I settling which was
Initially at the surl'ace an d settl ed tilr ough the depth of the column Zoo in the tim e
In II' £0 also correspond s to the time required for the colum n to be car ried ho ri-
(/J) zonta ll v acro ss ihe se ttlin g zonc. then the particle will rail into the sludge zo ne and
Figure 4-8, settling basin: (a)diagrammatic sketch and (b) view or interi o r sh ow ing
be rCllloveci from susp ension at the pOint ;It \\'hleh the co lumn reach es the end of
sludge scraper arrangemenl. (PholO courtesy oj Em.irex Inc., 0 Rexnord Compan v,) the setlling zone. ,\5 in the batch anal ys is. a ll parllcles with 1', > 1:0 will be removed
from suspens ion at some poi nt along the settlin g zone. Now consider the particle
with settlin g vc loclty < l'o. lft helnitialdepthnfthisparticlewassuchthatZ p !u, =
2, The outlet zo ne in which water flows upw3rd and over the ou tlet weir
I". thiS particle wtll ,liso be removed. as sho\\n in the anal ysis. Therefore.
3. The sludge zone. wh ich extends from t·he bottom of the tank to ju st 3bove the
the rem ova l of suspe nd ed particlc s passlllg thr u ugh the settling zone wil l be in
scraper mechanIsm
proporti o n to the ratio of the Incli\idual settling \'eloet ties to the settl ing ve locir-y
4. The se:tlin g zone. which occupies the rcmaining volum e of the. tank t·
u
Anot her poi nt ca n bc mad e by this analysis. The lim e 10 corres ponds to the
. Although a'II four zones musi function properly for efficient sol id s removal.
retention time in the seltltn g zone.
pmr:ary a ttentIon here will be focused on the settling zone. Assume that the
settllflg
. colu mn Ifl F'Ig. 4 - 5 IS
. sllspended 111
. the flow of th e settling zone as shown in I' LZ n IV
In =
Ftg. 4-9. The column travels with th e flow across the settli;lg lone. Discrete Q Q
 rn
i'
I
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 127
126 WATER

A lso

(0

theref ore
LZ oW . Q
Q
and !·o =I w
or
"0=-Q (4-12)
As
w here As is th e surface a rea o f the set tling ba sin . Thus , the depth of the basin is
not a factor In determining th e size par ticl e th at can be removed co mpl etely in
the se ttlIng zo n e. The determining factor is the quantity Q/ As' which ha s th e unit s
o f ve loc Ity and IS refe rred to as th e ove rfl ow rate qo· This ove rflow ra te , expressed
as cub IC meters per squ a re-m eter hour (or ga llo n s per sq ua re-fo ot day), is the design
fac tor fo r se ttlIng baSInS a nd corres p o nd s to the terminal sett lin g ve loc it y of the
partIcle that IS 100 per cen t removed.
If a similar co mparis on of flocculating particles is made be tween batch Figure 4-10 Inboard weir arrangement to increase weir length.
se ttll!l g and continuous se ttlin g in lo ng-rec tan gul a r ta nk s, th e path of the falling
partIcles wIll not be a straIght lIne . As determined in the batch ana lysis, average Large weir overflow rates result in excessive velocities at the outlet These
velOCItIes of flo cc ulatIng partIcles increase w ith d ep th. Since the paths of parti cles velocit ies extend backward into the settling zone, causing particles and floes
tend to curve d ow nw a rd as illu str a ted in Fig. 4- 7, d epth is a factor in fl occ ul a nt which would o therwi se be remo ved as sludge to be drawn into the outlet Overflow
3
se ttlin g. Therefore, the batch analysis mu st be p erfor med in a col umn of the same rates ranging from 6 m 3 j h per meter of weir for light flocs to about 14 m / h per
depth as th e basi n which it is to model. meter of weir for heavier discrete-particle suspensions are commonly used . [4-44J
. Settling basins designed for di sc rete particles are usuall y from 2.5 to 3 m d ee p, It may be nece ssa r y to provide special inboard weir designs such as the one in
wh Ile those for flocculating p art ic les are usuall y 3 to 4 m deep. [4-44J From a Fig. 4-10 to acco mm o date the '!owe'rwe{r
over'flow' ra·tes .······ . .. . . ' ................... , .... . . .
practIcal standpoint. w idth s in excess of about 12 m crea te pr oblems wi th s ludge The de sign of long-rectangular settling b as ins i"S illustrated in the following
removal equipment ; thu s len gth s a re usually kept to less than 48 m. Multiple
examp le.
III parall e l are used to o btain the vo lum e and retention tim es need ed for large
flows. In fact , It IS always good practice to have at least two unit s so one can co n- Designing a long-rectangular settling basin for type.-2 settling A city mu s t
tinue fun c tio ning while the ot her is down for repairs or routine maintenance. treat about 15,000 m) /d (4 Mgal /d) of water. Flocculating are pr od uced 'by
F o r dilute suspe n sion s, overflow rates for di scre te particle set t liu g usuall y rang e coagulation, and a colum n analys is indicates that an ove rflow rate of20 mid will produce
satisfactory remova l at a depth of 3.5 m. Determine the size of the required settling tank .
from 1.0 to 2.5 m / h (0.4 to 1.0 ga l/ ft 2 . min), wh ile ove rflow ra tes for fl occ ula tin g
suspensIons range from 0.6 to 1.0 mi ll (0.25 to 0.4 gal /ft 2 . min). Det ention times
SOLUTION
range from 2 to 4 h for discrete particle s :1I1c1 from 4 to 6 h for flu cc ulating suspen -
3
s ions . [4-44J I. Compute surface area (provide two tank s at 7500 m /d each).
Alth ough se lec ti on of the overflow rat e and the detention time determine Q = qoAs
the size o f the basin, o th e r parameters also have to be co ns·ider ed. These include
.7500 m 3 /d = A , x 20 mi d
th e horizontal ve loc ity Vh and th e weir rate (/"'. 2
The motion of the s lud ge scraper may momentarily res uspe nd li g ht e r particle s A, = 7500/20 = 375 m
a nd fl ocs a few ce nt ime ters above the sc raper blades. Since excess ive horizo nt,d 2. Selecting a length -to-width ratio of 3/ 1. calcu late sur face dim ensions.
ve loc itie s wou ld m ove this material progress ive ly toward the zo ne where It w x 3w = 375 m'
wou ld be los t in the overflow, horizontal flow veloc! ty s hould not exceed 9.0 I1l/ Il Width = 11.18. say 11 m
(0.5 ft/ mlll) for hght fl occulent sllspensions or about 36 mi ll (2 ft/ min) for hea vier.
Length = 33.54, say 34 m
discrete-partIcle suspen s io ns. [4-44J
 128 WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFI CATION 129

3. Check retention time. It is essential that the weir plate s be precisel y level. since a very sligh t differ-
ence in elevation will result in considerab le short circuitin g (dIrect channe lltlg
volume II m x 34 m x 3.5 m
(= ---= from influent to effluent). Uneven distribution and wltld currents can also ca use
flow rate Id
7500 mid x - short circuiting. Thes e facto rs make flow con trol more difficult Itl cIrcular bas ll1s
24 h
than in lon g-; ectangu lar ones. Because fl ow-con trol problems become
= 4.19 h difficult to co ntr o l as tank size increases. it is usually adVIsable to lImIt cIrcu lar
4. Check horizontal velocity. tank diameters to 30 1Tl or lcss. .
Design of circu lar sett ling basins is based on overflow rates and detentIon
, d
Q 7500 m Id x -24- h times. Th e limits presented for long-rectang ular tanks are app lIcable to cIrcular
t', = - = ------- := 8. 1 mi h tank s. For obvious reaso ns. neith er hori zontal ve lOCIty. nor weI r overflow rates
A, II m x 3.5 m
are a consideration in the design of circlllnr settlIng bas1l1s. " .
5. Check weir overflow rate . If simple weir is placed across end of tank, overflow length The following exa mpl e illus trat es the ciesign of cIrcular settltn g ba s1l1s.
will be II m and overtlow rate will be
Example 4-5: Designing 3 circular settling basin Using the data in Exa mplc-4-4. deter-
m' I dIm' mine the diameter required fo r circu lar settling ba slIls.
7500 -- x x -- = 211A --
d 24 h II m h .m
SOLUT tON
Five times this length will be needed . Design weir as shown in Fig. 4-10.
6. Add inlet and outlet zones equal to depth of tank. and slud ge zo nes as shown in th e Aga in pro vid ing two ta nks. the surface are a is calcu lated as befo re.
accompanying figure.
,4 , = 375 m'

34.0 2. The tk"lIneter is ca lculat ed by

/. ./ rrtl' , -I = 375 m '

Inlet
zone
3.5E Outlet
zone
=:J 35
.
Dep th of
se ttlin g .
3. Inlet. outlet. and sl udge 70nes afC
tI = 2 1.85. say m

pro\ .1d ed as,'110"-1' 1 in the accompanyin u

e fl!!Ure.
Slop e Iii 00 zo ne plus
0.5 freeboard
plus 0.5 for
. ............. AlI.dime-nsions in meter s slud ge Zone
.... . .... . ....... . .................. . .

Scrtllllg 101lt.;
Circular Basins

Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long-rectangular
basin, but the flow regime is quite different. When the flow enters at the center and
Oulicl
zone
4.0

f-J
1-'''''''"' '
110

-
Inkl 71 lilt'
4 .0 )-----
110

--- 4.0

L
OUlkt'
zone·

is baffled to flow radially toward the perimeter. the horizontal velocity of the water
is continually decrea sing as the distance from the center increases . Thu s. a discrete
.,./
particle with a settling velocity Vo is continually undergoing a change in its absolute
velocity due to the decrease in ho rizontal velocity. Thus. the particle path in a

.-....
circular basin is a par abo la as opposed to the strai ght particle path line in the lo ng-
rectangular tank.
Circular t.anks have certain advantages. Sludge' removal mechani sms are
simpler and require less maintenance. [4-57]. Excessive weir ove rflow shou ld
never be a problem because the en'tire circumference is used for ove rflow. In fact.
I --=--
-

-,

to prevent extremely thin sheets of water from being drawn off. overflow weirs Solids-Contact Basins
on circular tanks usually consist of V-notched meta l plates which reduce the effec-
." !though slllids-cLlntaCl . I 1'I0'cr Cllnstl .' ICI'.d):
II fl"')ll1 either CIrcular or Illng-
tive overflow area. These strips are bolted onto the collection trough and can be I .
rectan gular h:lsins with respec t 1(\ ll oll' regll11es. 1 nnk
, . t Ile\ S·tll , c use of the rrlnctpl es
adjusted to correct for differential se ttling of the basi n after construction.
130 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 131

of sedimentation previously discussed . The upward veloci ty of the flow in solids-
contact basins works contrary to the settling velocity of the suspended particles.
Referring to Fig. 4-11 the vector sum of velocities for any given particle is its
terminal settling velocity minus the upward velocity of the flow at the level of the
particle. At high upward velocities (near the bottom o f the cone), vir tually all
particles and floes are swept upward with the flow. As the cross-sectional area
of the cone increases, the upward velocity of the water decreases, and the vector
sum of the velocities reaches zero; the particle stops and is suspended at that height
in the cone. At this point, a particle is considered" removed" from the water.
Obviously, larger particles with greater sett ling velocities become suspended
nearer the bottom of the cone where upflow velocities are higher. Particles whose
se ttling velocity is exceeded by the upflow velocity at the top of the cone are swept
on upw ard and into the overflow of the tank.
Particles collect at positions dictated by their settling velocities until a so lids
blanket is formed . creating a concentrated suspension. even if the original sus-
pension was dilute. The creation of the solids blanket is an imp ortan t part of
upflow clarification. Very small particles. which would normally be swe pt out of
the clarifier. mu st first pass through the concentrated zone. In flocculating sus-
pensions, the chances are excellent that enme s hment in the sludge blanket will
occur so even very small particles or floes win be removed. Thu s. the blanket
acts similarly to a filter for solids removal.
The elevation of the sludge blanket in the cone is determined by the concen-
tration of the solids in the blanket. higher concentration resulting in a greater rise.
The concentration, and thus the elevation, of the solids blanket is controlled by
drawing off excess sludge once the desired concentration and height have 'bee n
reached ..
At section
velocity is equ a l to the
As a factor of safety, the unit is usually sized so that the upflow velocity at a
point 1.5 m below the top of the cone is one-half of the settling velocity of the particle
that is to be removed . [4-1 J Generally speaking, upflow velocities of about 1 m/h
at the liquid- so lids interface for flocculent sludges and about 2 mlh for nonfloccu-
lated slurries are adequate. Solids concentration of approximately 3 percent by
weight for flocculated sludge blankets and approximately 5 percent by weight
for nonflocculated slurries s hould be maintained in the solids blanket. Since
hori zon tal velocities are to be avoided in this process, overflow weirs should be
arranged to ensure essentially vertical flow. Horizontal flow distances should not
exceed the depth of the clarified zone by more than a factor of 3. [4-44J
4-6 COAGULA nON
Virtually all surface water sources contain perceptible turbidity. Some particle
sizes common to most surface waters are listed in Table 4-1, along with their
terminal settling velocity (assuming quiescent conditions and specific gravity of
2.65). From these values it is obvious that plain sedimentation will not be very
efficient for the smaller suspended particles. Under conditions normally encoun-
tered in setiling basins, efficient removal of particles less than 50 pm in diameter
cannot be expected.
Agglomeration of particles into groups, increasing the effective size and there-
fore the settling velocities, is possible in some instances. Particles in the colloidal
size range, however . possess certain properties that prevent agglomeration. Surface
waters with turbidity resulting from colloidal particles cannot be clarified without
special treatment. A knowledge of the nature of colloidal suspensions is essential
b·b,
the upflow
. XO .tbis removaL.. .........................................................

Colloidal Stability
. .......................... ... ..

se ttling velocity of the

particle . Th e net velo.ci ty
Cylindrical is zero, 3nd all particles Colloidal suspensions that do not agglomerate naturally are called slable. The
section with ihis settling velocity. most important factor contributing to the stability of colloidal suspensions is the
remain suspended in the excessively large surface-to-volume ratio resulting from their very small size,
flow at Ihis point-.
-b
Table 4-1 Settling velocities of various size particles*
Coni ca l
section Particle Size
Upflow Settling
diameter typical Settling
velocity ve loci ty
a- mm 01 velocity
of particle

At sect ion a·a, the upflow velocity 10 Pebble 0.73 In iS

Uptlow Settling Ntt
exceeds the sett lin g velocity of the
velocity velocity vdocity
Coarse sand n.n Inf'

.L,,,,,,,
particle. The net velocity of the 01 Fin e sand 1.0 x' 10 - ' m!s (0.6 m / min)
particle is in the directio'l of flow. 01' p3.ticl e
001 Silt 1.0 x 10 4 m /s (R.6 m /d)
and the particle is swept upward at O.UOOI Large collnid 10 x 10 - ' Ill!, (0.3 In/ yr)
the net velocity. OOOOUO I Small colloid 1.0 x 10 \J Illis (3 m / million yr)
velocity
----- -- -- --- --- - --
Figure 4-11 Principles of upAow clarification. ... Srhcrcs With srecific gravi ty or 2.65 in water cit 20"('
 132 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 133

Surface phenomen a predominate ov er ma ss phenomena. The most imp o rtant
surface phenomenon is the accumulation of electric a l charges at the particle
surface. Molecul a r a rrangement within cr ystal s. loss of atoms due to abrasion of
the surfaces, or o ther fac to rs may result in th e s urface s being charged. In most
surface waters . colloidal surfaces are negatively charged.
Ions contained in the wa ter near the colloid will be affected by the char ged
surface. A negatively charged colloid with a po ssible configuration of ions around
it is shown in Fig . 4-12 .The first layer of cations attracted to the negatively charged
surface is " bound " to the colloid and will travel with it. shou ld displacement of the
colloid relative to the water occur. Other ion s in the vicinity of the colloid arrange
themselves . as shown . with greater concentrations of positive. o r co unt er. io ns
being closer to th e co lloidal surface. Thi s arrangement produces a net cha rge
that is strongest at the bo und layer and decr eases exponentially with di stan ce fro m
the colloid .
'- -
+ + " \
+ \
+ \
+ \
\
+ \
Wh en two co lloids come in close proximit y ther e a re two forces acting o n them.
The electro sta tic potential created by the " ha lo" of cou nt er ions surrounding
eac h colloid react s to repe l th e pa rti cles. thu s preventing co nta ct. The seco nd force.
an attra ction forc e ca lled th e mn de r Wau/ s[o rce, supports co nt act. This force is
inverse ly proportional to the six th power of th e distance between th e p a rticl es
and also decays expone nti a ll y with distance. It decrea ses more rapidly than th e
electrostatic potential. but is a str o nger force at close distances. The sum of th e
two fo rces as th ey relate to o ne co lloid in close proximity to ano ther is illu str a ted
in Fi g. 4- 13. As noted in the figure. th e net force is repul sive at grea ter distances
and beco mes attr active on ly after passing thr o ugh a maximum net repul sive force.
ca lled th e eYler9.1' harrier. at some distance between co llo·ids. Once the for ce become s
attr ac ti ve. con tact betwcen t ile particles tak es place.
/\. means of overco min g th e ene rgy barrier mu st be ava ilabl e before agglomer-
ation of particle s can occur. Brown ian movem ent. th e ra nd o m movement of sma ller
co lloids becau se of mol ec ular bombardment. may produce enough momentum
for particl es to nvercome the ene rgy barrier and thu s co llid e. Mechanical agitation
of the water ma y impart eno ugh moment lim to la rge r particles to move them
across the energy barrier. Th ese processes are too slow . howeve r. to be efficient

/:
+ I
I
+

I
B:;/ + +
_/
+
/
/
+

+ ......... ....... . . ......... . . "'1)

Nco.
' 0"

Distance
be t ween
co llo ids

Net rorce (Lcta - va" dcc Waal s)

- ----- --

Diffused layer
Di stance from particle
J
Figure 4-12 Charge sys tem in a co lloida l suspe n sion. Figure 4-1 3 Force fields b,,,ween (plio Ids of lik e charge .

L.
 134 WATER
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 135
in water purification. and neither results in collision s of medium-sized colloids.
Thus. other means of agglomeration must be used. In water purification this is
generally accomplished by chemically coagulating the colloids into clusters. or
flocs. wh ich are large enough to be rem oved by gra vity sett ling .

Coagulation Theory
t
:::
.2
In water-treatment plants. chemical coagulation is usually accomplished by the '-
o
addition of tri va lent metallic sa lts such as AL 2 (S04).1 (aluminum s ulfate) or
FeCI ] (ferric chloride). Although the exact method by which coagulation is ac- "
.D
E
:;
complished cannot be determined, four mechanisms are thought to occur. These Z
include ionic layer compression, adsorption and charge nel tralization , entrap-
ment in a flocculent mass, and adsorption and interp arti cle bridging.

Ionic layer compression The quantity of ions in th e water surrounding a colloid

has an effect on the decay function of the electrostatic potential. As illu strated in
Fig. 4-14 a high ionic concentration compresses the layers composed predomi- Diffused
nantly of counter ion s toward the surface of the colloid. If this layer is sufficiently layer
compressed, then the van del' Waal s force will be pred o minant across the entire Distan ce from particle

area of influ ence, so that the net force will be attractiv e a nd no energy barriers will (a)
exist. An example of ionic layer compression occurs in nature when a turbid
stream flows into the ocean. There the ion content of the water increase s drastically
and coagulation and settling occur. Eventually, deposits (deltas) are forme d from
material which was originally so small that It could not have settled without
Although coagulants such as aluminum and ferric salts used in water
. treatmenl 'iDnize; 'at ·the 'conce'ntrarion 'co ttjmtiiilY''tfsed'' fhey \vQuld not increase
the ionic concentration sufficiently to affect ' ion layer compression. t
:::
Adsorption and charge neutralization The nature , rather than the quantity, of the o
a.
ions is of prime importance in the theory of adsorption and charge neutralization. '"
Although aluminum sulfate (alum) is used, as in the example below, ferric chloride o" " __________
behave s similarly. U. between
The ionization of aluminum sulfate in water produces sulfate anion s (SO/ - ) particles
and aluminum cations (A1 3 +). The sulfate ions may remain in this form or combine
with o th er ca tion s. However. the A1 3 + cations rea ct immediately with water to
form a var ie ty of 3quometallic ion s and hydrogen.

AI.l + + H 20 ----'--+ AIOH 2 + + H ' (4-13a)

A1 3
+ + 2H 2 0 Al(OH 2 )! + :!W (4-13&)
J
7A I ' + 17 H 2 0 -/- 171-1 ' (4- 13c) Figure 4-14 Ionic compression: (a)
reduction of thickness in diffused layer;
(b) (b) reduction of net force .

AI" -/- 3 H 2 0 Al(OH), -/- 3 11 • (4-IJn)

 136 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PUR IFI CATION 137

The aquometallic ions thu s fo rm ed become part of the ionic cloud surround- Inili a l odsorpll o n 01 Ihe optimum polym e r dosage
ing the colloid and, because they have a great affinity for surfaces, are ad sor bed
o nto the surface of the colloid wh e re they neutr a lize the surface c harge . Once .th e
surface charge has been neutrali zed , the ionic cloud di ss ipate s and the electrostatic
potential disappear s so that contact occ urs free ly. Overdosing with coagulants
can result in rest a bilizing the suspen s ion. If enough a quomet a llic ion s are form ed Polymer
+
0
Pori icle
•
Destabi lized
pa rt iele

and adsorbed: the charges on the ' particles bec o me reversed and the ionic clo ud s F loc forination
re form , with neg a tive ions bein g the cbunter io ns. This phen omenon will be dis-
Flo cc ul a tion
cussed more fully in a later section. •
(pe rik inetic or
or thokin e tic)
Sweep coagulation According to Eq. (4-13n), th e la st produ ct fo rmed in th e
Destabili zed pa rti cles
hydrolysis of alum is aluminum hydroxide , AI(OHh. The AI(OHh form s in
amorphous , gelatinous flocs th a t a re heavier than water and se ttle by gravity. Secondary adsor pll on of po ly mer
Colloids may become entrapped in a floc as it is formed , or th ey may bec o me Restab ilized padicle
enmeshed b y its "s tick y" surface as th e floe s sett le. The pro cess by which colloid s
are swept from su spens ion in thi s manner is known as sweep coagula tion.
Destabiliz ed particl e
No contact wit h vacant site s
on ano lh er particle
@
Interparticle bridging Large m o lec ul es may be formed when aluminum or fe rri c Ini tial adsor pti on excess
sa lts dissociat e in water. Equati o n (4-13c) is an exa mple , although larger o nes poly mer dosage
are probably formed also. Synthetic polym ers a lso may be used in stead of, or
in addition to , metallic salts. These polymers ma y be linear or branched a nd are
highly surface re a ctive. Thu s, seve ral colloids m ay become a tt ac hed to o ne
polymer and seve ral of the polym er-c o lloid groups may becom e en meshed (Fi g.
4-15), resulting in a se ttleable m ass .
5 it 7
\
\
Excess polymers
"
+
0
Part ide
Ruplurc of !loc
- Stabl e particle
(n o vacant sit es)

In addition to the adsorption forces, char ges o n the pol ymer ma y assist in ' I
the coagulation proc ess. Metallic polymers form ed by the addition o f aluminum
.. .- ..... ............ or.ferr.icsalts are po sitively ch a rg ed , while synthetic polymer s ma y carry po sitive Intense or
• Floc
. . ..

or negative charges or may be neutral. Judiciou s choice of appropriate char ges pr o longed fragments
Fl oc part ide agi tatio n
may do much to enhance the effectiveness of coagulation.
Secondary adsorp tion oj pol y mer

Jar Tests for Optimum Coagulant Dosage

Coagulation is no t yet an exact sc ience. a lthou g h rece nt advances have been m ade
in understanding the mechanic s o f the proce ss . Therefore. selection and optinlum Ftoc fragmen t -' cY
Restabilized !loc
fragment
dosages of coagulant s are determin ed experimentally by the jar tes t instead o f
quantitatively b y fo rmula. The j ar te st must be performed on eac h wa ter th a t is 'Fig ure 4-15 Irllcrparticle bridging with polymers. (Alier O' M elia [4'-41].)
to be coagulated and mu st be repea ted with each signifi ca nt cha nge in the q ua lit y

I
of a given. water.
The jar te st is p erfo r.med usin g a se rie s of g lass co ntainer s that ho ld at leas t
I L and are of uniFo rm size and s ha pe. Normall y. s ix jars are used w ith a stirrin g
device (Fig. 4-16) th a t simultaneollsly mixe s th e co nt ents o f each jar with a uni-
fo rm powe r input. Each of the s ix. jars is filled to the I-L mark wit h water whose
turbidity , pH, and a lk a linit y ha ve been predetermined. One jar is used as a co ntr o l,
while the rem a inin g fi ve are do se d wi th different amou nt s of coagulan t(s) a t
different pH va lu es until the minimum valu es o f res idual turbidit y are obta ined.
After chemical addi t io n. th e \vater IS mixed rap idl y for about j min to ensure
co mplete di spers ion of the ·c hemicals. then mix ed slow ly for. 15 to 20 min to aid
in tlie for mati on of flocs. Th e water is nex.t a llowed to se ttl e for app ro ximat ely
30 min , or' un til clar ifica ti on 'ha s occ urr ed P o rtions o f th e se ttl ed wa ter are then
removed a nd tes ted to d eter min e th e re maini ng turbidity. Te st res ult s are used
to calc ula te th e type and quantity of coagu la n t to be u sed in th e wate r-tre a tm en t
plan t.
138 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 139

Figure 4-16 J ar test apparatus.
Jar tes ts also serve to illu stra te the me'cbanics of coagulation. Ge ner a lized
curves for residual turbidit y as a fury:tionof coagu lant dosage s and initia l turbidit y
appear Il1 FIg. 4-17 . Co llo Id concen tr a tIOn? S are measured in terms of sur face
area per lit er a nd increase from SI to S4' A-t low co lloidal concen t ra ti ons (F ig.
4-170), insufficient numbers of colloids are present to form se ttleable ma sses
(zo ne I), eve n if the surface charges lare neutrali zed. In such a ca se. co agu lat io n is
no t initiated until enough coag ul ant has been added to precipitate as a metallic
hydroxide . At low co llo idal concentrations. the preqominant mechanism is-sweep
co agu lation. I' '!
At higher co lloida l concen tr ations (Fig. 4-17b), destabil izati on by ads orpti on
and charge neutr a liza ti o n OCCllrs early (zone 2), but co ntinued ad dition of the
coag ulant results in c harge reversal and restabilization (zone 3). Still greater
colloidal concentrations (Fig. 4-17c) re su lt in more chances of collisions , and thu s
better coagulation over a wider range of concen tr a tion. Continued addition of
coag ulant s result s first in restabilization and eventually in hydro xide f1bc formation
and swee p co agu la tion (zo ne 4). .
Extremely lar ge co lloida l co ncentrati o ns (F ig. 4-I7d) the o retically provide
eno ugh co lloids to result in coa gulation by adsorption and charge neutr a lizati o n
(zone 2), a lth ough it is probab le that polymer bridgin g and sweep coagu lati on
also occ ur. Restab ilizat ion of highly turbid waters is seldom a problem.
Inform ation from many cur ves similar to th ose in Fi g. 4-17 ca n be summarized
as show n in Fig. 4-18. Two very useful observations can be made from this figure.
First. coagulation by adsorp tion an d cha rge neutrali za tion (zone 2) is impr ac tical
unless coagu lant dosage can be very carefully con trolled . As illu str ated by the
coag ula tion region for t he colloid co ncentr a tions S 2, a ver y sligh t overdos e results
in restabilization . Second , highly turbid wa ter s may require a lesser a mount o f
coag ulan t for good coagu la tio n th a n waters wi th slig ht turbidit y. For this reason
it is some time s adva nt ageo us to odd turbidit y to re lati vely clear water. For example,
if water with an initial turbidity correspond ing to SI were made more turbid ,

Coll o id co nc. = S.

Zone I
(d ) c:
!!
Co lloid conc. Optimum
'8 coagu lan I
(lo sage to
Zone I produce
"sweep noc"
(3
a
;; ... ;.. :;.:, Zon e 1
"
e>: 0plimum
Zo ne 3 coag ula nl du sage I
I in s[oichiomerric I
( b) I destabili za tion :
Benl oni te I
Co lloid co ne . =St I
addi tion I I

Zon e I s; S4
(a) Co lloi d conc en t ration , e x pres sed
as co nc en lration of surf ace (S)
Dosage of coagulant

Figur e 4-17 Results of ja r tests at incr easing turbidities . (Af ter O'Jl eliu [4 . 4 1).) Figure 4-18 Coagulant do sage as a fun cliu n of lurbidil Y. (A/ ter 0' Melia [4·4 Il )

]40 WATER
say ro S3 or beyond , savings In coagulants could be realized. Bentonite clay is
generally used for this purpose.
Alkalinity-Coagulation Relationships
As noted in Eq. (4-13), the coagulation of metallic salts releases hydro ge n ion s
as well as coagulant species. These hydro ge n ions neutralize alkalinity. H ydrogen
resulting from the addition of I mg / L of alum will neutrali ze 0.5 mg/ L of a lkalinit y.
If the'initial alkalinity of a water is low . further reduction will de stro y its buffer-
ing capacity and the pH will drop rapidly. Since optimum pH values must be
maintained for best coagulation and since alkalinity must be pre se nt for hyd roxide
floc formation, low alkalinity wat e rs must be artificially buffered. This is usuall y
accomplished by the addition of lime [Ca(OH)2J or soda ash (Na 2 CO).
Coagulation Practice
Aluminum sulfate. the most commonly used coagulant in water purific a tion , is
most eflective between pH ranges of 5.0 and 7.5. Ferric chloride. effective down to
pH 4.5. and ferrous sulfate. effective on ly' above pH 9.5. are sometimes used. [4- 54J
Although less expensive than alum . these coagulants can cause color problems if
the precipitate is not removed completely. It is sometimes advantageous to use
synthetic polymers in addition to alum. These pol ymers bind small fl ocs togethcr
to make larger masses for faster settling.
Alum dosage may range from 5 mg / L to 50 mg/ L. depending upon the turbidity
and nature of the water. At low turbidity and high dosage, AI(OH) , is almost
...·.. ,uJd .. the.distance .. bctwe e n.... As .a n examp le, two water particl es m oving I m /s
certain to form so ·that· the·predominant · is 'sweep-"
coagulation . At high turbidity and lower dosage·s. adsorption and charge neu tr a l-
ization will be the predominant mechani s m. although interparticle bonding prob-
ably plays a significant role. Ionic layer compression woilld not be significant at
these concentrations. With regard to coagulation. surface waters can be gro up ed
into the four general categories described below. [4-41 J A more useful concept of velocity gradi e nt s. however. is given in term s o f power
Group 1: High turbidity-low alkalinity. With relatively sma ll dosages of coag ulant.
water of this type should be easily coagulated by adsorption and charge
neutrali za tion . Depres sion of pH m akes this method more elfec ti ve. since the
aquometallic ions are more effeclive at lower pH values. How eve r. care should
be used to prevent excessively low pH.
Group 2: ,High turbidity-high alkalinity. The pH will be relatively unaffected by
coagulant addition. Because of the higli alkalinity, adsorption and charge
neutralization will be less effective than in waters of· low alkalinity. High er
coagulant dosage should be used to e ns ure sweep coagulation.
Group 3: LOll" fIIrbiliily-hiyh allwlinity. The small number of colloid s mak e coag u-
lation difficult. even if the particle charge has been neutrali ze d. The principal
coagulation mechani sm is sweep coag ulati o n with moderate coagu lant
ENG INEERED SYSTH IS FOR WATER PURlFICATION 141
do sage. Addition of so me turbidit y may decrease the amount of coag ul a nt
needed.
Group 4: Lo\\' liIrniditr-low alkalinilY. Again. the small number of colloids make
coag ul a tion difTicult. <lndlow alkalinity prevents eflective AI(OHh formation.
Additio nal turbidity can be added to convert thi s wate r to that of group I. or
additional alka linit y ca n beadded to convert it Lo a G roup 3 type. It may be
advantageou s to add both turbidit y and alkalinity.
It s hould be recognized that the above cases are ge nerali zat ion s. Optimum
trea tm e nt of an y wate r c an o nl y be determined by ca reful analysis us in g th e jar
test o r o th er pilot -plant procedures.
The laborat o ry coag ulation jar test is model ed after the coagulation proc ess
used in most water- treatm e nt plants. In both cases. the coag ulant is first added to
the water, and the water is then vio lentl y agitated to ensure unif orm mixing. This
operation is termed rapid lIIixilly. Th e water is then gently stirred to k eep all the
so lids in suspension and to promote co llisions between destabilized particle s and
between p artic les and floc s. This ope rati o n is ca lledjlocclilat ion. Finally . the water
is passed through a se ttling basin wherc the fl occ ulated solids are removed by
type-2 se ttlin g. Th ese operatio ns a re illu strated in Fig. 4-19. and detailed descrip-
tions ar,' given in the following scc ti o ns.
Rapid mixing Thorough mixing is essentia l if uniform coagulation is to occur.
Conseq uently. careful attention must be paid to the design of rapid-mix units.
Des ign param cter s for rapid-mix unit s are mixing time I and ve locit y gradient G.
The velocity gradient is a measure of th e relative veloc ity of tw o particles of fluid
rela tivc to cach othcr ai a dista nce 0.1 111 apart would have a ve loci ty grad ient of:
1.0 m/s
I () S I
0. 1 m
dissipation per vo lum e. [4- 12J
Ci (4-14)
\\'jlerc (i. = vclocity g.radient. s . I
P '= polYcr iilput. W (N . m /s)
I' = \o luill c ,)f"lllixing ba sin. Ill .'
2
/1 = \'isc0s it y, N s/ m
Ibp iLi mi'\ln g ca n he aCC<l lllpllShed III IlUlllc rou s ways. Illcluding Injection o f
Coagul<lllts at th e s uc ti <>n side u f pump s. up s tr ea m rl"Olll hydr a ulic Jumps. or in
 I
142 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 143

Floct'ulalor

Flat-

.. '
· 2J . ,
blade
impeller .' .

\.!.ts
• D'
, .- D •

.
Impeller
'.,
D'

_Chemical
feed
(a) (b)

Figure 4-20 Typical rapid-mixing tanks: (a) back-mix impeller and (b) flat-blade impeller.

impellers (Fig. 4-20a). A more effective unit might be a square tank with baffles
and flat blade impellers as shown in Fig. 4-20b. [4-4J
In-line blenders are designed for complete mixing in less than 1 s. Values of C
Ge:.H Chain for in-line blenders, calculated from flow rate and power input or head loss, range
motor (a)
from 3000 to 50000 s - I [4-32J Several configurations of in-line blenders are

I
availab le ; two models are shown in Fig. 4-21.
..... Haodrail
Turntabl e Tor of tank Flocculation The flocculation process relies on turbulence to promote collisions.
Velocity gradients are also a convenient way of measuring this turbulence. Time
is an important factor, and the design parameter for flocculation is Gt, a dimen-
sionless number. Values of Ct from 104 to 10 5 are commonly used, with t ranging
from 10 to 30 min. [4-28J Large G values with 's hort times tend to produce small,
den'se floes, while low C 'values and long times produce larger, lighter floes . Since
Sludg e discharg e pipe
large, dense floes are more easily removed in the settling basin, it may be advan-
(0)
tageous to vary the G va lues over the length of the flocculation basin. The small,
Figure 4-19 Rapid mixing and flocculatio n followed by a sq uar e settling basin: (a) plan and (b) sec- gense floes produced at high G values subsequently combine into larger floes at"
tional elevati o n (cuurtesy 0/ Dorr-Olin :T , In c.). the lower G values. Reduction in G values by a factor of 2 from the influent end
to the effluent end of the ftocculator has been shown to be effective. [4-33J
flow-throu g h basins where head loss around baffles provide s power input. Mo st Traditional flocculator design is illustrated in Fig. 4-22 . These units consist
modcrn designs. howevcL use either mixin g tanks with back-mix impellers or of long-rectangular basis equipped with mechanically operated paddles to provide
in-lin e flash mixers .. In-line flash mixers· Illay ha ve mechanically dri ven impeller s power input. The paddles are usually constructed of redwood or aluminum slats
or may rel y o n hea d loss created by static constrictions in the pipe. and may operate either transverse or parallel to the longitudinal axis of the basin.
Rapid -mixing tanks operate best at C va lu es from 700 to 1000, with detenti on . More recent design tends toward units which combine rapid mixing, floccula-
time s of ap pr ox imately 2 min . [4-10,4- 36J Numerolls co nfig urati ons of ta nks and tIon, and settling in one tank. Such a unit is shown in Fig. 4-23. The principles
impel lers are used, with the most popular units being square tank s with back-mix of mixing and floccu lati on in this unit are the same as those for the long-rectangular

b
144 WATER

(b)

(a)

(II)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4-21 In-line blenders: (a) powe r-driven (courtesy of Walke r Process Corp.); (b) sialic mixer
pipe section (court esy of Kom ax Systems, Inc.); (c) stati c mi xer in·2.5 x 2.5-m- squarc chann el secl io n
Thi s mixer proce sses 530.000 m 3 /d a t Ihe Val Visla waler-Irealment in Ph oenix, Arizona. NOle
chemic al reed lin es in front o r vanes (court esy of Komax Systems, Inc.)

basin. althou gh the method of operation is different. While these units

are limited in the qu antity of flow th at they can handle . l11ultiple unit s ca n he
provided in parallel to meet any demand .
. . 'The G value for mechanicall y dri ven flocculators is calculated as follows.
First. the power input is determin ed by
(c)
P (4- 15)
Figun ' 4-22 Flnccuialnr unil'. (a) paJdk arr:tngemcnl III long "Ink (pho to cOl/rtesy of Emirex Illc., a
where P = power input. W (N . l11/s) Iinnor" Cllmp/my): (h) mulllStage 11111" (pito to m:" lt £'.'.1' or WlIlkl'r Profess Corp.) : (c) lurbine-type
unIt:-, (pho/(J ('UIIr!('.\'Y oj /:,,,,-irex. /11(' . (J RI·.\non A q'0 111/70'11 ').
D = drag. force on paddle s. N
t:p = \'elocity of paddle s. mis
./. ' '1·
I

I i
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 147

The drag force on the paddle is given by

.,
C (4-16)
:J
-0
0
c: 0.
.E t·
1
where CD = dimensionle ss coefficie nt of drag, 1.8 for flat blades
"
.5
"0
Ir Ap = area of paddle blades, m 2
p = density of water.kg / m 3
"0 I
c t Equation (4-15) now becomes
., :::'"0
.0
£:
i
..... 0 1

0'"
00
"
..!: I
""'"
!; r Subst ituting int o Eq. (4-14)
"U
c
'"coc '"c
C)
[ G= c
A 3
pu ) 1{ 2
" '.
(_ D_ p_.-!!.
2V,u

!
0
x
"§
N
C
....
0 'c-
The area of the paddle A p refers to the combined area of the slats that are
'" u
"0
C '"
., ., perpendicular to the cylinder of rotation. This area should not exceed 40 percent
sO::
., of the total area encompassed by the paddle. Th e veloci ty of the paddle tip up is the
U) "0
... •
1. veloc ity relative to the water and is about 75 perce nt of the actual paddle speed.
'"c .,
-0

,l
Paddle velocity should be less th an I mis, and a minimum distance of 0.3 m
"0.
E
0
N
C
"U
u"c shou ld be maintained between paddle tip s and all o ther structures in the f1occulator
.2 f .
... .......
'''> 'c' . . Tei 'pteveiifTocal":rr"t:as'of'ex'ce-ssive'vetoc1ty"gradients: ..... . .... .
.2 f
e'" It should be noted th at in tran sferri ng water from the flocculator basin to the
v o(j
0. Of> U
u t
settlin g basin, extreme care must be exercised to avoid turbulence that can break

0
0
"E
x
0
a::
"0
c
t, up the floc. T his is usua :ly not a problem in unit s in which mixin g, fl occu lation,
and settlin g are comb ined. In th e lon g- rectang ula r units, the settling basin is
0:: C
§
ct
'"c
OJ)

;;:
E
iI often co nstructed adjacent to the floccu)ator, with the common wall omitted.
Necessary baffles are designed for low G va lues.
,.'" -5
'1<
Design of floccu lation units is illustrated in the following example.
"0
"
<=

I
.;:: Example 4-6: Designing a flocculator A water-treatment plant is being designed to pro-
0'" u'"
, cess 50,000 m' /d of water. Jar testing and pilot-plant ana lysis indic ate th a t an alum
u dosage of 40 mg / L with flocculation at a GI va lue of 4.0 x 10' produces op tim al results
;:'" at t he expected waler temperatures of 15°C. Determ ine:
0

."2
C
.g
i"
VJ I. The mon th ly alum requ irement.
2. The fl occulati o n ba sin dimens ions if three cros s· flow horizontal paddles are to be used.
I
r<l
N
c c: ,j. The flocculator should be a maximum of 12 m wide and 5 m deep in order to co nn ect
"
:J
appropriat e ly with the sett ling bas in .
E "
a<:
w (Z 3. The power requirement.
146 4. The paddle conligur:ltioll.
 148 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAIER PURIFICAT IO N ]49

SOLUTION E
":
0
I. Monthly alum requirements:
----, ---., ---,
,I
40 mg/L = 0.04 kg/m 3
r--- r--- r---
I I I I I
I I I I I
and I I I I I
I I I I I
0.04 kg ' m 3
__ x 50000 - x 30 d/mo = 60,000 kg/mo
IL ___ ___ J
I
I
I
L ___ ___ .JI IL ___ ___ J I

---,
:I
m3 . ' d 0
r--- ---, r--- r--- ---..,
I
I I I I I I
2. Basin dimensions: E I I I I I I
a. Assume an average . G value of 30 s - 1 '"
0 I I I
I
I I
___ JI IL ___
I

C1
I I I ___ ...JI

---,I ,--- ---.,

L ___ l ___ ...J L ___
GI = 4.0 x 10' '0
r--- ---"I r---
4.0 X \0 4 I min I I I I I
I I I I I I
1= 30 I
I I I, I I
1 = 22.22 min
IL ___ ___ J I .IL ___ I
___ .J
IL ___ ___ JI

b. Volume of the tank is 1""'" ... E PI<ln

V = QI = 50,000 m 3/d x 22.22 rrT)'!fl x I d/ 1440 min ""
0

= 771.5 m 3 3. Power requirements:

c. The tank will contain three cross-flow paddles. so its length will be divided into a. Assume G value tapered as follows.
three compartments. For equal distribution of velocity gradients, the end area of First compartment. G = 40 s - 1
each compartment should be square, i.e., depth equals t length. Assuming maximum
Second compartment, G = 30 s - 1
depth of 5 m, length is
Third compartment, G = 20 s - I
3x5=15m I
b. Calculate power requirements for compartments 1,2 , and 3:
and width is
P = G' V/I
5xI5xw=771.5
.... ";'; m' V =: 771.5 m 3 /3 = 257.2 m 3
c
At 15 C
d. The configuration of the tanks and paddles should be as follows: J1 = 1.139 x 10- P N '5/m'
P, = 40 2 / S 2 x 2572m 3 x 1.139 x 1O- 3 N.s /m 2
E = 468.7 N . m)s x 10" 3 kW,fN· mls = 0.47 kW
, I

3
P2 = 30 2 x 2572 x 1.139 X 10- 3
x 10- = 0.26 kW'

i C>()iEB k9;)
3 3
P, = 20' x 257.2 x 1.139 x 10 - x 10- = 0.12kW
E 4. Paddle configuration
0
on u. Assume paddle design as shown below.

--/
. 6t 1

+
. ,
'0:4;;;""
k
4.2 m
0.8 m 0.8 m V//// //////// ___ _
J 5m (.

Profile
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 151
150 WATER

Third compartment:
Each paddle wheel has four b oa rd s 2.5 m long and w wide - three paddle wheels per
compa rtment.
b. Calc ulate IV from power input and paddle velocity.
l' = (120 N. m /s x
p 3777 N ·s'
C
p = --- - = (0.03 m) /s) ' !) = 0.32 mrs J
2
(
. . I ,
At 15°C L' p actual = 0.32 m/s x - = 0.42 m/s -'
. 0.75
'p = 999.1 kg/ m J
(<) = 1.91 rev/min
Assume "p = 0.67 m/s x 0.75 = 0.5 m/s and CD = I.lI.

Ap = length of boards x IV x number of boards

4-7 SOFTENING
.\ paddles at 4 boards per paddle = 12 boards
Hardness as a water-quali ty parameter was discussed in Sec. 2- 10. The reduction
12 x 2.5 x IV = JOw = Ap
of hardne ss. or sojiening, is a process commonly practiced in water treatment.
P, = 468.7 N·m/s = (1.8 x 30w m x 999.1 kg/m) x N· s'/kg·m x 05) m) / s) / 2 Softening may be done by the water utility at the treatment plant or by the con-
sumer at the point of use, depending on the economics of the situation and the public
937.4 m = 1.8 x 30 x 999.1 X 0.5)w
desire for soft water. Generally, softening of moderately hard water ·(50 to 150
937.4 m = mg/ L hardness) is best left to the consumer, while harder water should be softened
IV = 0.14 m
at the water-t reatment plant. Soften ing processes commonly used are chemical
precipitation and ion exchange, either of which may be employed at the utility-
c. Calculate rotational speed of paddles . owned treatment plant. Home-use softeners are almost exclusively ion-exchange
Fir sl compartment: units.
m
v = nD -
P rev
x (lJ Chemical Precipitation ----)

The different species of hanJness have different solubility limits, as shown in Table
= 1l4.2 -
m
x (;.) 4-2. The least soluble forms are calcium carbonate and magnesi'lim ·hYdroxlde·.......... .
rev
Chemical precipitation is accomplished by converting calcium hardness to calcium
rev 60 s carbonate and magnesium hardness to magnesium hydroxide. This can be ac-
0.67 m/s x - --- x - -. = J05 rev/ min = w
4.21l m min comp lished by the lime -·soda ash process or by the caustic soda process .

Second compartment: Lime- soda ash All forms of carbonate hardness as "well as magnesium noncar-
bonate hardn ess can be converted to the precipitating species by the addition of
) N . m/ s
p = 0.26 kW x 10 --·- lime (CaO). In the following equations , the symbol s is used to indicate that a
kW
solid precipitate forms and that it is sufficiently dense to settle by gravity.
Ca2+ + 2(HC0 1r + CaO + H20 -----+ 2CaC0 3 $ + 2H 2 0 (4-17)

= 1.8 (30 x 0 14)m ' x 999 . 1 kg /mJ x N s,lg ' m x

Mg 2+ + 2(HCO,) - + CaO + H20 CaCO)$ + Mg2+ + CO/-
(4-18)
260 N . m!s = -37}7 N 5' j m x rF

up =
( 260 N . m/s x '3
s:-'_) 1: J

= (007 m ·' /s.1 )") = 0.41 m is

AClual speed = u,,/075 = 0.55 mi s
(() = 2.5 rev / min
 152 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER P U IUFI CA TI ON 153

Tab le 4-2 Equilibrium of solid and dissolved species of 200

common ions

Minera l F o rmul a
Soillbility, ..
mg/L CaCO) at oec
rf 100

Calcium bica r bonate Ca(HCO,h 1,620

r,. - 160
Calcium carbonate CaCO, 15 t "-
0.
. Calcium
Calcium
ch lo ride
sulfa te
CaCl, 336,000 ! ,2

I
CaSO. 1.290
Calcium hydroxide Ca (OHl, 2,390 E. 140

M agnes ium bicarb onate Mg(H CO J ), 37, 100 <

"..,
V;

Magnesium carb o nate MgCO , 101 I co

E 120
Magnesium
Mag nesium
Magnesium
chloride
hydr ox ide
sulfate
Mg C l,
Mg(OH ),
MgSO.
362, 000
17
170,000
i '"c
IOC)
Concentralion 01 calcium
io n in t:'quili briul1l wilh
ca lcium l'arhonah'
SodwlILbic a rbon ate NaHCO J 38.700 '"
Sodiu m ca rbona te Na ,C O) 61.400 "i::;
Sodium ch lo ride NaCI 225,000 :; xo
Sodium hydroxide NaOH 370,000 '-
Sodium sulfate Na ,SO. 33,600

Source: Adapte ·d from Loe wenth a l and Marai s. [4 ·38 J ".., hI )

.,
0
Iv 4( )
As seen in Eq. (4-20). removal o f magnesium no ncarb o nate ha rdne ss result s in
the formation of ca lcium noncarbonate hardness . Thi s calcium no nca rbon a te \ ti- .O llcentlatlonol magnesium
hardness. as well as any initially pre se nt in the water, can be removed by the ad· 20
dition of soda ash (Na 2 CO): .
....... io n in cqlulibrruill wIth
ma g JlC'slllll1 hydrox](je
f'.,.. ...,/
0
..... -. ... . ... ····I········j·······J········
l) 10 II 0
\3 14
pH ,crlU e"

Figure 4.24 E4uilibrium concent ration of ca lciu m and io ns a s a function o f pH (From

I'o,,·ell [4.43].)

The sodium in Eq. (4-21) is so luble a nd . unle ss excessive a m o unt s are added . is Although thi s reaclion doe s !l o t redu ce hardn ess. it d oes co ns um e lim e. Rem ova l
permi ss ib le in p o table water. o f super sal urated CO 2 by ae ratio n is o ft en pracliced to reduce lun e reljUlrements.
The precipi ta t ion of CaCO J and Mg(OH }z is pH-depend ent. as is illu strat ed If CO 2 exceeds 10 m g/ L it ma y be eco n o mi ca ll y advanlageous to remove tt prIor
in F ig. 4-24. The optimum pH fo r CaCO) precipit a tion by line addition is from lo so ft ening.
9 to 9.5, wh ile effective precipitati o n o f Mg(OH) 2 under water-treatment p lant Caustic soda. All forms of hardn ess can also be conve rt ed t o th e precip italing
';....-
condit ions requires a pH of ab o ut J 1.0. Since mo st n a tural waters have a pH specie s by the addil ion of caus lic so da (N aOH ).
cons iderab ly below t hese va lues . it is often neces sar y to a rti fi c iall y r:lise the pH .
Th is ca n be accomp lis hed by the additi o n o f an excess am o unt o f lime :
CO 2 + 2Na O l1 ----> 2Na- + ('0,/ - + H20 (4· 24)
Ca: ' + 2( HCO,) ' + 2N aOH
(4·22) CaC0 3 $ + 2Na + + ('0/ - + (4·25)
.-"'-,

The addition of about 1.25 mequi\ !L of lime is sufli c ient to raise the pH to 11.0. i\ lg'; + 2( HC O ,) + 4 NaO H
If di sso lved ca rb o n di ox ide is present in water it wi ll a lso react wi th lime. M g.( OI1) 2$ + -iNa ' + 2(0 /- + 2 H20 (4·26)

(4·:27)
- '\
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 155
154 WATER

Example 4-7: Single-stage softening A water with the ionic characteristics shown in the
The soda ash formed [Eg s. (4-24), (4-25), and (4-26)] will react with calcium non-
bar diagram below is to be softened to the minimum calcium hardness by the lime-soda
carbonate hardness as previou sly shown in Eg. (4-21). As in the lime - soda ash
ash process. Magnesium removal is not deemed necessary.
process, it is necessary to raise pH to 11.0 to precipitate magnesium hydroxide.
An excess of 1.25 meguiv / L of sodium hydroxide is added for this purpose. I. Calculate the chemical requirements and solids produced in milliequivalents per liter.
2. Draw a bar diagram for the finished water.
NaOH (4-28)
3. For a flow of 25,000 m'/d, calculate the daily chemical requirement and the mass of
solids produced: Assume that the lime used is 90 percent pure and the soda ash is
Stabilization Complete removal of hardness cannot be accompli shed by chemical 85 percent pure.
precipitation. Under conditiolls normally prevailing in water-treatment plants,
up to 40 mgjL CaCO) and 10 mg/ L Mg(OHh usually remain in the softened water. to 50 60 80
Precipitation of the supersaturated solution of CaCO } will continue slowly. mequiv / L
however. resulting in deposits in water lines and storage facilities. It is therefore
necessary to "stabilize " the water by converting the supersaturated CaCO) back
Ca 2 +
I Mg2 +
I Na+

to the soluble form. Ca,2+ + 2(HCO»-. Stabilization can be accomplished by

the addition of anyone of several acids. Using sulfuric acid as an example:
mequiv / L
HCO;

3.5
I 8.0
2CaCO} + H 2 S0 4 2Ca 2
' + 2(HC0 1 f -I- SO /·· (4-29)

Mg(OH)2 + Hz SO (4-:l0) SOLUTION

The mo st common practice. however. is to make the cOllyer sion with carbon The following treatment scheme will be used.
dioxide:
CaCO) + CO 2 + H 2 0 Ca 2 + -I- 2(HCO}) - (4-31 ) Lime
Mg(OH)2 + 2CO l Mg 2' + 2 (HCO) (4- 32) Soda ash

Settling
This process is .generally called recarbollalioll. Flocculator basin
If the pH has been raised to facilitate the precipitation of magnesium. it will Recarbonation
.... ......... .. ... .
be necessary to neutralize. theexcess..bydroxy.l..ions. PL·jQ[. 10. stabilization.· This · ··
mix
necessitates a two-stage treatment process. Typical reactions are:
l. Calculate chemical requirements using appropriate formulas.
With sulfuric acid
I.OC0 2 + I.OCaO -- l.OCaCO,!
Ca 2 + + H 2 S0 4 Ca2+ -I- SO/ - + '21:-1 2 0 (4-33)
2.5(Ca2+ + 2HCO,) + 2.5CaO -- 5.0CaCO,! + S.OH2 0
2Na+ + .20H - + H 2 S0 4 2Na + + SO/- -I- 2H 2 () (4-34 )
1.5(Ca2+ + SO/ - ) + 1.5Na 2CO, -- I.SCaCO,! + 1.5(2Na+ + S042-)
With carbon dioxide
Second-stage recarbonation will be required to stabilize the water. Assuming a CaC0 1
Cal f -I- 20H- -I- 2C0 2 + H 20 (4-35)
concentration of 40 mg/L in the effluent from the settling basin, 25 mg/L should be
-I- 20H 2
+ CO 2 - ---> 2Na + -I- CO/- + H 2 0 (4- 36) converted to reach the equilibrium of 15 mg/L of CaCO,.
05CaCO, + 0.SC0 2 + 0.5H2Sl -- 0.5Ca(HC0 3 h
The pH must be lowered to approximately 9.5 before signiticant stabilization
occurs. Total chemical requirements are:
Lime = 1.0 + 2.5 = 3.5 mequiv/L
Chemical requirement The CJuantity of chemicals to soften wat e r can be calculated Soda ash = 1.5 = 1.5 mequiv/L
using the appropriate formulas from Eqs. (4-17) through (4-36 ). The se calcula-
CO 2 = 0.5 mequiv/L
tions arc illustrated in Examples 4-7 and 4-8.
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFI CAT ION 157
156 WATER

SOLUTION Th e following Irealment scheme will be used.

So lids produced are

CaC0 3 = 1.0 + 5.0 + 1.5 - 0.8 = 6.7 mequ iv/ L

Lim c . sod" ash
2. T he ba r diag ram for the finis hed water is

o 08 18 53 3

coj-
Ca 2>

· l · HCO;
Mg2>
I Na>

Rapid mix
2. Flocculation
3. Set tling
0.3 0.8 5.3 4. Fir st-stage
rccarbonalion
Second-stage
3. The equi va lent mass of lim e and soda ash is reca rbonation

. 40 + 16 .
Lune = -2-- = 28 mg/ me q ulv
I. Calculate che mical quantities using appropriate formulas.

2m) + 12 + 3(16) .. 0.6CaCO ) 1

Soda ash = - ..-------.-- = 53 mg j mequJ\ · 0.6CO , + 0.6CaO
2
34(Ca' > + 2HCO) - ) + 14CaO 6.8 CaCO ) 1+ 6.8 HP
12 + 2( 16) .
Carbon d iox ide = = 22 mg! meq ll iv
L
1.5(Mg H + 2HCO, - ) + JOCaO
1.5 Mg(O H ), t+ 3.0CaCO, t
The da ily c hemica l re q uirements are: 1.5(Mg H + SO.' - ) + 1.5CaO + 1.5H , 0
I kg 6
(1 /0.9) 28 m g!m equiv x 3.5 meq ll iv/ L x 25 x 10 Ljd x -6- = 2722 kg/ d
. 10 mg
1.5(Ca'· + S04 » + 1.5Na,CO,
. ___ ____________ . __ (I / 0 .gS)-53- m g/rne qui V")(" 15-meqoiv/ t- x 23· -x I06T/d-·x Tkg/ (Oi;- -iiiR k-gjd-
22 mg/me qu iv x 0.5 meq uiv/ L x 25 x 10 6 Li d x J kg/ 10 6 m g = 275 kg/ d Exce ss lime = 1.25 mequiv j L

T he m ass of d ry so lids p rod uced per day is For first-stage recarbo Jl ation_ use CO, to neutralize excess lime .

50 mg/ mequiv x 6.7 meqlliv ! L x 25 x lOb Lid x I kgllO " mg = 8375 kg;d 125(Ca' + + 201r) + 125CO , -- 125CaCOd + 1.25H zO

E x ampl e 4-8: T wo-s tage soft ening A water with the ionic characteristics shown below Ass umin g 40 mg/ L CaCO J and IQ mg /L Mg(OH) , remain ing in so lution second-
is to be softened to th e mi n im um possible hardness by the limc - soda-ash - excess-lime stag e settlin g_
process. Calcu la te the required chemica l quanti ties in milliequivalent s per liter. Draw a 0.2 Mg(OH) , + OACO,
bar d iagram of th e fin ished water.
0.5CaCO) + 0.5eO, + 0. 5 1-1 , 0

06 40 70 80 Total c hemi cal quantities are

Ca 2> Mg1 • N,,>
I I Lim e = 0.6 + 3.4 + 10 + 1.5 + 1.25 = 'US

soi- .Soda ash = 1.5

HCOj

-
I- co, = 1. 25 + 0.4 + OJ = 2.1 5
 158 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 159

2. Bar diagram of final water: Mg, = magnesium concentration in the raw water, mg/L
Mgt = magnesium concentration remaining in the fraction of the water
08 10 35
.. receiving first-stage treatment. [As previously stated, practical
C, a 2+
I Mg2+ Na' limits are 10 mg/ L Mg(OH)2 (as CaC0 3 )·]
A typical split-treatment system for removing magnesium is shown in Fig .
C05-\ HCO:; 4-25. The quantity of softe:1ing chemicals saved by this system is illustrated in the
following example.
0.3 3.5

l.im e Soda ash

Softening operations Softening operations consist of several steps and may be
carried out in one or two stages. The operations include mixing of the chemical s
Influent
with ' the water, flocculation· to aid in precipitate growth, settling of precipitate,
and stabilization. The solids-contact system shown in Fig. 4-23 is often use'd for
softening operations. These systems operate in much the same manner as the
systems for coagulating and ' removing turbidity discussed in Sec. 4-6. Design
criteria, how ever , are slightly different and are summarized in Table 4-3.
Bypassed flow Qx
Table 4-3 Typical design criteria for softening systems

Selliin g Solids'- Figure 4-25 rIow diagram for softening by split trcatment.
Parameter Mixer Flocculator basin contact ba sin
Example 4-9: Softening by split treatmcnt Use split treatment to soften the water with
Detention time* 5 min 30·- 50 min 2- 4 h 1- 4 h ionic strength given in Example 4-S. Assume that a final hardness of less than 100 mg /L
Velocity gradient, s - 1 700 10- 100 NA t is acceptable, provided the magnesium IS less than 45 mg/L. Calculate the chemical
Flow -th rough velocity. I'tis NA o 15- 0.45 0.15- 0.45 NA requir ements and draw a bar diagram of the finished water.
Overtlow rate, gal / min / ft' NA NA 0.85 - 1. 7 1 427t
SOLUTION
• This should be confirmed by pilot-plant analysis for each water. The treatment scheme shown in Fig. 4-25 wi'li -., ., . - - - . ............. ., . ., .. ... .. _. - .... .
. 't Velocit y gradient in mixer and Aocculator compon e nt sho uld be approximatel y
the sa me as in flow-through units. J. Calculate the bypass fraction:
t At slurry blanket-clarifier watcr interface. Q = Mg f - Mg,
SOllrce: Adapted from Rec omme nded Standards . [4-44J
x Mg, - Mg,
0.9 - 0.2
Water with high magnesium hardness is often softened by a process called
split treatment. This process bypasses the first-stage softening unit with a part of the = 3.0 - 0.2
incoming water. Excess lime is added to facilitate the removal ofinagnesium in the = 0.25
first stage and, instead of being neutralized thereafter. is used to precipitate the 2. Calculate the quantity of chemicals added to first stage:
calcium hardness in the bypassed water in the second stage. Since no magne sium
06CO, + 0.6CaO
is removed in the bypassed water, the initial magnesium hardnes s and the allow-
able magne sium hardness in the finished water govern the quantity that Olay be 3.4(Ca'+ + 2HC0 3 - ) + 3.4CaO -----t .SCaCOd + 6.SH,O
bypa ssed: (1.0 - o 25)(1.5)(Mg + + 2HC0 3 - ) + (10 - 0.25)3.0CaO
2

. -----to I.13Mg(OH),! + 2.25CaC0 3 i

Qx = Mg f - Mgt (4-37)
Mg, - Mgt (1.0 - 0.25)(1.5)(Mg 2+ + SO/ - ) + (1.0 - O.25)1.5CaO
-----t 1.13 Mg(OH), + 1.l3(Ca2+ + SO/ - )
where Qx = fract ion of the total flow bypas sed
Mg r = Magnesium concentration in the finished water , 40·· 50 mg/ L 1.I 3(C a 2 + + SO/ - ) + 113(Na,C0 3)
(as CaC0 3 ) usually acceptable -----t I.I3CaCO}! + 1.13(2Na+ _I- S04' - )

;.
160 WATER I! ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 161

Check to make sure extra lime is enough to provide 1.25 mequiv/L: Gas

(0.6 + 3.4)0.25 Air

--0-.7-5-'--- = 1.33

1.33 > 1.25, so acceptable

..... -.. : .:", --;,.. " ".: ::: '.;.::
For second-stage recarbonation:
O,5CaC0 3

Total quantity of chemicals:

Lime
+ O,5COl + 0.5H 2 0
0:75 x 0.2Mg(OHh + 0.30C0

= 0.6 +
2

J4 + (1.0 - 0.25)(30 + 1.5)

05(Ca 2+ + 2 HC0 3 -J
015(Mg2+ + 2HC0 3 -

= 7.38 mequiv/ L
)
I ','

..
.0

.. ,'
'.-

.. :
'
'

Soda ash = 1.13 mequiv / L

CO 2 = 0.30 + 0.5 = 0.80 mequiv/ L
I • :(7

,',
',-.-.'
.','
')" :
.
. . '.
..
,',
..
3. Calculate ionic strength of finished water: .'
·0

.'0,
. ,. '.
. .' . . ',.,

.....
Ca2+ = 0.8

Mg2+ = 0.75 A 0.2 (first stage) + 0.25 x 3.0 (in bypass) = 0.9
/ ..

-
','
'.",'
• #
o
'.: :

. ' . ; .!-. :::.'"

• "'I'

.. ')
•

Na+ = 1.0 + 1.13 = 2.13

CO/- = 0.3 ..
:: :.
:'::::.:
HCC?3 - = 0.5(conversion "fCaCO,) t- O.15(conversion of Mg(OH),)
+ 0.25 x 1.5 (associated with by passed Mg) = 1.03

.. Figure.4,26 .Subm.cr.ged.burner. for recarbonalion. (C.oWNS} '. ..

08 1 711 Where split treatment is employed it may be necessary to follow the recarbonation
Ca 2+
I Mgl+
I Na
unit with a settling chamber if the influent to the units still contains an excess of
lime. [4-45J All recarbonation units should have provisions for periodic cleaning
2
c0 3 -/. ,
0.3
HeO'j
I
113
SOJ-

3.83
as some precipitate will accumulate.
The source of CO 2 may be the exhaust from combustion of natural gas
(CH 4 + 20 2 .... CO 2 + H 2 0) or CO 2 which has been purified and shipped to
the plant in containers. Walker [4-5RJ suggests that the stoichiometric quantity
of CO 2 be mUltiplied by a factor of 2 to compensate for inefficiency of CO 2 transfer
For a more complete of split treatment, the reader is referred to
from the exhaust gases if submerged hurners are used. Llquified CO 2 that is
Cleasby and Dellingham. [4-20J
essentially pure (99.S percent) can be obtained: this greatly enhances the efficiency
of the recarbonation process. Storage of liquid CO 2 presents a problem since it
Recarbonation Recarbonation for pH reduction and stabilizati()n takes place in
. gasifies at 31 °C. resulting in extremely high vapor pressure. The usual procedure
a closed reactor. Carbon dIOxIde IS added under pressure and dissolved according is to store liquid CO 2 at around - 20 °C and 2000 k Pa. This necessitates strong
to pnnclples prevIOusly dIscussed. Figure 4-26 shows a typical
tanks and refrigeration equipment.
recarbonatlon process. .
Large water-treatment plants often find it economically advantageous to
Typical recarbonation units consist of two chambers , one for mixing the CO 2
recalcify the CaC0 3 sludge, reco'vering both lime and carbon dioxide.
and one m whIch the reactIons occur. Detention time in the mixine. chamber
should be from 3 to 5 min, with a total detention time of at least 20 [4-44J CaO + CO 2 (4-38)
 162 W ATER ENGI NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 163

Wh ere pr ec ipit a ted s lud ges a re esse nti a ll y pur e C a C0 3 , reca lc ifyin g s ho ul d pr o - Na+ Na+ N.+ Na+
du ce a n exc ess o f bo th the lim e and the CO 2 requir cm ent s fo r th e pla nt. Lim e + + + +
A nio n A n ion Ani o n Ani o n
kiln s rep rese nt a sub stanti a l inv es tm ent in ca pital equip me nt a nd maint ena nc e
a nd o p e rati o n cos ts a nd a re usua ll y ju stified o nl y thr o ug h eco n o mi es o f sca le.

Ion Exchange

A w ide variet y of di sso lved so lid s, including har dn ess. c:ln be re mov ed by io n
ex ch a n ge. The di sc uss io n he re w ill be limit ed to io n exc ha n ge fo r so ftenin g; a
. .. . ..
m o re ge n e ra l di sc uss io n o n io n exc han ge fo r co mpl ete d em in e ra liza ti o n is co n-
ta in ed in a lat e r sec ti o n o f thi s c ha pt er.
:' , .
As pra c ticed in wat er so ft enin g, io n exc ha n ge in vo lves re pl ac in g ca lc ium and .: .... ,'

m ag nes ium in th e wa te r w ith a n o ther . n onhar d n ess cati o n. lI su a ll y sod ium . Thi s
exc ha n ge tak es place a t a so lid s int e rfac e. Alth o ug h th e so lid ma te ri a l d oes n o t
d irec tl y e nter int o th e reac ti o n. it is a nece ss ar y a nd imp o rtant part o f the io n -
exc han ge pro cess . Earl y applicati o ns o f ion exchan ge Ll sed ze olite. a naturallv
:.: : .: ::
oc currin g sodium alumino- silicat e sometim es call ed yre ensand.
a pplicati o n s more oft en use a synthetic resin coated w ith th e de sirable ex c han ge
ma teriaL The synthetic res in s ha ve the advanta ge of a g rea ter num be r o f ex c hang e
s ites and ' are mor e ea sily rege nerat ed.
+ + + +
In equal quantiti es . ca lcium and ma gne sium a re a d so r bed mo re stron gly to A nio n Anion Anion
An ion
th e medium than is so dium. As th e hard water is co nt ac ted with th e med ium. th e
fo llo w ing generali zed rea c ti o n occ ur s. Re!in w ith
N" + R
D''.' ....
. .
Act ive
exc ha nge
_

{ca}+ {ca}
adso rbe d . . .' zo ne
Mg [ani o n] + 2 Na[RJ M g [R ] + 2 Na + [ani o n] (4- 39) Figure 4-27 lon- exchange pro cess .

The reaction is virtuall y ins tantane o us and co mplet e as long a s exchan ge s ites
a re a vailable. The proce ss is depicted graphicall y in Fig. 4-27 .
When all of th e exc han ge site s have been utili zed. ha rdn ess beg ins to appear
in the effluent. Referr ed to as hreaklhr ough . thi s necess itat es tile rege nerati o n o f
the medium by co nt ac tin g it with a str o ng so dium -c hl o ride so luti o n. Th e str ength
o f the so lution ove rrid es the sele c tivit y onhe a d so rpti o n site. alld calcium 'a nd
m ag ne sium a re rem ov ed and replace d by the so dium .
is a ccomplished using from 80 to 160 kg of sodium chloride per cubic meter of
resin in 5 to 20% solution at a flow rate of about 40 L/min . ni 2 .
The effluent from the regeneration cycle will contain the hardness accumulated
during the softening cycle a s well as excess sodium chloride. After regeneration,
th e medium s ho uld be flushed with softened water to remove the excess .sodium .
c hloride . The se highl y min e rali zed waters constitute a wa ste stream that
be di sposed of pr o perly . .

{ca} {ca}
lon-exchange o perati o n s a re usually conducted in enclosed structures con-
Mg
[R]
.
+ 2 NaC I (excess ) Mg 2 CI + 2 Na[R ] (4-40) ta ining the medium. W a te r is fo rced through the material under pressure at up
to OA m3 / m in . m 2 Sin g le o r m ultiple units may be used and the medium may be
Th e sys te m can a gain fun c ti o n a s a soft en e r a cco rdin g to cq . (4-31)). co ntained in either a fixed o r a moving bed. Where continuous operation is neces-
Th e capacit y and effic ie nc y o f ion-exchan ge so ft ene rs va ry w ith man y fact o rs. sary. multiple unit s or mo vin g beds are used . Single-stage fixed beds can be used
inc luciin g typ e o f so lid m ediulll . type o f exc han ge mat c l'ia l use d fo r coa tin g. when the flow of tre a ted wa ter can be interrupted for regeneration. Most treatment-
qu a ntit y of rege n erati o n ma te ri a ls, and regen erati o n co nt ac t tim e. Th e over all pla nt operation s ar e o f th e co ntinu o u s type , while h o me softeners are serviced
qu a lit y o f th e wa te r to be so ft en ed is al so a n imp o rtant facto r. ;\ co mplet e d isc us- ill te rmi !ten tl y.
sio n o f th ese fac to rs is heyo n cl th e sco pe o f thi s text and t he read er is referre d to Io n-ex ch a nge so ft enin g a t wa te r-tr eatm ent pl a nt s is becoming more common-
Refs. [4- 47J and [4-53 J fo r g rea ter d e ta ils. Ge ner all y. th e ca pac it \' o f ion-excha nge pla ce as m o re effic ient res ins a re de ve loped a nd as the proce ss is better understood
j
llIat er ia ls r:lllges fro lll 2 to 10 m equ iv /g o r aboll t 15 t(> 100 kgi /ll Regenera ti o n by d es ign eng inee rs. Io n exc ha n ge p ro duc es a so fter water th a n chemical pre -
 ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAT ER PURIFI CA TION 165
164 WATE R

d. Add thr ee extra tanks for use during regenerati on cycle. To ta l vo lume of excha nge
cipitat ion and avo ids th e large q uantity of sludges encou ntered in the lime-soda
resin is:
pr ocess. The physica l and mechanical a ppa ratu s is m uch smaller and simpl er
to oper ate. Th ere are several disa dvantages, however. The wate r must be essenti all y v= No. of tan ks x area x height
2
free of turbidi ty and parti culat e matt er or the resin will fun ction as a filter and = 12 x 3.14m x 2.0m
beco me plu gged. Surfa ces of th e medi um may act as an adso rben t for organ ic = 75.4 m
mo lecu les and become coa ted . Iro n and manga nese Pfec ipil ates can also foul
the su rfaces if oxidation occ urs in, or prior to. th e ion-exc hange un it. Softening 3. Deter min e chemica l requirements for regenera tions.
of clea r grou ndwa ter should be done imm edi ately (befo re aeration occur s),
Q. Vo lum e of one unit
whi le surfa ce water should rece ive a ll necessar y trea tm ent, includin g filtration,
pri or to so ftenin g by ion exchange. Th e wa ter should not be chlorina ted pri o r to v = 3. 14 x 2.0 = 6.28 m 3
ion -exc hange soft ening . b. Sa lt requir ement

Exa mple 4- 10: Designing an ion-exc han ge softener An ion -e xchange softener is to be 150 kg/ m 3 x 6.28 m.1 = 942 kg
used to treat the wa ter described in EX3mpie 4-7. The medi um se lec ted has an ad so rpti ve Regenerating 9 un its/c1 wi ll req uire 9 x 942 = 8,478 kg/ d o f Na e !.
capacity o f 90 kg/m' at a flow rate of 04 m' /min . m '- c. Using a 10 % so luti o n. th e vo lume of rcgenerate liquid is 942 kg/O.I = 9.420 kg. o r
Regenera tion is accomp lished usi ng 150 kg of sodium ch lo ride per cubic meter of app ro ximate ly 9 Ill' for each unit.
resin in so lutio n. Dete rmine the volume of med ium required and the physical d . At a loading ra tc of 0.04 m 3 / m 2 . min. the regenera tion tim e is
arrange ment for co ntinuo us ope ration in fixed beds. Also det ermine the chemica l re-
quirement and the regeneration c\'ele time . 1 = 9.0 m 3 /(0.04 m 3 / m 1 ·min x 3.14 m 2 )
= 72 min
SOLUTIOr-:
Assumin g a tota l of 2 h fo r all opera ti ons necessary to regen erat e unit s in gro ups o f
1. Determi ne vo lume of medium . thr ee. all 12 unit s ca n be regenerat ed in an R-h wo rkday .

Q. T o ta l hard ness = 6 mequiv i L x 50 mg/mequ i\' = 250 mg/ L. Assume 75 mg/ L

har dness is acce ptab le. Bypass 75/ 250 = 0. 30. or 30 pe rcen t o f the flow. Tr eat
0.70 x 25,OOO m ' /d,or 17.500 m' /d
b. Hard ness to be remove d :
c. Vo lum e o f medium fo r I-d o pera tion-
4375 kg/d x I m' /90 kg = 4X.6 m' medillm /d ope ra tion
2. Determine surface area a nd he ight of medium.
Q. 17,500 m' /d x d/ 1440 min = 12.15 m' /min
Area = 12.15 m' / mi n x min j04
b. Use tank s 2.0 m in di ameter.
A = rrd 2;4 = 3. 14 Ill '
} ()}8
No . of tank s = ---- =
3-14
Height of medium
4-8 F ILT R ATION
As prac ticed In mode rn water-treatme nt plan ts. fi lt rati on is mos t often a polis hin g
step to remove small Il ocs or pr ecipitan t pa rticles not remo ved in the sett li ng of
coagula ted or so ftened wa ters. Und er cert ain co nd itions. fi ltr ation may serve as
the prim ary tu rbidity-remova l proce ss. e.g.. in direc t fi lt ration of ra w water.
Altho ugh fi ltra tion remove s many pa thoge nic orga nisms from wate r. fi ltra tion ·
should not be relied up on for comp lete hea lth protection.
Pr eCOOl ji/(ralion . a process in which a thin sheet of d ia tomaceous eart h. or
2
III = 30.38 m other very Mnc media. comb ine wit h so lids in the wa ter to form a "ca ke " on a
microscreen. may ha ve ad va n tages under certai n circ u mstan ccs. A discu ssion
or precoa t fi ltrat ion is beyond the scope of th is text a nd the reade r is referred to
Baumann [4- 7J fo r a th oro ugh d iscussion of the su bject.
The mos t common ly used fi lt ra tion process in volves passing the water thro ugh
9.67 : use 9 tank s. a stati onary bed of gra nul ar med iulll. Solids in the wate r are retain ed by the fi lter
mediulll. Several modes of opera tion are possible in gra nula r medium fi ltra tio n.
to ta l vo!L;me
= These includ e upllow. billow. pre ssure. and vacuum fi ltra iion. Whi le an\' of these
tota l area may li nd app lica tion unde r specialized co ndili ons, the most prac tice
48.6 m 3 IS gravity li ltration in a c1ownw.arcl mode, with the weigh t of the water co lumn
9 x above the filter pro viding the d ri ving force. The ablwe o perati ons are ciepicted
graphically in Fig. 4-28_
= I. 72 Ill. sa y 2 m
166 WATER
i ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 167

I basins). inertial impaction . diffu sion of colloids into areas of lower concentrations

T
and / or lower hydraulic s hea r. [4-42J and. to a lesser extent, Brownian movement
-.- . ---=- and van der Waals forces . Retention of solids once contact has occurred can be
Wash-wat er
tank
attributed primarily to electrochemical forces, van der Waals force, and physical

I
'-'
Water level
Wash-water adsorption.
during filtering
trough 7-10 m With chemical preconditioning of the water, a well-designed and operated
filter s hould remove virtually all solids down to the submicron size. Removal
Water leve l . ----, . begins in the top portion of the filter. As pore openings are filled by the filtered
-+
I
during . 300-760 mm
back washing material, increased hydraulic shear sweeps particles farther into the bed. When
F=h==A===t' the storage capacity of bed has thus become exhausted, the filter must be cleaned.
600 mm
freeboard Modern practice is to clean the filter i:Jy hydrauli c backwashing . Backwash
water containing the accumulated so lids is disposed of and the filter returned to

'+'"
.," -, ..... :- .... .•.......... .
Innuent A se rvice .
•iM.. m
Many va riable s influence th e performance of granular media filters. An
under standing of filter hydraulics, media characteristics, and operating procedures
is necessary for the design of effective granular medium filters.

Underdrain sys tem

-
Wash water Filter Hydraulics
Filter hydrau lics falls into two separate categories, the actual filtration process
by which the water is cleaned and the back washing operation by which the filter
How filt er operates is cleaned. These operations are equally important in the overall filtration process.
I. Open valve A. (This allows innu ent to now to filter.) Fl ow throu gh. the packed bed can be ana lyzed by classic hydraulic theory. Carmen
2. Open va lve B. (This aJlows water to now throu gh filter.)
3. During filter opera ti on all other valves are closed. [4-14J modified the Darcy - Wie sbach equations for head loss in a pipe to reflect
conditions in a bed of por.OllS media .of.un.ifor.m.size. .Development-of this .... .. ..... .
How filter is back washed
I. C lose valve A.
is presented in several text s (Refs. [4-16J, [4-29J, [4-53J) and will not be repeated
2. C los e va lve B when water in filter drops down to top of ove rnow . here. The resulting equation. known as the Carmen- Kozeny equation, is:
3. Open valves C and D. (This aJlows water from wash-water tank to now
up through the filtering medium, loosening up the sand and washing the
accumulated so lids from the su rface of th e sand, out of th e filter. F ilt er (4-41 )
backwash water is return ed to head end of treatment plant.

How to filter to waste (if used)

I . Open valves A and E. All o th er valves closed. Ernuent is sometimes where hf = friction loss thr ough bed of particles of uniform size dp' m
filtered to waste for a few minutes after filter has been washed to L = depth of the filter. m
condition the filter befor e it is pu t into service.
e = porosity of bed
Figure 4-28 Typical gravity flow filter operation:(From Metcalf & Eddy, In c. [4-40].) V, = filtering velocity. i.e .. the velocity of the water just above the bed
(total flow Q to th e filter divided by the area of the filter) , m/s
!J = gravitational acce ler ation, m/s2
The so lid s- remo va l operation with granular-medium filters inv o lves seve ral d p = diameter o f filter meuia grains. m
complicated processes. The most obvious process is the physica l strainin g of
particles too large to pass between filter grains. Other processes are also imp ortant. The remaining term !' is a friction factor related to the coefficient of drag around
since most of the so lid material contained in se ttl ed water is too sma ll to be re- the particles. In the usual range of filter velocities (laminar tlow) this can be ca leu-
moved by straining. Removal o f particles and flocs in the filter bed d epends o n lateu by
mechanisms that transport the solids thr ough the water to the surface of the filte r
grains. and on retention of the so lid s by the medium once con ta ct has occurred
Transport mec hani sms include sett lin g (pore openings act as miniature settling
r =
(I - e)
150 ----- + 1.75
Re
(4-42)

'"
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS f OR \VATER P URIfI CAT ION 169
168 WATER

3. Ca lculate head loss by Eg . (4-41).

where
193.24 x 0.67 m(1 - 0.4) x (Ull x 10 - ' )2 m ' /s2
Re = Reynolds number = ---
¢Pw Jl,d
J1
(4-43) "f = -- .

and Pw and J1 are the density and dynamic viscosity, respe ctively , of the water.
The units of Pw are kilograms per cubic meter, and the units of J1 are newton-
seconds per square meter. The shape factor ¢ ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 for mo st
filter material. . Wat e r a.! 20 G
Equation (4-41) can be modified for abed of nonuniform medium. From a
sieve analysis of the medium , the weight fraction xij between adjacent sieve sizes
is determined . The average particle size d'j is assumed to be halfway between the
sieve sizes. The depth of the particles between adjacent sieve sizes can be taken as
xijL and Eq. (4-41) can be rewritten as follows:
= 0.60 m
Example 4-12: Determining head loss across a bed of nonuniform . stratified particles
e
is passed thr o ugh a fi lter bed at 1.2 x 10 .' m /' (4 .32 m/h) Th e bed is
0.75 m deep and is composed of no nuniform sand (spec il1c gra vity of 2.65) str at ified so
that the small est particl es are o n to p and th e large st on bottom. Th e p o rosity and shape
factors ar e 0.4 and D.X5 throughout th e depth of the bed. Th e size di stribution of th e
gr anule s is give n in th e table helow Determine the head loss for clea n water flow throu gh
th e bed.

L(l - e)V; ,,fijx, ,,

hJ = 3 L - d- (4-44)
e9 ij Sieve analysis

Equation (4-44) assumes that the bed is stratified by size and that the porosity is Particle size range.
US. sieve no . 111m /\ \T'rage Ma ss fra c t.
uniform throughout. Calcula'tion of head loss across a uniform and a stratified in size ran ge
S ile
media is illustrated in the following examples. Passing Rcta ineel Pa ss ing ti,) ,11 1 m X,}

Example 4-11: Determining head loss across a bed of uniform-size particles Clean water 14 1.41 141 0. 01
at 20 °C is passed through a bed of uniform sand at a 111tering velocity of 5.0 mlh (1.39 x 20 I 13 0.1 1
20 2S 0 .7 1 0/8 0 .20
10- 3 m /s). The sand grains are OA mm in diamet e r with a shape factor of 0.85 and a
2S 30 0 .7 1 0 .60 0.66 0.32
. specific gravity of 2.65. The depth of the bed is 0.67 m and th e.porosity is OA. Det ermin e
30 35 0 .60 050 0.55 0.21
the head loss through the bed. 0.1 3
35 40 0.50 042
'''4 0 . '042" . '6.42'" 662'
SOLUTION

I. Calculate the Reynolds number by Eq, (4-43).

At 20°C p = 998.2 kg/ m] SOL UT tO t'

kg· m
II = 1.002 x 10- 3 N . s/ m2 .x -2-- I. From Eg. (4-43):
s .N
0.85 x 998 .2 x 1.2 x 10 ' J m 's
= 1.002 X
Re = _._._._._. ___ . ...... . d,) m
m· s 1.002 x 10- 3 k gj l1l ' S

998.2 kg/ m' x 4.0 x 10- m x 1.39

4
x IO - J
m/s I01 6d,j
Re = 0.85 · ,.
1.002 x 10 kg/ m . s

= OA7 < 1.0 (laminar flow confirmed) 2. From Eg . (4-42):

2. Calculate f' by Eq. (::1-42). " I SO(I - 04)

I i) = '-' 10 16'[ - +
'J
, (I - OA)
f
.
= 150 --·_·-
0.47
+ 1.75

= 19124
170 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 171

a porous bed, the head loss must be at least equal to the buoyant weight of the
3. Determine L;;j x'i as follow s: par ticles in the fluid. For a unit area of filter this is expressed by
dij

hfb = L(l - elm - Pw

'Pw
P art icle size.
x Ill' j,j . where h fb = head loss required to initiate expansion, m
d'J 111 x!J
L = bed depth , m
141 0.0 1 65.6 465 I e = fraction of the packed bed composed of medium
I 13 0: II 81.4 7.924
30.026
Pm = density of the medium, kg/m 3
078 il.20 11 7.1
0 .66 032 138.1 66.958 Pw = density of the water, kg/ m 3
0.55 0.2 1 165.4 63, 153
197.4 55.787
The head loss through an expanded bed is essentially unchanged because the total
0.46 0. 13
(J42 0.02 " 16.0 10.286 buoyant weight of the bed is constant. Therefore:

Lf;j = 234.599 Weight of packed bed = weight of bed fluidized

d, )

4. Calculate "I from Eq. (4-44):

or

- L (l - e) (4-46)
m x (I.______
- 0.4) x .(1.2 L fb
" _ 0.73
__ . ____ __x _ iO ___")'. ----
m' /s'
- x 7'4 "N I 1m -
(l - e fb)
1 - 0.4 " x mis' --. - ,
where Lfb = the depth of the fluidized bed
= 0.24 JJ1 e fb = the porosity of the fluidized bed

...... 1t. sllot.J!db e .noted .. lhatEq s. ,(4-44) are to. c lean .. The quantity efb is a function of the terminal settling vdocity of the particles
filter beds. Once so lid s begin to acc umul ,it e. the porosi ly of the bed c han ges. As the and the backwash velocity. An increase in the backwash velocity will result in a
poro s ity decre;]s es. th e head loss increa ses. The rat e at which so lids accllmulate greater expansion of the bed . The expression _commonly used to relate the bed
in th e filte r. and therefore the rale o f head-loss change. is a functi o n of the natur e expansion to backwash velocity and particle settling velocity is [4-28]:
of th e suspe nsion. Ih e characteristics of the media . and filter uperatIon.
Although to formulate a math e mati ca l express ion ofa general natur e efb -
_ ·(VB)O.22 (4-47)
to quantify chang es in head loss with so lids rem ova l have not be en very success ful. Vc

some general observations can be mad e. To maintain a constant filter ing veloc it y
an incre ment in driving force mu st be applied to match e:lCh in cre ment in
where VB is the backwash velocity (backwash flow Q divided by the total fiiter
area). The depth of the fluidized bed and the backwash velocity for a given size.
head loss res ult ing from decrea sed porosity. Conversely. if a constant driVIng force
medium (with known vc) can now be related as follows :'
IS app lied. the filtering ve locit y wi ll diminish as the porosity decreases. In fllter
operatio n s. a run is ter minat ed when sutn cient so lid s have accum ulat ed to ( 1) L(I - e)
use LIp th e a\ailable driving forc e: (2) cause th e flltering velocity to drop below a L fb = 2'"'2'--
pred ete rmincd leve l: or (3) exh:wst the sto rage ca p ac ity of th e bed so i.hat solids .
(4-48)
begin to "break thI OUgh:' into th e ef]-1l1 ent. At thi s point, the.filt er must be ba ck-
was hed. This equation can also be modified for a stratified bed of nonuniform particles
BacK\\ 'ashIIlI! ()f £ranlilar-medi lllll hlt ers is accom plished hy rnersIIlg the tl; where
flo\\' and water upward thr o ugh th e media. To clean th e interior of
th e bed . it is nec essary to expand it so that th e granu les are nl! lon gcr In contact
wi th c,Ic h nthe r. thus expos ing all s urfa ces for cle:lIlin g. To hydr ;llI!ic tll v expand
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 173
172 WATER

6. From Eq. (4-47) :

Again xij is the weight fraction between adjacent sieve sizes. Assuming uniform
porosity in the packed bed, Lij will be the depth of the layer of media represented ) 0.22
by Xij' The expansion of this layer is represented by 0.7 = ( ..

L(I - e) VB = 0.7 4 . 5 5 x 0.07 m / s

Ljb,ij = xij . (V.'8)0.22 = 1.4 x 10 - 3
mls
. 1 - '-.
l't,i)
7. From Eq. (4-46):
The total expansion is the sum of th e individual layers 0.67 m (I - 0.4)
L fb =
1 - 0.7
(4-49)
Ljb = L(l
= 1.34 m
L r , iJ
Example 4- 14: Finding the expanded depth of a nonuniform stratified bed The filter bed
Total expanded depth should range from 120 to 155 percent of the unexpanded described in Example 4-12 is to be back washed at a velocity of 1.5 x 10 - 2 m /s Determine
depth. [4-7J Amirtharajah [4-5J has shown that the optimum expansion for the depth of the expanded bed.
hydraulic backwashing occurs at expanded porosities of from 0.65 to 0.70.
SOLUTION

Example 4-13: Finding the expanded depth of a uniform medium The filter medium
Each "layer" of particles defined by the sieve analysis of Example 4 - 12 must be treated
described in Example 4-11 is to be expanded to a porosity of 0.7 by hydraulic backwash.
Determine the required backwash velocity and the resulting expanded depth. separate ly and the results summed.
For the bottom layer. dij = 1.41 and x ij = 0.01.
SOLUTION
I. Estimate an initial velocity assuming turbulent flow [Eq. (4.4) WIth CD = O.4l

9· 81 12 10 - 3
m
_ )I /2
I. The terminal settling velocity for the medium is first calculated from Stokes' law a. v, = (4 x x dijmm x
. 3 0.4 Pw mm
[Eq. (4-9)]
9.81 m / s (2650 - 998.2) kg/ m 3 x (4 x 10 -
4
m)2
...... . ..... .. . ........ . .... .. .. . .... .... 1.8.x .l.om.x.. .1.0: ] N s/m2 = (5 .4 X 10- 2 x 141)1 /2 m!s
= 0.14 m/s (rounded)
.= 0.28 m/s
2. Check Reynolds number [Eq. (4-43)] , O.SS x 998.2 kg!m 3 x v, 1110'S X "ij x 10 - :l m/mm .
b. Re = (/>1' dp/I.l
0.14 m/s x 4 x 10 - 4 m x 99S.2 kg/m3 , 1.002 x 10 - 3 N si111 <
Rc = 0.85 x
1.002 x 10 -' j N s/m2
= 847 x 1', X . dij *
= 47.4 (transitional flow)
= 847 x o.n x 1.41
24 3
3. CD = 4- 7-.4 + 47.4 112 + 0.34 = 329 (transitIol1al flow)
24 3
= 1.28 c C - - --. + .---c-
112
+ 0.34
D - 329 329
4
1 4/3 x 9.81 m / s2 (2650 -'998.2) kg / m 3 x 4.0 x 10- m
4. f = -- - -------- ...--. = 0.58
,' . 1.28 x 998.2 kg/ m 3'
--l '. 2 Pm - p". dij 10 3
v, = O.OS mls . d. I.', = X 9.81 m/ s .. - -- .. 111m x - .. ..
_, . PH" (D 111m
5. Repeat steps 2. 3. and 4.
Re = 26.6 = (2.158 x lo- 3 _ __ (!,j Illnl) I,'
S2. nlln C/1
CD = 1.85
l', = 0.07 mis
= on m/s
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 175
174 WATER
The repetitive nature of the above example suggests solution by computer.
e. Repeat steps b, c, and d using * expansIOns. Final solution is:
The principal cleaning mechanism in backwashing filters is hydrodynamic
Re = 274 shear. which tears adhered material away from medium grains. While increased
backwash velocity might increase this shear. the resulting expansion could result
CD = 0.61
tn several undesirable effects. Jets of water aimed at the surface of the filter and/or
v, = 0.22 m / s mechanically powered rakes are often employed to create turbulence in the ex-
f Determine expanded porosity of layer by Eq. (4-47). panded bed during backwash. In addition to increasing the shear forces without
increasing backwash velocity, these operations also promote collision of media
e lb
= = grains , with the inherent abrasion assistiJ1g in the cleaning process_
v,. ij v,. iJ Another technique, air scour. is also use;;ful in increasing shear forces in back-
= 0.55 washing filters. Air is introduced along with the backwash water and creates
additional turbulence without substantially increasing expansion. Cleasby et al.
[4-22. 4-19. 4-21] and Amirtharajah [4-5] have shown thai air scour at su b-
Xij!(1 _ V,-ij
=
I 0.55
= 002
fluidizing water flows may provide more effective cleaning of granular-medium
filters.
2. Repeat all pr'eceding steps for each layer of particles. Again, * expression can be used
directly with proper values inserted. The results are tabulated below Filter Components
A tyrical granular-medium filter system used in water treatment was shown in
Fig. 4-28. Filter components include the containment structure (filter box). an
X 'j underdrain system. and filtering media. Additionally. piping systems. pumps,
Average
part icle
V'ii'
m/s {;r.IJ
I - t'.ij Xi}
- /' 1 i j
valves. backwash troughs , and other appurtenances for controlling the flow of
water 10 and from the filter are necessary.

1.41 022 0.55 0.45 0.01 0.02

Filter box Containment structures for filters are usually constructed of reinforced
I 13 0. 19 0.57 0.43 0. 11 0.26
0.61 039 0.20 051 concrete, although corrosion-resistant steel or other suitable material may be
078 0.14'
0.66 0.12 0.63 0.37 0.32 (U6 used: StructoraHy; the' filter'bux must· be 'strong'enough ·to -suppor-t..t·he wetght·of.· -... .......... _..
0.55 0.10 0.66 0.34 0.21 0.62 the underdrain system, filter medium, and water column. Additionally, the
0.;:16 0.08 0.69 0.31 013 0.42 structure must be watertight at pressures corresponding to the height of the
0.42 0.07 lUI 0.29 0.02 0.07
maximum water column expected.
Usually square or rectangular in shape. filter boxes are arranged facing each
" - ______ 7')"--0.722C = 2.76 other across an access corridor containing common piping and other appurten-
- ances. If more than two filters are necessary. a series of multiples of two provides
the economy of common walls and minimized piping, These filter galleries. as
they are commonly called, are usually enclosed in suitable hOllsing with the
controls located for central operations.
3. The expanded bed depth is found by Eq. (4-49).
Underdrain systems The purpose of the undcrdrain system is to collect and remove
LIb =' L(l - e) x the tiltered water and to disperse the backwash water. Underdrain systems in
1- - tilters may consist of built-in-place main and lateral pipe arrangements or of
. Vl.ij
proprietary units manufactured elsewhere and assembled on site. Figure 4-29
= l.24 m shows several types of underdrain systems. Many systems of this type require a
graded gravel packing to prevent loss of filter media into the underdrain system.
and
Figure 4-29a is illustrative of the sizing of the gravel. No gravel packing is required
1.24 for underdrain systems such as the ones shown in Fig_ 4-29c and 29d. These
-- - x 100 = 165 of original bed depth
0.75
 . : .. ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 177
•.... Dispersion orifices
Filter medium
Control orifices systems have slit openings which are too narrow for grains of filter media to pass

e" Level up top

of depressions
through.
Underclrain systems of all types contribute significantly to heacl Joss clue to
.f
C)
with gravel friction during filter runs and during backwash. Hydraulically, underdrain systems
must be deSigned to handle backwash flow rates, which usually exceed filter ing
rates by at least a factor of 2. An excellent discussion of underdrain design is
presen ted by Cleasby. [4-17J
75'0101 spheres
30-0101 spheres Filter media Traditionally, silica sand has been the medium most commonly
35-0101 spheres used in granular-medium filters. Modern filter applications often make use of
Ca) anthracite coal and garnet sand in place of, or in combination with, silica sand.
Cb)
The important properties of these materials are size, size distribution, and dens i ty.
Clay tile
The sm;]ller the size of granular media, the smaller the pore openings through
filter block Camp nozzle bolt
which the water must pass. Small pore openings filtration efficiency not
Camp nozzle cap only because of straining but also because of other removal mechanisms. However,
Gasket as size of pore openings decreases. head loss through the medium increases,
resulting in a diminished flow rate. Larger media increase pore size. reduce head
loss. and increase flow rate. but at a sacrifice of filtration efficiency.
Coupling
Since large quantities of filter medium of any uniform size would be difficult
to obtain ami therefore quite expensive. filter media vary in diameter within a
selected size range. In modern filtration practice, the effect of varying size ranges
Nozzle assembly becomes important because of stratification during backwashing operations.
When the bed is expanded, small grains are lifted farther than larger grains and
settle more slowly once the wash cycle is ended. Thus, a bed of nonuniform medi um
(e) will stratify with smaller particles. and therefore smaller pore openings. at the
top, an inetncient arrangement because most of the removal and most of the head
Slotted
. 1655 d lli'ing the' filit:<iiioI1cyCle'\vill occiii:'iti the sui-f<ii::£.'
nozzle Another factor which influences the height of expansion during backwash
and the rate of settling after backwash is the density of the medium. When two or
more matertals with different specific gravities are used, the lighter material
is located above the denser material of the same size.
The Clll'ice of size. size distribution, and density of the filter medium is an
important aspect of filter design. Through these variables. the engineer attempts
to match the filter to the characteristics of the water to be filtered and to the desired
quality and quantity of the output. Examples of engineered filter designs are given
in the followttlg paragraphs.

Slow sand niter The first filters to be used on a widespread basis for water purifi-
metering slot cation were slow sand filters. These filters were constructed of fine sand with an
effective size of about 0.2 mm. The ejjeclii'e ..I'ize is the size of the openings of the
Back wash sieve that retains :0 percent or'the medium. This small size resulted in virtually
i
i- ' water all of the suspended material being removed at the filter surface. Adclitionally, a
mat of biological organisms was allowed to develop at the water-sand interface,
Figure 4-29 Proprietary filter underdralns: tal BIF, Unil of General Signal Corp., (h) F. B. Leopold which aided in the filtration process. The resulting high head loss produced very
Company, subsidiary of Moeller Company; (el Walker Process Corp.; Cd) Inlileo Degremont. Inc. lo\\, flow rates (0.12 to 0.32 m / h). necessitating the construction of very large
L 176
 178 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 179

filters. Cleaning was accomplished by periodically (usually no more frequently

than once a month) draining the filters and mechanically removing the top few
centimeters of sand, along with the accumulated solids and the biological mat.
Slow sand filters have large space requirement and are capita l-int ensive.
Additionally, they do not function well with highly turbid water since the surface .c
0.
plugs quickly, requiring frequent c leaning. The rapid sand filter was developed in o'"
the mid-1800s to alleviate th ese difficulties.
Rapid sand filter The rapid sand filter utilizes a bed of silica sand ranging from
0.6 to 0.75 m in depth. Sizes may range from 0.35 to 1.0 mm or even larger. with
effective sizes from 0.45 to 0.55 mm. A uniformity coefficient (60 percent less than
size / IO percent size) of 1.65 is commonly specified . These larg er sizes, coup led with
(a)
frequent cleaning and the absence of a biological mat, result in a rate of filtration
an order of magnitude larger than that of the slow sand filter. Common filtration
rates in rapid sand filters range from 2.5 to 5.0 m j h.
An important feature of the rapid sand filter is that it is cleaned by hydraulic
backwashing w ith resulting stratification of the medium. Filtration of relatively
clean water presents few problems. However, filtration of turbid water necessitates .c
0.
frequent backwashing. Coagulated water with large , strong Hocs cau ses binding
o"
at the fine-grained sur face and results in a rapid buildup of head loss, necessita ting
frequent cleaning. This situ ation co uld be a lle viated if the gradation of the filter
could be reversed so that larger grains were deposited on top with media of
progressively decreasing size below, so that th e sma llest grains were on the bottom.
-
Such an arrangement would mean the lar ge pores on top would retain mostly
lar ger suspended material, while subsequent ly smaller pores would retain succeed - (b)
ingly finer material. Thus, the entire depth of the filter would fun ction efllcientiy.
Figure 4-30 Size gradation in dual-media filters: (a) sharp gradation and (0) partial mixing .
. .ancllarger ..volumes.Qf .sllspended. solids..could.be .retained·between. backwashes.
The overall result wo uld be longer filter runs, less head loss, and greater filtering
The large pores in the anthracite layer remove large particles and flocs, while
rates.
most o f the sma ller material penetrates to the sand layer before it is removed.
By carefu l selection of medium with regard to size and den s ity. it I S possible
Dual-media filters thus have the advantage of more utilizing pore
to approximate this rev erse gradation. Dual-media filters do this to some ex tent,
space for stor age. This results in longer filter runs a nd greater filtration rates
and mixed-media filters essentially approximate reverse gradation.
because of lower head losses. A disadv'lntage of dual-media filters is that the
Dual-media filters Dual-media filters are usually constructed of sil ica sand and filtered material is held rather loose ly in the anthracite layer. Any sudden increase
anthracite coal. The depth of the sand may range from O. J 5 to 0.4 m, with the coal in hydraulic loading dislodges the material and transports it to the surface of the
depth ranging fr om 0.3 to 0.6 m. Size and uniformity coefficients of the two media sand la yer, resulting in rapid binding at thi s level.
can be se lect ed to produce either a distinct separation or a given degree of mixing
after backwashing. These conditions are illustrated in Fig. 4-30. As an example, Mixed-media filters As noted ea rlier, the ideal filter would consist of a medium
the foll owing material would pl'oduce a filter 0.6 m deep with approximately graded evenly from large at the top to small at the bottom. This can be accom-
0.15 m of intermixing. [4-17J plished by using three or more types of media with carefully selected size , density,
and uniformity coefflcients. A typical installation might consi.st of a 0.75-m bed ...-'
Sand l o,il with 60 percent anthracite, 30 percent silica sand, and IO percent garnet sand, with
--- - --- - specific gravities of 1.6, 2.6, and 4.2, respectively. 'Effective sizes ranging from a
Deplh. m o\ (U maximum of 1.0 mm for the anthracite to a minimum of 0.15 mm for the garnet,
Speclric gra\'il, 2." 5 l..j I.()
coupled with carefully se lected uniformity coefficients, will produce intermixing
Efleclive size, I11Ill () 5 (I )' 11') If)
Unif o rmity coefilc it.: l)t < I .f,;:;' / I .X and result in a pore-size gradation as shown in Fig. 4-31. [4-24J
 180 WATER
ENG I NEERED SYSTEM S FOR WATER PURIFICATION 181

Thus, the mixed-media filter (perhaps" mixed- up " media is;) mo re descriptive
term) approaches an idea l filter. Filtr a tion rates range from 10 to 20 mj h, consider-

\"
'\. Sand ably higher tha n rapid san d filter s a nd about the sa me as for dual-media filter s.
\1 Ther eve rse gradation avo ids t he major problems of eac h of th ese medi a. however.
Dual- and mixed-med ia fi lters make po ssible the direct filtration of water of
\ '\
\ low turbidity without sett ling ope ra tions. Coagulating che mica ls are often added
to the influent of the filter to pr odu ce small. str o ng flocs to enh a nce turbidit y
remova l.

/'
//1
.
'<amd '-
Filter Operation
The two basic modes of ope rat ing granular-m ed ium fillers a re ( I) constant
Bot tom '-":.......<:.....,:--- ______ _ _I
Particle distribution. 'If head - vari able flow and (2) cons tant tlow- variable head. The se two mode s are
(a) often modified to obta in better result s.
In the co nstant head -- variab le flow mode. th e water level above th e fi lter is
kept at a prese lected level. Si nce a clean fi lter bed presents limit ed head loss. the
flow rate will be ljuite large . As the filter becomes clogged. the head loss inc reases
and the flOW rate When the fl ow the design minimums, th e
Iilter must be backwashed.
Because yerl' rapid !low through a clea n filter results in poor efficiency.
throttling the fl ow from the I-ilter with a !low-co ntrol va lve may be nece ssa ry This
valve is dcsigned to pr ov ide add itiona l head loss in the underdrain sys tem and
decrease the flow rate to an acce ptab le leve l. When the filter medium is clean, th e
valve operates with a small o peni ng to produce a lar ge suppl emental head loss.
As the head loss increases due to medium plugging. the va lve gradu a lly o pens to
decrease supplem ental head loss ane! to maintain a mor e o r less constant head
loss across the ent ire system Th e resu lt is essenti a ll y a co nstan t heact-'- cb il"slah"i'
...... . . ....... ... ..... .. . . ........ -.
1I0w filte r.
If wa ter is intr oduced inti) a clea n filter at a constant rat e. an equilibrium will
be estab li shed betwee n the height of the wa ter column and th e application rate.
At first. the head will be low due to thc minimal hea d· loss in th e medium _ As th e
medlllm beco mes plugged glTate r head loss occurs . the heigh t of the water
column m'ust incrcase to pro\ 'ide the needed1.lriving·force. Wh en the wa ter co lumn
reac hes a predeterm ined Ic\eL the filter is ba ck washed and the cycle repea ts ilself.
Filters that o pera te in this wa y must be designed to pr event dewatering of
the bed duri'ng the ini tial filter cycle. i\ minimum depth of water ilb ove the bee!
ca n be asslired bv ele\atinl! thc entran ce tll the c lear well abo\ e the surface of th e
fi lter media.' ,
Mure n;cent desil!n ()I" !;Iruer lil ter plailts usua lly makes use uf a cOlllblllation
(b)
of tile dh()\"C modes Ill' /\ consta nt now is delivered to a bank of severa l
Figure.4-31 Size gradalion or
mix:d-mcdia fillcr: (a) panicle di,lriblllilln and pore SIZC and (b) multi- lilters tltroul!lt a 'Cllm11l011 lte:tder is a llowed tIl distrib ute It se lf accordinu to
media segrega led ancl mix ed by backwashing IC OllrlC.IT 01 Nep/III1{' ,\IlI ·rutloe. 11Ic.). the rate 1)1" c;;ch ind l\ idlla llilt e;·. Th c hcighi (ll" the water col uilln is' the
Sdille' :111 the lilter lIllltS. \l'ith the c!c:lncs t filter :Icccpting thc greatest 1I0w.
Whcn thc !lo\\' ra te thrlllluh :111\ (.lne unit tl) a predctermincd IC\'eL that
fi llt;r IS taken oIT-lint: :I nd [)ack I\ C1l1U1 al pf (we liltCl" I"(sult, in an increase
182 WATER
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 183

in flow to th e remaining filters, with a subsequent increase in head and flow rate
thr ough each filter. When backwashing is comp leted, the newly cleaned filter is
returned to service and will accommodate a larger flow ra te. Water leve l will
therefore drop slightly in a ll the filters, resulting In a decrease in flow through
each filter.
Regardless of the operating mode, a uniform flow rate is essent ia l to the best
._.
performance of a granular-medium filter. Any increases in flow rate must occur
gradually, or the quality of the effluent will deteriorate. Large changes occurring
quickly produce the greatest degree of deterioration.
When automatic control valves are useu to (egulate filter output they must
be maintained to ensure that they produce gradua l changes in the orifice opening.
Otherwise, a rapid c hange in flow rate will occur. with signif ican t deterioration
of the effluent quality. As noted earlier, fluctuations in filtering rates occur in
variable-declining-rate filtration each time a filter is taken off-line for backwashing.
The magnitude of the fluctuations increases as the number of filter units in the
system decreases. To prevent sign ificant disruptions in filter q ua lit y. a minimum
of four filters shou ld be used in this mode of operation. [4-18J
Figure 4-32 Typhoid fever and
1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 treated water supplies during two
decades. (From Vesilind [4-56].)
4-9 DISINFECTION
Comp let e disinfection cannot be accomplished because Nl' the number of organ-
As practiced in water treatm ent, disinfection refers to opera ti ons aimed at killing, isms remaining at time 1. will only approach zero asymptotically as time gets
or rendering harmless, pathogenic microorganisms. Ster ilization. the comp lete excessive ly large, However. since the number of organisms initially present (No)
destruction of all living matter, is not usually the objective of dislIlfection. The sho uld be small, 99,9 percent kill can be affected in a reasonable time. The value
effect of disinfection on the reduction of waterborne disease is quite dramatic, as of the constant k must be determined experimentally.
evidenced in Fig. 4-32. [4-56J Factors which militate against effective disinfection are turbidity and resistant
Other water-treatment processes assist in removing pathogens. irie'xcess' 6f" .. 'organisms:'TiJroiaiiy:pYod'titliig" to'lloids" 'offer"'sancwgty' to' "organis-m's,.. thus"
90 percent of the bacteria and viruses should be removed by coagulation. sett lin g, sh ielding them from the full action of the disinfectant. Particulate matter may
and filtration. Excess-lime softening is effective uisinfectant due to th e high adsorb the disinfectant.
pH involved. However, to meet the EPA's standard o f one coliform organ ism per Viruses, 'cysts. and ova are more resistant to disinfectants than are bacteria,
100 mL and to provide protection against regrowth, addit ional disinfection must AdditionaJ exposure time and higher concentrations of the disinfectant will be
be practiced. , . . required for an effective kill of these organisms,
A good disinfectant must be toxic to microorgani'sms at conce ntrati ons well Disinfectants include chemical agents such as the halogen group, ozone, or
below the toxic thresholds to humans and high'er animals. Additiona ll y, it should si lver: irr adiat ion with gamma waves or ultraviolet light; and sonification, electro:':
have a fast rate of kill and should be persistent enough to prevent regrowth of cut ion, heating. or other physical means, In America, disinfection and chlorination
organisms in the distribution system. The ratc of kill is often postulated as a rirst- have become synonymous terms. while ozonation has been practiced more
order react ion: widely in Europe.

Chlorination
liN
- k {\' Chlorine may be applied to wa ter in gaseous form (CI 2 ) or as'a!) ionized, product
rif
of solids [Ca(OClh. NaOe l]. The react ions in water are as follows:
Ci 2 + H20 -- -t H+ + HOC! (4-5 J)
Ca(OCl) 2-----> Ca 2f
+ 20CI - (4-52)
(4- 50) NaOCI -- --> Na + OCI - (4-5 3)
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 185
184 WATER

The hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and the hypochlorite ion (OCI) in the above
equations are further related by
HOC]
a relationship governed primarily by pH and temperature, as shown in Fig. 4-31
The sum of HOCI and OCI - is called the free chlorine residual and is the
primary disinfectant employed. HOCI is the more effective disinfectant. As
indicated in Eq. (4-51), HOCI is produced on a one-to-one basis by the addition of
CI 2 gas, along with a reduction of pH which limits the conversion to OCl - [Eq.
(4-54)]. Chlorine gas can be liquefied by compression and shipped to the site in
compact containers. Because it can be regasified easily and has a solubility of ap-
proximately 700 mg/L in water at pH and temperatures generally found in water
purification plants, this form of chlorine is usually the preferred species. The
application of the hypochlorites tend s to raise the pH, thus driving the reaction
more toward"the 'less effective ocr.
Commerc ially available calcium hypochlorite
100 o Form of c hlnrillc
contains approximate ly 70 to 80 percent avai labl e chlorine, while NaOCI contains
only 3 to 15 percent available chlorine. [4-53J Some practical difficulty is involved
in dissolving Ca(OCI)z. and both hypochlorite s are more expensive on an equiv-
(4-54) alence ba sis than liquefi ed C l z ·
There are other considerations. however. which sometimes dictate the use of
hypochl or ite s. Chlorine gas is a very strong ox idant that is toxic to humans. Since
it is heavier than air. it spreads s lowly at ground level. Therefore, extreme care
must be exercised in its manufacture. shipping. and use. Accounts of evacuations
of pop ulated areas because of rail or barge accidents involving chlorine gas have
become common new s ite ms. The use of hypochlorite s is often mandated w here
large quant ities cif ch lorine are needed in treatment plants located in highly popu-
la t ed areas.
At loll' concentrations. chlorine probably kills microorganisms by penetrating
the ce ll and rea cti ng with the enzymes and protoplasm. At higher concentrations,
oxidation of the cell wal l will destroy the organism. Factors affecting the process
are

90 f\.. to
2.
3.
pH
COllcent ra t ion

80 't 20
4.
5.
(,.
Contact timc
Type of o rgan ism
Temperature

70
\\ 30 Hypochlorous acid is mOle erTectlvc than the hypochlorite ion by approximate ly
two orders of magnitudc Beca use the free-chlorine species is re lated to pH, one

60
\\ .
40···· ............ . . ....... . ..... . .
.. \v(!lI10 ..eli.p.ec.t.a.relalionship. between .efficiency and pH. Empirically. it has been
found that ch lorin e mu st be increased to compensate for higher pH .
('hh)rine and contact time relationship is often expressed by
v !.-.
0 U
:r: 50 50 0 (4-55)
C"l" = k
<f
20 0
e where C= concentra tion of ch lorine, mg / L
40 ( ,0
11' = tim e required for given percent kill , min
\O°C n. /; = ex pe rimental derived constants for a given sys tem
:30 70 An example of thi s re lation s hip was reported by Be rg and is s hown in Fig. 4-34.

\ [ 4-49J

, 110
The c!Teets of temperature va ria t ion s can be modeled by the following equation
20
deriled from the I<IIl't HolT Arrhenius equation [4-40J
I I £,(T z - T I ) (4-56)
10 90 III ..- =
I, .R TI . T2

0 I 00 where 1 1.1, = tIme required for gil 'en kill s

4 6 7 8 9 10 II 7"1 "/ : = temperature corresponding to 11 and [2' K
pH R "" gasconstanl. 1.0cal / K-mol
Figure 4-33 Distribution of HOCL and OCL as" function o f pH . (F,om .\mrycr (tIlll Mclartl" [4·481-) I-. activ:ltion energy. related to pH (as shown in Table 4-4)
 J&C
(', V' _f(" 1

186 WATER J}r '"' W>Th' "U''''C'''ON187

{,tJ Destruction
of chtorine
Destruction of Formation of free chlorine and
chloramines and presence of chloro·organic
0.5 residu al I chlmo -organic I comp ou nds not destroyed
I by reducing " compounds
I com pounds
-
....J
cO
E
0.4
I
I
Formati on of chl oro-organic
compounds and chI o ra mines

-
....J
eo
E
...:
'"
'0
::l
''';
0.3

c:
0. 10 t>
8 c 0.2
u .2.c
0 U
:r: 0.1

o 1.0

Chlorine added, mg/L

Figure 4-35 Gen e rali zed curv e o bt aine d during breakpoint chlorination. (From Metcalf & Eddy, ll1c.
[4-40].) .
Contact ! illle for kill, !nin
ine to form severe ta ste and odor problems. The original organics must be removed
Figure 4-34 Concentration 01' free residual chlorine and cuntac! lime necessary fo r 99 pe rcent kill at
o a nd 6"C (From Schro " ier [4-49l)
before chlorination, and undesirable compounds must be removed after chlorina-
tion, o r the co mpounds mu st be prevented from forming. The compounds can
be re mo ved by adsorption ont.o activated carbon, or their formation can be pre-
Being a s tr o ng ox idant. chlorine will react wilh almost any material that is
vented by the substitution of chloramine s, which do not react with the organicsor
in a reduced stat e. In water, this us ually consists of Fe " + , Mn " r , H 2 S, and organics.
phenols, for tree chlorine. Chloramines can be formed by first adding a small
Ammonia (NH)) is so metime s pre se nt in small quantitie s or ma y be added for
quantity of'ammonia to the water. then adding chlorine. The reactions of chlorine
purpo ses to be pre sently discussed. These o xidi za ble mat e rial s will consume
with ammonia are as follows:
. "c hlbfiile 'befo're it a'
dislofe 'ctant The amount of c hlorine
required for thi s purpo se mu st be determined ex perimentall y. since th e exact NH3 + HOCI --> NH 2 C! (monochloramine) + H 20 (4-57)
na ture a nd quantity of ox idi zable material in wa ter is se ld om kn own. A typ ica l (4-58)
NH 2 C1 + HOCI NHCl z (dichloramine) + H 20
titration curve is shown in Fig . 4-35.
The pr o duct s of organics oxidized by chlorine are often unde sirable. Organic NHCl + HOC! --> NCI 3 (nitrogen trichloride) + H 20 (4-59)
2
ac id s (humic' ful vic) form chlorinated hydrocarbon co mpound s that ar e s uspecte d
These reaction s are dependent on seve ral factors , the most important 'ofwhich
of bein g ca rcin oge nic . Minute quantities of phenolic co mp o und s react with c hlor-
pI-I, temperature, and reactant quantities. At pH greater than 6.5 mono-
chloramine will be the predomitl<tllt species. [4-53J Since combined residuals are
Table 4-4 Actiyation less effective as a di s infectant , co ncentration of 2 to 3 mg/ L with contact time in
energies for aqueous excess of 30 min is often required. C hloramines are persistent and provide con-
chlorine tinued protection againsrregrowth in the distribution system. . .
Provisions may be made fo r application of chlorine at several points within
pH C. 'cal
7.0 8.200
th e water-treatment proce ss. When treatin g raw water of good quality, no early
8.5 . applications ma y be neces sa ry, yet it is advisable to design a ,plant to allow for
9.8 I easy addition of ea rly applic a tion s la ter. s ho uld future conditions require them.
10.7 I S.!Jf.JO C hl o rine m ay be added to th e inc om ing fl ow (prechlorination) to ass ist with
the ox idation of in urganic s or to arre st bio lo gical action that may produce un-
.\'0/1/"(' (' I· )Ill t:;l1r
dcsimble gases in the s lud ge at the bo ttom of Clarifiers. Chlorine is frequently
c! ,iI . [ 4-3UJ

188 WATER
added just pri o r to filtration to keep algae from growi ng at the medium sur face
and to pre ven t large populations · of bacteria fro m developing w ithin the filter
medium. . ozo ne react s vigorous ly wi t h bacter ia and viru ses. It is repo rt ed to be more
Safe and effective app lica ti on of ch lorine require s spec ia lized equipment and
considerab le care a nd sk ill o n th e part of the plant ope rat o r. Liquefied ch lorine
is delivered to water-treatment plants in tanks con taining anywhere from 75 to
1000 k g. Lar ge plants m ay be designed to a llow use o f chlorine directly from a
tank car. In su c h cases, designers sho uid be aware of the Int ers tate Commer ce
Comm iss ion (I CC) and Occupational H ealth and Sa fety Agency JO HSA) regu la -
tions for sh ippin g and handling ch lor ine.
Mixing is o n e o f the most imp or tant aspect s of th e c hl or in a ti on process . [4-40J
A s uffic ient ve loc ity g ra dient mu st be applied to ens ure unif orm co nce ntrati on o f
ch lorine thr o u g h o ut the water and to break up a ny remaining flo cc ulent material
that might shield mi c roorg a ni sms from co nt ac t wi th th e c hl or ine. Any of the
rapid-mixing devices di sc ussed in Sec. 4-6 may be u sed for thi s purpose. A con tac t
chambe r mu st be provided to ensure an adequate k ill ti me. In water- trea tm ent
plant o p erati ons. mixing 'and con tac t ope r a ti ons m ay be accompli shed by sec ti o n-
ing off part of t he cl ea r well.
Safe t y considerations m a n da te storing of.ch lo rin e tanks in a se parate rool11.
S torage a nd ope r a tin g rooms sh o uld not be direc tl y co nn ec ted. nor sho ul d th ey
be directly connec ted to o ther enc losed areas of th e tr ea tm ent plant. All door s to
th ese faciliti es s h ou ld b e open to th e o ut s id e. and wi ndo ws sho uld be provided
for visual in s p ec ti o n from the o ut s ide. Safety eq uipm ent , including ma sk s w ith
a ir tank s. c hl o rin e detecti o n de vice s. a nd e m e rge ncy re pair equ ipment: s ho uld
be provided in str a te g ic lo ca ti o n s.
Otber Means of Disinfection
Given the pr o blem s asso ciated w ith c hl o rinati on. it IS n o t surpri sin g that a sea rc h
for a sub stitut e means of di s infec tion has been in progress for yea rs. H owever.
t he lis t of candidates fo r replacement remain s q ui te s malL w ith ch lOl:in e dio xide
and ozone bei ng the leading conte nders. A lt hough both o f !h cse are effec ti ve in.
destroying pa th ogens, ozo ne doe s not leave a disinfec ting residual that can guard
aga in st path oge n regrowth in th e distribution sys tem , a nd both are more expensive
th a n c hl o rin e :md have pr ac ti ca l prob lems assoc iat ed w it h th eir use.
Ozone O zo ne , the a llotro pi c form of oxygen. ca n be produced in a hi gh-strength
e lec trical field from oxygen in pure form or from the io ni zation o f clean. dry air.
high
O2 0 +0
(4-60)
Ozone is a powerful ox id ant w hich react s with red uced in organic compounds
and wi th o rgan ic material. The difference . h oweve r. is that a n c1xygen ,! tonl.
ENGINEEKEI ) SYSTEMS FOK WATEK PUR IFI CAT ION 189
ins tead of a c hl OI'ide atom . is added to the o rga nic s. th e elld res ult being an e n -
vironmenta ll y acceptable corhpo und. On ce thi s ozo ne demand has been mel. th e
effec tive than c hl orine in ina ctiva ting resi stant strains of bacteria and viru ses .
[ 4-58J
. Becau se ozone is chem ica ll y unstable it mu st be produ ced on-s ite and u sed
3
immediate ly. Typica l dosages range from 1.0 to 5.3 kg/ IOOO m [4-58], with pow e r
consum pt io ns of from 10 to 20 k W · h/ kg of ozone [4-53J Cost o r ozona tion IS two
to three tim es h ig her than t he cost o f ch lor in atio n . Since no res idual remain s; i.l
lVill be ne cess ar y to use a s ma ll amo unt o r ch lor ine ofler ozonatio n to provide
con t inued again st regrow th in th e di stribution syste m .
Becau se ozo ne has a low so lubilit y in water. it must be mixed th o ro ughly
wi th the wa ter to ensur e adequa te co nt act. Thi s ca n be a prob lem when air is
used as the ox yge n sou rce. s ince large vo lu me s o f ni tr ogen mu st al so be hand led.
In sp ite of t hese prob le m s. ozo ne is w id ely used in Europe for disinfecting
water con ta inin g co lo r <Inc! orga ni c co mpound s. In the United States. ozo n a ti on
has bee n limit ed. prim<lril y because ch lo rinati o n has been more economical.
How eve r. Olonation wi ll no doubt come int o wider use a s a resu lt of re cen t ly
adopted sta nd ,lJ'ds o n chlo r in;lleci hydrocarb o n co mpound s. When raw water is
known to cun tLiin pr ecursors of haloform co mpo unds. use o r oz one s hould be
scriou sly co nsidered.
C hlorine dioxide Chlo ri ne di oxide (CIO z) ha s many of th e sa m e propertie s as
ozonc. A oxidant w hi ch forms ne ither c hlorofo r m s no r chloramine s, it is
pa rti cularly e fl':ct\ vC in oxidizillg ph enol ic co mpounds. Alth o ugh highl y so lu ble ,
chl Orine dioxide doe s not react c hemicall yw it.h. wa ter. .Contact with.lhe . aLmo.-.
sphere will result in loss of ClO , by gas tran sk r. and th e prese nc e or light res u lt s
in pholOoxiciatl on. Chlorine dioxide mu st th e refo re be generated on-site. in
,lqlJCOlJS I'orm: usua lly by the t;hlorina ti on of so di um chlorite at low pH. [4-2 5J
The clisinfecta nt prope[t ies oJ c hl o r ine dioxide a re similar to t hose of ch lor in e.
,JIld Its lise rc sull s in a mea surab le res id ua l. A lt hough its prin ci pal a ppli cation ha s
bt:en in wastcwa ler di sinfecti o n. chlo r ine dioxid e has had li mi ted use in pot ab le
water tl-catJllent for oXlciiz iJli.! Iron and m<lnl!<lnese and for removal or ta ste and
odor compo unds. Its pl lssi blc red ucti on t(l a suosun ce which may be
toxic to humans . JIlakcs CjlJcs ti o naol e its use in potab le \\:Iter.
Other disinf ec tants Ir ra ckJlI Oll with ultra viole t light is a pr o mi sing m e t h od or
di si nrecti o n . it pill vides no res idual. this m eth od is efrective in in-
<lct lva tm g 0011; and vil·uses. [4·5kJ Ul t ravio le t li ght s pans the wa ve-
lengths 01 2()UO to .190U A (ang st rums) Th e mo st effec tiv e band for disinfection'
is in the sholler rangc o r 2000 to 3000 A. Li ght with thi s \\'a ve length can b e
genc rated wi th low · pr ess ure m e rcury vap o r lamp s. A pow e r input o f 3D Il W / cm2
applied [() thin sheets or turbidit y·fre e w,ller s hould be s uffic ie nt. A m ean s of
keeping th e gla ss surfac e clear o f deposits JIlUSi he prOVid ed.
190 WATER
A va rie ty o f o th er disi nfe ctio n methods may be u sed in specia l circumstances.
Th ese includ e o ther halogen s (iodin e. br o mine). m e tal s (copper, s ilver), o th e r
ox id a nt s ( KMn0 4 ) . so nifi ca ti o n . e lec tri ca l curr ent. a nd gamma- ra y ir radiation.
It is unlikel y, howeve r. that any o f these proce sses will find widespread use in
di si nfec tin g pu b lic wa te r s uppli es in th e foreseea ble future.
Other Water- Treatment Processes
Th e water treatment di sc usse d in the pr ev iou s sec tion s o f thi s chap te r
a re suffici e nt to rend er mo st natur a l surf ace water or gro undw a ter p o tabl e. In
some in s tance s, howeve r. the wat er suppl y may co ntain materials that a re not
rem ove d by th e co n ve ntional water-treatment pr ocesses. Examp les ar e g ro und -
wat er with ex cess ive disso lved solid s and surface water s that co ntain orga ni c
compounds from d o m es tic o r in dustria l wastewaters o r naturally occu rrin g
o rg a nic s s uc h as humi c a nd ful vic acids or produ c ts o f a lgal bloo m s. Pr ocesses
are a vailable fo r removing the se c o nt a minant s. Th ese pr ocesses in vo lve so phi s ti -
ca ted equipm e nt. require h ighly skill ed o p e rato rs, a nd a re th e refo re qui te expens ive.
Th e ir u se in p o tabl e wat e r pr e parati o n s hould be co nsid ered o nl y wh en a bett er-
qualit y wa ter supp ly is no t a vai la bl e.
The fo llowing sec ti o ns w ill di sc u ss pr ocesses fo r re m ov ing in organ ic and
o rga nic di sso lved so li d s from water int e nd ed fo r p o tabl e use. The se sa me proce sses
m ay ac t as te rt iary tr ea t ment fo r wastewater wi th so m e m odi tica t io n . Th e discuss io n
is arran ge d according to targe t co ntaminant s rath e r than pro cess type.
4-10 DISSOLVED-SOLIDS REMOVAL
Tar ge t con tamina nt s ill dis so lved-so lid s re mo va l pro cesses ma y be Inorgani c
min e ral s or refr ac to ry compounds. Severa l pro cess es a re av a ilabl e for
reduc in g the leve ls o f th ese co mpound s in' wa ter intended for potab lc use. and
pro cess se lec ti o n mu st be based o n eco nomi cs and d e pendabilit y.
Inorganic Material
Demil1E'ralizmiu/i :lIld desa/inizatiol1 are sy n o n ym o us terms app lied to th e removal
o f in o rgani c rntn era l sub s tanc es from water Thi s is mo 's t uften ;Icco mpli s hecl by
se lective. s taged io n- excha nge unit s o r bv processe s e mpl oy in g the use of se mi -
perm eab le mem bra n es. Bo th pro ced llTes req uir e vir tuall y co mpl ete re mO Ved of
sus pend ed so lid s prior to their app lication.
Ion exc hange Th e pr inciples o f th e io n -exchange pr ocess we re de sc rib ed in
Se c. 4-7 as re lat ed to water so fte n ing . In th ci t proce ss. sod ium ions we re exchanged
for ca lci ulll and m3gne s ium io ns o n a n eqUiva lenc e basis and th e l'e was no ne t
d ec rease In di ssolved so lid s. F o r d e miner a li zat io n . h owever. th e e xchan ge d ion s
mu st not co ntribut e disso lvccl so lid s to the e flluen t Thi S IS accomplished by
ENGINEERED S YSTEMS FOR WATER PURI F ICA TION 191
exc hangin g h ydr oge n for th e di sso lved cation s and hydroxide for the dissolved
anio ns. The tw o th en co mbine in equal amounts to form H 2 0, leaving no residual
ane! not affecting the pH. Th e resins ar e rege nerat ed w ith acids and ba ses , respec-
tive ly.
Th e io n- exc h a nge pr ocess mu st be carried out in two or more steps. Generally,
the cations a re removed first, followed by the an ion s. The process and related
chemical reactions are shown in Fi g. 4-36 . Becau se completely demineralized
wa te r is und cs ira ble , a porti o n of th e wat e r is bypas se d and blended with the
process effluent to provide a stable water.
Microporous membranes Deminerali za tion of wat e r can be accomplished using
th in. micr o por o u s m embran es. Th e re a re two bas ic mode s of operation in use.
One sys tem uses press ur e to drive water thr o ugh th e membrane against the force
o f os motic pre ss ure and is ca lled reren e osmosis. eve n though the pressure applied
is seve ral o rder s of m ag nitud e in ex cess of th e nat ural osmo tic pressure . The other
process. called elect rodialysis, use s electr ica l force s to drive ion s through ion-
selec ti ve m embr a nes.
Th e me mbr a ne com m o nl y used in rever se osmos is is composed of cellulose
aceta te ane! is ab o ut 100 tun thick . Sp ec ial te c hnique s of casting result in an asym-
me tr ic arrangement, wi th o nc s id e of th e m e mbran e having a thin (0.2 11m), dense
fi lm. wh ile th e re mainder is mor e p o ro us. The film con tain s microscopic o penin gs
that allow water mol ec ul es to pa ss thr o ugh but reject di sso lved so lid s by either
mo lec ular sievi ng o r by so m e o ther m ec ha ni s ms n o t yet co mpletely under stood.
r4-25 ] Th e pr ocess res ults in a concentrated so lution of th e ion s o n the pressure
side of th e membrane and a pr o duct water wh ich is relat ively free o f io n s.
Thr ee basic membrane configuration s are use d in reverse-osmosis sys tems .
.. Th-ese are ' t he 'spira:IC\vo lt'nds'y s!crn' 'iIi 'wiiich 'r-rleri-ibra r1es' imd support
materi al are pla ced in a lternate layers. roll ed into a cy lindrical s hape , and placed
in tube s o f suit ab le mat eriaL The supp o rt m a terial is porous and serves as a tran s-
port medium for the liquid str ea ms . Separat ion o f th e product wa ter and co n cen -
trate is accomp lis hed by int ernal a rrangement within the containment tube .
T ub ular sys tem s (Fig. 4-37b) are avai la ble in w hich the m e mbrane and it s porous
sup po rt sys tem are fo rmed to fit in s id e a co ntainment tube of up to 125 mm in
dia meter. Product wa te r is w ithdra wn from the p o rou s support medium, while
the co nc ent ra te passes thr o ugh t he core of th e membrane. H o llow-fiber membranes
(Fi g. 4-37c) are extrem e ly sma ll tub es . diameters of 1.0 pm o r less being common.
T he la rge wa ll-thi c kn ess- to-diam ete r rati o provides a good radial s tren gth, and
the fibers ca n be suspend ed in the fluid w ithout the use of the s upport medium.
Th e feed wa ter is usually 011 th e o ut side of th e fib er. w hil e the product wa ter is
withdraw n thr o ugh th e cen ter. ' .
The spir a l-wound and hollow '- fibe r systems' genera lly provide higher fl ow
rat es but ar e m ore susce ptib le to fou lin g than ar e th e tubul ar systems and are
mo re o ften used fo r d emin erali z in g po tabl e water. Tubula r unit s are better su ited
fo r was tewa ter tr ea tm ent because membrane fou ling ca n be minimized by in-
creas in g th e fl ow ra te thr o ug h th e tu be.
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICAT ION 193

0....) 0'
U N

'" '" Z'"

ZZ
+
:r:: :r::
o 0
z'"
0:::

!t:r::
Ij I
1
z
+
(a)
0 uu0'
C/J
....)

0:::
Pnmea le
c:
.2
.c:c:..,
'"
eJ)

ou "
0:::
--,
+ "' Ep oxy- reHlrorced
BOOI seal
fibt:rg lJss suppor l lub e
-'=- (b)
U"
."

'"..:"
"-
0
C/J
5;

....... rI ·····,·'-'---''-'-''-'-'..............
c
. . ••
u:2Z
+
••• ::!: • •••
U
t=
c
E' I I -0 c :r: S-
o::: E Thin skin
\ 23 I ;;;
c

""
c
c
Vi
c: . t
!0t "c:
bO
Fiber uo:.s·secIIOIl
- 0.1-1 thick

\: <V I C/J
'"u
.<:
L_ _'- :r: x
3 .r- + i:" nub Shell
"
0:::
OJ):'CI
.2
u:2Z "00
0:::
;j
6
:<
c I-
.2
'"
"c:
OJ
Epox y lube
shn: 1 support
""'"
OJ)

"
0::: Ii: (c)
block

Figure 4-37 Rn·ers e osmosis modules: (0) spi ral-w ou nd ultrafiltrati o n m odel (courle sy 0/ Ahcor. fll c.);
181 tubular mod eil collrl l'1Y ,,{Ahcrn, l// c.); (c) hollow-fiber m o del (coflu esy of Dflponl).
192

194 Wi\TER
Flu x ra tes of a pproximately 0.1 m J j m 2 . d are typical for spiral -wo und a nd
tubul ar sys tems, with considerably lower rates for the hollow-fiber units. Howev er,
mu ch more membrane surface area is availab le in m o dul es packed with holl ow
fibers than in co mparably sized spiral- wound mo dule s, and product water per
mod ule unit is appr ox imately the same. Module s a re plac ed in parall el to provide
the necessa ry ca pa c ity and in series to increase efficiency. . the slightly acidic ran ge may be necessary to prevent inorganic precipitation.
Reverse os mo sis sys tems can operate a t 90 per ce nt efficiency or better with
respec t to to tal di sso lved so lid s. In addition to inorganic ion s, the membranes a lso
rem ove res idual o rgani c molecule s. turbidit y. bacteria, a nd viru ses.
Th e elec tr o dial ysis proces s uses a se ries o f membran es made fro m ion-exchan ge
resins. T hese membranes will selective ly tran sfer io n s. One membr a ne is ca tio n-
perm ea blT.""that is, it wi ll pa ss cation s but while the o th er mem-
br a ne is an io n-p erm ea ble and rejects ca tions. Wh en p a ra llel c hanne ls are
const ru cted by a lterna tin g membrane s and an electrica l cur rent is pa ssed across
th em, an e lectrodia lysis cell is formed as shown in Fig. 4- 38. Ca tions are drawn
towa rd the cat hode , pas sing thr ough the cation- se lective membrane but being
stopped by th e anion -selective membrane. The o pp os ite ac tion occurs with a nions,
resu ltin g in io n s being rem oved from one channe l a nd co ncentrated in the ad-
joinin g chan n el.
Me mbr an es in elec tr od ialys is unit s are approxima tely 0.5 mm thick a nd are
separated by po ro lls spacers about I mm thick . Water flow s through th e porou s
spac ers. Severa l membran es and spa cers a re sa ndwi ched toge ther int o one electr o -
dialv sis ce iL
'A co nta c t tim e o f 10 to 20 s is required wit h rem ov al efficiencies o f abollt
25- 60 percent. [4 -25J Ce lls are pl aced in se ries to increase efficiency and in
par a lle l to meet tl ow requir ement s. Under idea l co ndition s. appr oxima tely 90
. . . . . . . .. .... ... . . P(oolicnv 'it e r
Ca th ode
Anode
H
(+ )
Cation
Am on
pcrm<' abk pefllleahle
nlL'lllbr;lflc
lll embrJIlt:
Figure 4-3S Schemalic of ekc lrodial ysis pr oce". (From Lllcey [4-]5].)
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS fOR WATER PURIFI C ATION 195
percent o f the feed water is deionized, with the ions being concentrated in the
remaining 10 percent.
Both rever se os mosis and electrodialysis require a high degree of tre a tment
prior to th eir application . Su spended so lids removal is absolutely nece ssa ry , and
dissolved orga nic s should be removed to prevent fouling. Adjustment of pH to
Rever se osmosis gener ally produces a higher -qualiti effluent than does electro-
dialysis, although at a higher co st. D esign parameters for deminerali za tion pro-
cesses are given in C ulp et al. [4-25J
Both reverse os mo sis and electrodialysis produce a waste stream that may
range from 10 to 25 percent of the feed water. In potable water supply sys tems, an
ad ditional volume of water must be proce ssed to offset this loss. In both water-
an d sys tem s the concentrated wastewater streams must
be disposed o f properly.
Organic Material
Refractory orga ni cs can be removed from water an·d wastewater by adso rpti·on
processes or by chemical oxidation. The proce sses are essentially the sa me for
both water and wastewater tre a tm ent, although the applications may · differ
so mewhat.
Adsorption Adsorption can be defined as the accumulation of sub stanc es at the
interface between two phases. [4-53J In wa ter a nd wastewater treatment, th e
interface is between the liquid and so lid surfaces that are artificially provid ed . The
material removed from the liquid ph ase is called the adsorbate, and the material
providing the solid surfaces is called th e adsorbent. ............ .
The adso rbent mo st commonly used in water and wastewater tre a tment is
acti vated carbon. Activated carbon is manufactured from carbonaceous material
such as wood, coal, petroleum residue s, etc. Achar is made by burning the material
in the absence of air. The char is then oxidized a t higher ·temperature s to create
a very porous structure . Thi s "activation" step provides irregular channels and
pores in the so lid mass, resulting in a very large suiface-a rea-per-m ass ratio.
Surface areas ranging fro m 500 to 1500 m 2/g have been reported [4-53]. with a ll
but a. small fraction of the surface area being asso ciated with the pores . .
Once fo rmed , act ivated ca rb on is crushed int o gra nule s ranging from 0.1 to
2 mm in diameter or is pul ver ized to a very fine powder. Disso lved organic material
adsorbs to both exterior and int erio r surface s of the car bon . When the se sur face s
become covered , th e ca rbon mu st be regenerated . Although adsorption pr opertie s
and mechani sms are essentiall y the same. ·appli ca tion techniques for granular
activa ted carbo n and powdered act ivated carb.on a re co nside rab ly different.
The co ntact sys tem for gra nular acti va ted carbon (GAC) co nsists of a cylin-
drica l ta nk which contains a bed of th e material (Fig . 4-39). The water is passed
through th e bed with sufficien t residen ce time a llowed for completion of the ad-
so rption pr oc ess. The sys tem may be operated in e ith er a fixed-bed or mov ing-bed
 ENG I NEE RED SYSTEM S FOR WATER PUR IFICAT ION 19 7
196 WATER

10 p ercent expa n sio n a t a ll tim es so sus p end ed solid s in th e in tlu en t can pass
F ull o pell cove r with
porth o le throu g h. TIllS m ode o f o perati o n ha s a n added adv a ntage in that a d so r bed o rga n i c,
II1c rea se th e d en sit y o f th e carb o n , and th e spent carbon mi g ra tes to th e b o tt om
Bo lUing
o f th e Auiui zed be d fo r rem ova l to th e rege nerati o n pr ocess .
D es ign o f g ranu la r-acti va ted-c a rb o n sys tem s is bas ed on Ao w ra tes and co nt ac t
t ime s. Fl ow ra tes o f 0.0 8 to 0.4 m J j m 2 . min and cont ac t tim es o f 10 to 50 m i n
o
Wash
- \t ___
'--------------
o

Ca rbon be'd surf ace

o
__
ba se d o n empt y- tank cross secti o n a nd vo lum e, a re common p rac tice
o f up to 40 perce nt s ho uld be included in the pl a nt cap ac ity , wit h 5 to 10 perce nt
m a keu p car bo n be ing pr ov id ed aft e r eac h rege ne rati o n cyc le. T he int eres t ed
read er is referr ed to C u lp, W es ner, and C ulp [4- 25J for amor e'de ta iled disc uss i o n
o f d es ig n.
4-5m
o . C arb o n co lumn s can be a rran ge d in pa ra llel t o in c rea se th e ca p ac it y and in
se n es to Increase t he co nt ac t tim e. T o a pp r oximat e th e co un te rcurre nt a ppl 'oach
o
m a se ri es o f hxed -b ed co lumn s, wa ter. pr oce ed s fr o m th e co lumn whic h has been
o used th e lo nges t to th e o ne in use fo r th e sh o rt es t tim e.
25- mm samplin g taps Powdered ac ti vate d car bo n (PA C ) ca nn o t be use d in a fixe d -bed arra ngement
\ 0
bec au se o f It s size anu th e sub se qu e n t hi g h hea d loss th a t wou ld resul t from
2 -3 m '---0 pass ing wa ter th ro ug h it. Powde red ac ti va ted ca rb o n is co nt acte d with th e wa t er
in o pen vesse ls w here it is maint a ined in s us pen s io n fo r th e n ecessa ry Cllllt ac t tim e
a nd th e n rem ove d by co n ve nti o nal so lid s- re moval pro cesses . Fl occ ul a tio n
eq u ip m ent descri bcd in Sec. 4-6 is suffic ie nt fo r thi s purp os e.
EfIlu cll t Powde red ac ti va ted ca rbo n is much m o r e diffi cult to regen e ra te th a n gra nu la r.
Mos t systems cmrl oy a flu id ized be d a rr a n ge m e nt in w hich a m ixt u re of ste am
Clnu (l th e l' ho t ho lu s th e ca r bo n in s us p ens io n while th e rege nerat io n pro-
cess es occur III so m e cases, sa nd is Auidi ze d al o n g with the carbo n to help ho ld
Figure 4-39 T ypica l activat ed-carb on ad so rpti o n co lumn. (From M e/ccil! & Eddy, Inc. [4-40 ]. ) hea t in t he sys tem.
III was tew at e r tr eatmen .L. pow .d ef.ed. a ctiva ted .eacb.on. .can .be. a.dued .. to. t11e.
ae ra ti o n basi n a nc! re m ove u w it h th e bi o log ica l so lid s in the seco n darv c la rifier
mode. Fixed-bed systems ar e ba tch o perati o n s th a t ar e ta k en o fT th e lin e w hen the
In thi s case, bo th refra c to ry and biod eg ra dabl e o rgani cs a re a d so rb eJ 8i o mass
ad s orp ti ve capac it y of the carbo 'n is used up.
gm wth o n th e ca rb o n surfa ce ut ilizes t he b io d egr a dab le frac ti on. Re m oval
Alth o ugh fixed g ranu lar carb o n bed s c an be c lea n ed in a plac e w it h s up e r-
effic iency for biod egrada ble or ga nics may be Impr ove d by thi s process. but usua II v
heated steam, the mo st co mm on pr ac tic e is to rem o ve th e ca rb o n fo r c leanin g in a
at th e ex pense o f refra c to ry or gani c removal e ffic iency. U se of pow d ereu
furnace . The regeneration process is esse nti ? lI y the same as th e o riginal ac t iva tion
a car b o n in secon d a ry was tewa ter sys te m s res ult s in an in se p a ra bl e m ixtu re o f
proces s. The ad so r bed organic s ar e firs t burned a t about 800 C ·in. th e ab se nce o f
Qlo lo g lcal so li ds and ca rb o n . Th er m a l rege n era ti o n o f th e car bo n a lso res ult s III
oxygen. An o xidiz in g agen t, usually steam. is then a ppli ed a t s li g htly hi g he r
des tru ct io n o rth e bio m ass, elimin a tin g the ne ed fo r oth e r s lud ge pr ocess in g an d
temper a ture s to rem o ve the res idu e and reac ti va te t he ca rb o n .
d isposa l tech niqu es, b ut ·incre a si ng th e size o f t he carb o n re ge n e l'a ti o n sys te m.
In a moving-bed sys tem, sp ent carbon is co ntinu o us ly re m ove d fr o m th e
. In curr ent pra c tice s, mos t sys te ms tr eating potable wa ter use p o wd er e d
bottom of th e bed, wit h regener a ted carb o n bein g re p la ce d at th e top. M os t
ac tl vat.ed car bo n, w hile ad vall ced wa ste wa te r sys te ms use m ovi n g-bed. g ra n ula r
modern app lica ti o n s u se th e m o vin g- bed sys tem w ith a co unt e rcurr ent Aow; th a t
. ac ti vat ed ca rbo n. Bett er rege nerati o n pro ce dur es woule! g reatl y enh a nce t he li se
is, the water is introduced a t th e bottom of the bed and moves upward again st t he
of powdere d uct ivated carb o n in was tewa te r tr ea tment , parti c ul a rly III the seco n -
Aow of ca rbon. da ry processes . .
The major probl e m as socia ted with g ra nular-acti vated -carb o n-c onta ct sys-
tems is plug g in g o f the bed by su sp ended so lid s in the water . Pr ov is io ns ma'y be
Che mica l ox id at io n C he m ica l oxid ati o n 01' re fra cto ry o rgan ic compo u nds can be
made in the d es ign of the ve sse l fo r backwa shin g the bed in a fas hi o n simil a r to
llser! a s an alt e l'l1ative to th e ad so rpti o n pro cess in bo th po tabl e wa ter · a nd
filter backwa s hing. O th er de sign s a vo id plugg ing by operat in g with the bed in a
syste ms. Large , comp lex o rga ni c m o lec ul es . r ing-str uctured
fluidized stat e. Sufficient upA o w ve loc ity is pr ov id ed to m a intain th e heu at ah o ut
198 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 199

detergents, and phenolic and humic compounds can be broken into simpler 4-10 A particle with a diameter of 1.0 mm and a specific gravity of 3,0 is released in water at
compounds by strong oxidants such as ozone or chlorine. Further oxidation by 30"e. How long will it take the particle to travel 2 m?
chemical or biological means may re sult in stable end products. Added advantage s 4-11 A particle with a diameter of 0,5 mm and a specific gravity of2.5 i's released in water with
of this process may include ammonia removal , oxidation of inorganic substance s a temperature of 25°C. How far does the particle travel in 3 s?
such as iron and manganese, and disinfection. The discovery that chlorine react s 4-12 Two particles are released in water at the same time, Particle A has a diameter dA of
with some organic compounds to form undesirable haloforms makes its use as a 0.4 mm. Particle B has a diameter dB' of 0,9 mm. What is the ratio of the.settling velocity of
particle A to that of particle B? Assume equal densities. ..
chemical oxidant questionable .
The application of ozone for both disinfection and chemical oxidation in 4-13 Suppose that a column is filled with water containing a uniform suspension of particles '
potable water treatment has been a long-standing practice in Europe -The destruc- A and B as described in Prob. 4-12. Particle B is removed with 100 percent efficiency in exactly
10 s. What is the percent removal of particle A?
tion of taste and odor compounds and color-producing organics by ozonation is
4-14 Name three types of settling basins employed for solids removal in water-treatment
quite effective. Application of ozone to wastewater organics is less etIicient. Some
plants.
of the biologically resistant compounds in secondary effluents are also chemically
resistant. Generally. a 3-1 ratio of ozone to organics on a mass basis is sutIicient 4-15 Describe the four functional zones of a long-rectangular settling tank.
4-16 A settling column analysis is run on a type-I suspension, The settling column is 2 ill taIl,
'-
to reduce the COD by approximatel y 70 percent. [4-40J Better efficiencies can be
and the initial concentration of the well-mixed sample is 650 mg/ L. Results of the analysis are
obtained only by significantly increasing the dosage.
shown below.
Application of ozone for chemical oxidation and disinfection is a simultan-
eous operation in potable water systems. I n wastewater systems, chemical oxidation Time. min o 58 77 91 114 154 250
is more cost-effective when applied alter secondary treatment , or after tertiary
proce sses if these are included 111 the system. The specific characteristics of ozone Cone remaining , mg/ L 650 560 415 325 215 130 52
and systems for contacting it with water were discussed in Sec. 4-9 and will not be What is the theoretical efficiency of the settling basins that receive this suspension if the
repeated here. loading rate is 2.4 x 10- 2 m/ min?
4-17 Using the data from Prob. 4-16, determine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin with
a loading rate of 3.0 x 10 - 2 m/min.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS 4-18 Using the data from Prob. 4-16, determine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin
with a surface area of 500 m 2 and an inflow of 14.400 m 3 /d.
,,,,!ler
4-1 Briefly discuss the diflerences in !b.e. qLFlJi.t,Y..Qf eo.
o b.t <t.in .. ..4,19 .. Determine.the.theoretical-efficiency gf.the settling basin in Prob, 4-18 if Vi = 0.04x.
and water obtained from surface water sources. What kinds of treatment processes might be 4-20 A settling column analysis is run on a type-2 suspension with the following results,
needed for groundwater intended for potable use? For water taken from a mountain reservoir (Entries are suspended-solids concentrations at stated times,)
an9 intended for potablc use') For water taken from the Mississippi River and intended for
potable use')
4-2 What kind oT treat'ment is needed for well water intended for use? Surface
waters intcnded for agricultural use')
4-3 WOldd ordinary tap water from a city water supply be adequate, without further treatment.
for all industrial uses? Why or why not ')
4-4 Why is aeration used in water-tre;ltll1ent plants? Is it mo re commonly used with ground -
water or surface wat er ') Why"
4-5 Name and describ e thre e communly uscd water -in -air systems found in water purificati o n
plants .
4-6. Describe an air-in -water system cOJllmunly used in wat e r purification plants.
4-7 Define (0) discrete particles. (h) l'locc Lllating particles, (c) dilute suspen sion, and (d) con-
centrat ed suspen siun . .
4-8 What is a type- I suspe nsion "
4-9 De te rmine the settling vckKlt y of a spherical parti c le witli a diameter of 100 I,m and a D;termine the theoretical efficiency of a settling basin with a depth of 3.5 m, a volume of 1400
speciti c gravity of 2.3 in wat e r at l y e . III,and an II1flow of 11.200 m) /d.
 i,

ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFlCATtON 20 1

200 WATER

4-21 Using the data from Pro b. 4-20. dete rmine the th eo retica l efficienc y of a sett ling bas in 4-37 i\ fl occ ula to r padd le of the de sign and dim e nsio ns sho wn below is ro ta ted th ro ugh wa ter
with a depth of 2.5 m, a volum e of 2,200 m 3
, and an inflow o f 13,200 m/d l. e
at 20 v wi th an ang ula r speed of 4.0 r/ min.
3
4-22 A settling basin proces si ng 14.400 m /d of wa ter ha s a dep th of 4.0 m a nd a vo lum e of
j
ii, 1200 m] Using the data from Prob. 4-20 , determin e the theoretica l efficiency.
3.0
4-23 What is a type-2 suspensio n?
4-24 A water-treatment pla nt is to proce ss 19.000 m'jd. A settlin g basi n for a type-2 suspen sion
is to operate at 0.75 m/ h. Determine th e dimension of the basin for (a) a lo ng-rec tangu lar unit

JL a nd (b) a circular unit. Check detenti o n times. hor izo nt a l velocitie s. and weir ove rflow rat es. I
4-25 Determine t he appropriate numb er of units a nd dimen sio ns for settl ing ba sins to tr eat

III 75.000 m 3 /d a t a n ov erflow ra te of 0.8 m/ h.

4-26 Assume that th e sett ling bas ins in Pr ob . 4-25 will be con st ru cted of re mforced co ncre te
T
0. 1 !11
E E
a nd th at the cos t of fo rm ing and pou rin g circular walls is 1.25 tim es the cos t of forming and
'"
IlL po uring slraight wa lls. Wh a t will be th e relati ve costs of using circular tank s com pared to
rectan gu lar tank s uti lizing common wa lls where
0. 1 m

Iil- 4-27 C hemica l coagu lati o n in water-trea tm en l planl s is acco mplished by the additi o n of
tri vale nt meta llic sa lts. Name two of the se.
1:1 I
,-:r
1·1 4-28 Name a nd di scuss the fo ur mecha nisms th o ug ht 10 occur durin g coag ulati o n.
'---.
4-29 Explain the imp o rt ance ofth eja r tes t in coag ula tio n opera li o ns and describ e Ihe test. ()
4-30 Un"der wha t co nditi o ns might it be de si rabl e to ad d turbidi lY In wa ter in a tr eatment
plant 0 Fr o nt Vl eW
. Sldt' View

4-31 Under wha t circum sta nces a re lime and / or soda ash ad ded to water s d urin g coagu la tion
'Ir- opera t ion s?
(a) How mu c h po wer is diss ipa ted int o the wat er ')

l 4-32 Name and describe the fo ur genera l ca tego ne s int o which surface wa te rs a re gr o uped with

t
(h) Iflh e tallk in whic h this padd le is ro tating ha s th e dime nsio ns o f4 x 4 x -1m a nd t he
regard to coag u la t ion.
fl ow through the tank is SOOO 1l1 .\(d. determin e th e (;1 value fo r the fl occ ulat or
4-33 Define (0) r3pid mixing and (b) fl occ ulati n n.
4-38 Soft enin g of hard wa ter ma y be do ne a t a wat e r utility trea tment pla nt or by th e co nsum e r.
. .4-':H p.1a nt is to process 30.000 111"'fd. Th e rapid mixing ta nk will ble nd
.As a gene ral rule of thum b. what ha rdne ss level ind ica tes the need 't o so ft en a t the trea tment
35 mg/ L of a lum with the a'n'd 'i; 'de'teni' ori 'tlin e iln riii'ri: lli e l ::iiik is'fo 'nav'e
plant 'I
a square cro ss sec ti o n wi th vertical baffles and a Rat blade imp eller sim ilar to Fi g. 4-20b.
4-39 Difl"ere ntiat c betwe t:n single-s tage a nel two-s ta ge softening pro cesses.
De ter min e the fo ll ow ing :
4-40 A wa ter ha s the fo llowi ng ionie con stituent s (meq ui v/ L):
(a) Quantit y (kil ogra ms per da y) o f a lum added
(b) Dim e ns io ns 'of t.he tank
(e) Powe r input (kilow.at ts) necessary fo r a C va lu e of90() s - I. Th e wa ter temp era tur e is
22'·C. Ca' , -u HCO, - = 2.5
=
4-35 The fl ow de scribed in Pr ob. 4-34 is to be Ilocc ula ted in a ba sin hav ing fo ur fl occu la tors • 1. 0 SO, ' = 2.9
i·;L. with tran sver se padd le units . (See F ig. 4-22a.) The basin may be a maximum of 10 m wide and N,,' 2.2 CI = 2.5
"
4 m d eep to co nn ect to the settlin g basi n. Dete rmin e'
(,,) Bas in dimen sion s
el l , -- 06
(h) P ower req uirem ents
,. (e) Padd le config ur a tion and ro tati o na l s peed
j ." 4
.,.-. The bes t (;1 va lue fo r th is sys tem has been fo und to be x 10 (oi) ·Calculate the chemic a l requir emcnt s (l11illicqui va lenls per liter ) required to rCl11o\e
4-36 The flow through a flo.ccu la to r process es 16.800 m 3 /d nf water at 17°C. The padd les are as mueh of Ihe calciulll as pOSS ib le and to res tabili l e t he wat er. (N o Mg" rel11ol'a l is re-
arra nged lo ngi tudin a lly. The o ptimum CI va lu e has bee n fo und frolll jar tests to be 4.5' x 10
4 . quired.)
Det e rmin e In) a ha r d i:lg r:llll of Ihe fin ished \\"ate l
(0) Bas in dime nsion s (c) Cd cu la tc I he d:lily q L1a lll il y (k ilogra ills per day) o f lime Cl nd sod :1 :hh (as, u nle a r>u rit\
J
(h) Powe r appl ied 10 the wate r of 'n per ccn l for Ihc li llle a nd ';I() percent fo r the su d a ash) to tr eat 17.5nO Ill ·d of Ihis wat e r.
( e) Paddle co nfig urati on and ro tational speed (iI) Dct erm ine the dr) Illass (kil og ram s pc r d a) ) " f the slud ges pr l)ciuu:d .
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WATER PURIFICATION 203
202 W ATER

4-57 A rapid san? filter has a bed depth of 0.7 m. It is composed of sand grains that have a
4-41 A water-treatment plant processes 24.500 m 3 jd or water with the following ionic concen- graVIty 01 2.65 and a shape factor of 0.82. The porosity of the bed is 0.45 throughout.
tration : 1 he sieve .analYSIS 01 the sand is shown below.

0.5
M ass retained, Average particle ·size,
Na' Sieve no.· mm

14-20 0.87 1.0

HCOl cr 20- 28 8.63 0.71
28- 32 21.J0 ·054
0.5 32-35 28.10 0.46
35--42 23.64 0.38
(a) Determine the quantitie s o r chemicals (kilograms per day) required to so rten this 42-48 7.09 0.32
water to the minimum possible hardri ess by two- sta ge lime -so da ash sortening . 48- 60 3. 19 0.27
(b) Draw a bar diagram ro r the finished water. 60- 65 2.16 0.23
( e) Calculate the dry mass of the so lids in the sludge. 65- 100 1.02 0.18
4-42 What is split treatment ')
4-43 Rewo rk Pr o b. 4-41 llsing a split-tr ea tment approach in which 1.0 meq ui v/ L or M g' •
Determine the head loss through the bed irthe flow rate is 5.0 m/ s and the water temperature is
is accep table in the finished water. 17' e .
4-44 Determine the percent sav ings in chemicals ir two-stag e treatment (Prob. 4-41) is re-
4-58 A constant head or 2.5 m is maintained above the filter bed described in Prob. 4-57.
pla ced with split treatment (Prob. 4-43) . Determine the Aow rate through the filter. . .
4-45 What is reca rbonation and und er what conditions is recarb o nati on necessa ry in a water-
4-59 Write a computer program anel rework Prob. 4-57 by computer (or a hand-held pro-
treatment system ? grammable calculator).
4-46 An ion-exchange system is to he used to soften the water described in Prob. 3 4-40. The Determine the backwash velocity (V,) at which the filter bed in Prob. 4-49 will just begin to
resin has an exc han ge capacity o r9 5 kg/ Ill) when operate d at a Aow rate orO.35 m / m ' · min. flUIdize.
Det er mine th e vo lume or resin needed and a tank configuration to allow con tinuous o peration
<!-{il. Determine the backwash velocity at which the filter bed in Prob. 4-55 will just begin to
ir the regenerati on time is 2 h. flUidize.
4-47 Determine the chemi ca l req uir ement ror regeneration o r th e ion- exc h.ange system in
4-62 The filter bed in Prob. 4-49 is to be expanded to 1.5 origioal.depth cluriog backc ..... • .... _..
'Prob' . A.46 if rege neration is accomplished using 140 kg or so dium chloride per cubic meter
wash. Determine the required backwash rate (m/ h) assuming that the backwash water is 18°C. J
of resin. What volume or back wash Auid mu st be disposed o r ir the sa lt used is in I 0 so lut ion?
4-63 The filter bed in Prob. 4-55 is to be expanded to 1.6 times its original depth during back-
4-48 Define" breakthrough" as it relate s to treatment or hardness and what steps must
wash. Determine the required backwash rate (m / h) assuming a water temperature or 20°C.
be taken arter breakthrough po int is rea ched
4-64 The filter bed in Prob. 4-5iis to be completely fluidized during backwash.
4-49 A bed or filter sa nd 0.75 m deep is composed or uniform particles with diameter 0.5 mm ,
(a) Determine the backwash veloc'ity' that.willjust fluidize the largest particles in the bed .
spec ific gravity 2.64, and shape ractor 0.9. The po rosit y or the packed bed is 0.45. Plot a curve (b) For the velocity determined in (a), calculate the expanded bed depth.
for head loss vs. filtering velocity over the filter velocity rang e or 2.0 to 7.0 rrij h at a water
4-65 Write a program and Problem 4-64b by computer or hand-held programmable
temper a ture or l3 e C. calculator.
4-50 Discuss filtration as a mea ns o r wate r treatment. What is prec oa t filtrati on')
4-66 A filter plant is to be constructed to process 75.700.m J jd. Pilot-plant analysis on mixed
4-51 What is the principal cleaning mechanism in backwashing filters ? lIldlcates that a filtration rate or 15 mj h will be acceptable. Assuming a surrace con-
4-52 Differentiat e between slow sa nel filters and rapid sand filter s. guratlon of approxImately 5 x 8 m. how many filter tJllIts will be reqUIred? Allow one unit
4-5-3 What are elual-media filter s" Wh ilt are their advantages a nd disadvantages" out or ser vice ro r back washing. .
4-54 What ar e mixed-media filters " What are their advantages and disad vantages " 4-67 The backwa sh velocity required to expand the filters in Prob. 4-66 is 36 m/h. Each back-
4-55 A hydrostatic head or 2 m is maintained above a 0.6-m-eleep bed or filter sand. The sa nd . wash period requires 20 min, and the water is wasted ror the first 10 min or each filter run.
is unir or mly sized with dia mete r 0.4 111m. spec ific gravit y 2.65. a:lel shape ractor 0.85. Det ermine the net producti9n or each {-ilter if it is back washed once a da y.
the How rate th ro ugh the bed if the temperat ure is I sec. 4-68 Describe the characteristics or a disinrectant.
4-56 An exp erim ental filter co nsists Dr a 2-m depth or unirorm sand with a diameter o rO.85 mm 4-69 Name severa l commonly used disinfectants and discuss the adval1lae es and disadvant-
and a shape facto r 01'0.7. The pur us,t\ of tile bed is 0,35 and the specific gl'av ity of the sa nci is ages posed by each. Which is the mos t commonly used in the United In Europe')
2.65. Determine thc head (meters of water column anel kilo pa sca ls) to maintain a fl ow of water
u 4-70 What ractors militate against effective disinfection ?
through the bed ;It a !low ra te of I() m ·h. The wate r temperature IS 15 C.
 204 WATER ENG I NEER ED SYSTEM S ro R WATER PUR I FICAT ION 205

4-71 What methods are common ly used for desalinizati on of water?
4-72 How are refra ctory orga nics removed from water and wastewater?
4-73 Why is powdered activated qr.PQn(PAC). unsuitable Jor.u se. in a fixed-bed adsorption
arrangement?
4-74 A city draws its water supp ly from a lar ge reservoir. The water ha s consis tent quality
thr ougho ut the year. It has a turbidity ranging from 20 to 50 unit s. and its maximum hardness
is less than 100 mg/L as CaC0 3 . Refractory orga nics are not a problem and the TDS is low .
Draw a schema tic diagram of a tre atment plant that may he llsed to render this water potabl e.
Identif y each unit and briefly state its purpose. Show point s of chem ica l add itions and identify
the chemica ls.
4-75 A city water supply is obtained from a deep aquifer. The water has uniform quality. It is
clear and free of organics; hardnes s is in excess of 300 mg/ L and cons ists or both calc ium and
magnesium. Dissolved CO 2 is approximate ly 15 mg/ L and iron (Fe z.) is abollt 1.0 mg/ L.
-. Other dissolved constituents are below problem levels. Draw a schematic diagram of a treat-
ment plant that will render this water potable. Iden tify each unit and briefly state its purpose.
Show points of chemical addition and identify the chemicals.
4-76 A large st ream flowing through a highly indu stri a lized area mllst serve as a raw water
supply for a community. The water is consistently turbid, has hardnes s in excess of 300 mg/ L, .
and has refractory organics that are known precursors of trih alometha·nes. Draw a sche matic
diagram ofa treatm en t plant that shou ld render this water potable. Id entify all unit s. state their
purpose. and show points of chemical addition. Identif y all chem icals.
REFERENCES
4-1 American Society of Civil Engineer s, American Water Works Association, "nd Conference of
State Sanitary Engineers: 'Waler Trealm enl Planl Des ign, A WWA . New Y o rk. t 969 .
4- 15 Chanletl. E. T .. !:'lIl'irunlll ellwl Pr{)(ec li()lI , 2d ed" M c Graw - H ili , N ew Yo rk , 1979 .
4-16 Clark. J . W .. W . V,e >S Ill'"1. Jr ., and M. J. Hamm er : IYaler S uppl y alld Pol/ uli on COIllI'OI, 3d ed.,
H arp e r '& R ow, New York. 1'!77 .
4-17 Clcasby. J. L .. "Filtr"t,,)n" in W . J . Webe r. Jr . (cd.) , Physiochemical Processes/or W aler QualilY
COlllru/. Wil ey Inlerscicncc. New York , 1972
4- 18 _.-.- by pc rso nat eo rlllnuni ca ti o n . Jan uary 1980.
4-1 9 -- , J . Arboleda. D . E. Burn s, P. W. Pr e ndiville. and E. S. Sava ge'" Backwa s hin g of Granular
Filters ,",/ AWWA. 69 : 11 5'( Februar y 1977). ·'
4-20 "-'--- . and J . H . Del tingham' " R" tional Aspects o f S p lit Trea tm ent." Proe A SCI.' . .I Sail Eng
Ole. 92 (S ;\ 2) 1 ( 1%6)
4-21 --- - . "nd .I . C. Lore ncc "Effectivene ss 01 Bac kwa s hin g for Wa s tewate r Filt er s .. J Ellt' Fnc;
Dil . .·ISCE. I04 ( EE 4) ' 749 (August 1978)
4-22 - ---' . L IN. Stangl. and G . H . R ice .. Develop me nt s in l3ackw ash ln g o f Granular Filters."
,/ Elle Enel Dil'. AS CE. 101 (EE5) . 7 t .1 (Octobe r 1975).
4-23 Co hen. J . !\ t.. and S . II. "Coagulation and Flocculation ," in W(t{ rr Quallf}' ond Treol-
ml'lIl. 3d cd .. McGraw- H ilI. New Yllr k. 1971.
4-24 Conley. IV R . "Waler Poll nti 0n T echnology Report," NepICme k/ croF/oc file., 2( 1). F eb ruar y
1968
4-25 ('ulp. R . L .. G . IVI. Wesner. a nd G. L. Culp. H andbook oj Advall ci'ci WaSII' Il'O ln' Trealmenl,
Van NLlstr"nd RCilillO ld , New Y,)I'k. 197R
4- 26 Da VIS, S. N .. and R J . M . De Wi es t J-/)'rlroqe oloq)', Wile y, N ew Yo rk. 1966
4-27 De.llgll 1'vIC/nCiolfe'r SClsp" ICIled Solids Rel/rowl, U.S. Environm e ntal Pr o lec ti o n Agency. 19 75.
4·28 Fair. G. IVI .. and J C Geyer W(lfl'r Supply and Wa Slell'(ffCY Dispo sal, W iley. New Y o rk , 1961
4-29 - --- - -- -- - - .. ant! D . A. Okun ' nelllenlS of Wale/' Supply and W aslewale r Disposal, 2d ed.,
Wiley. New Yo rk . 19 7 1
4-30 - - - - . F. C. M,m". S. L. Chang. I. Weil. a nd R. A . Bu rden " Th e Be ha vior or Chlorine as a
Water D isinfectant . . ,/ A WWA. 40 ' 105 1 (1948) .
4·3 1 Gehm. H. W. and .I . I Bregman (cd s.): J-/olldlJOok oj "Jimer Reso urce.> IInel POl/lliioli Conllol ,
Van No s trand Rcinh o ld. Ne\\ · York. t9 7h.
4-32 H lld son, H . 1::.. Jlld J. P . Wotrner : .. Dc ' ign of Mixing a nd Fl OCCillati o n BJ sl n s." J A WWA ,

.- 4-2 American Water Works Association : Waler QualilY and Tr ea ltll enr. A H andhook 0/ Public Waler
Supplies, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill , New York , 1971.
59 : 1257 ( 191,7)
4-33 IV'es: T K.· "iicl 'i\' T . 'OI;,;le" " til c',iii 'ofJ':ioccu t',il;OI; Systems" J EI1I'
4-3 Amirt harajah , A.' "Des ign of Flocculation Systems," In R . L. Sank s (ed.). Wal er Trealmenl Ell!! D" AS(E (IYn).
Planl De!ign, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich ., 1978. 4·.14 Kammere r J . C. "lVater Quantit v R eqllirements for Publi c Suppli es and Other Use s." in
4-4 ---- : "Design of Rapid Mix Units ," in, R. L. Sanks (ed.) , WaleI' Trealm elll PIOIlI DeSig n, Ann H . W . G ehm and .1. I Rregrn' "1 (c,b) . [[olldbo'ok 0/ IYoll'r Reso urces ond POl/ulloli COl1lrol.
Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich. , 197 8. Van Noq,,",, 1 Reinl",ld. Ne\\' York. 19 7(,.
4-5 --- : "Op timum Backwa s hing of Sand Filter s." J Enl' Enlj Dil' II srE. I 04(EE 5). 91 7 (October 4-35 La ce)'. R E ... ,,,lem hr,,nc Separall o n P ,,;cesses, " Chern Enq. 4 :56 (Se pt e mb er 1972)
1978). -1 · 36 Lettcrman . RD .. J E. VII'"'. and R . S . Gem m ell' " Inll ue nce o f R apid-Mix Paramete rs on
4-6 Baker , M. N.: The Quesi/o'r Pur.e Wal er, AWWA, New Yo rk . 1948. Fl oecul,"I OII." .I .·1 1I'1I'.,t. 65 : 7 16 (19 73) .
4-7 Baumann , E. R .: "Granular Medi a De e p Bed Filtration." in R . L. Sonks (cd.), WaleI' Trealmenl 4·J7 Lilld s le y. R K .. "nd .I . 13. h'"1711l1 W illi'/' Re'.wurefs Ellgineering, 3d ed .. McGraw· H ill, New
Plant Desig n, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor , Mich ., 1978. Yo rk . 197 9 .
4-8 - - - : "Precoat Filtrati o n ," in R . L. Sa nk s (ed.), Wa le r Treollllelli PlolIl Desi,elll. !\ nn Ar bor 4-.\ 8 L.O\\·cllth,d . R . t . . ," ,, 1 B. \'. R Mar",, · (' orhonale Chelllislry 0/ Aqu (;'ic' SYSlems . Theory ond
Sc ience, Ann Arb o r', Mich ., 1978. IlppIi CO/lOII ,\ . :\ nll ,\rh p i Science. Ann Arb o r. Nl ich .. 1976
4-9 Bernado , L. D., and J. R . Cleasby: "D eclining-Rat e vs. Co ns ta nt-Ratc F il trat io n." J EliI' Eng 4-.19 M eWh inlic . R ( .. and I' . R . .I l) tll"o n · ., Water Storage ant! D istrib ut"l11. " in A . \V . Gehm and
Dir, ASCE, 106(E E6): 1023 (Decemb e r J. I. r1 rcglllan (cd;>,. ). num/b oo/... 0/ J J "(Il l'/" Nes() urcl's and Pol/lIIion lon trol. Van No s! rand R einhold.
4-10 Camp. T. R.: "Floc Volume Concentration," J A WWA , 60(6) ' 6 5b (196 8) . Ncw Yo rk. ]tJ76
4-11 --- : "Veloc ity Gradients and Intern a l Work in Fluid M o ti o n ," 1. BoslOn SocielY o( Ciuil 4·40 M etcal f & Edd,. IIl l' Il osle" 'al{'/' F".C/lI/eC'l'inq. Tr" olmenl, Dispos(i/ , Reusr, 2d ed . M c Graw-HIli.
Engineering, 30: 219 (1943) . New YprK. 1\.)79.
4-1 2 - -- and P . C. Stein . .. Sedimentation and D esig n of Sett li ng 1>"1b ." '/'rOIlS A S CE . 11 I ' 895 4·41 O ·Mcl ia. ( R "lid 1·lo cl'III" t i()I].··· in W . J . We be r. Jr (cd .). I'h ysroehwll cal
( 1946 ). 1)/"0( "(\\.\'('.\ III ! If" lI f l ' l" (ju lIlll l" New Y n rk, 1972 ,
4-13 Ca rl , K. J ., R. A . Young, and G . C. Anders o n: "Guidelin es t'or DetCfmining Fir e F lows," 4· -1 2 ;] n.l I) K . ( r;lpp ' " S"nl C ( 'he mic,,1 !\ spects of R" piJ Sand Filtrallun.".1 .·IIVI-I A.
J AWWA, 65( 5):335 (19 73). 56(I OI. f " : 6( kt"h c ll <)(,-I 1.
4-14 Ca rmen. P . c.: " Fluid Fl ow Thr o u g h Grallular Beds." Tran s 111.11 Che lll Eml (Lon d o n ). IS , ISO P\l\h :l 1. S 'I 11 '(lI e/ ( (l lIdllll) /I /1/O /0/ 11Il.'I/Hr r. Nc\\ ' York, 1954,
( 1937). Ul ' / fJ lI l lIIl Jldl'd, \)/d lldli r d S /1l 1 II -cl lll 1,1"(/...,, Health Fduca l ioll Sen'icc. Alb an y, N , Y. i ()l h .
206 WATER

CHAPTER
4-45 Rch. Ca rl W.: .. Lime-Soda So ftening Processes," In R . L. Sanks (ed.). Water Treatment Plant
Design. Ann Arbor Science. Ann Arbo r. Mich., 1978. FIVE
4-46 Rich. L. G.: Environmental Systems Engineering, McGraw-Hili, New York, 1973 .
4-47 Sanks. R . L.. " Io n Exchange," in R. L. Sanks (ed.) , Water Treatment Plant Desi<Jn. An n Arbor
SClcllce, Ann Arbor, Mich .. 1978.
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER
4-48 Sawyer , C N ., and P. L. McCarty Cherrll5tr}'for Enrironmental Engineer>, 3d cd .. McGraw-Hili, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
New York, 1979.
4 -49 Schroeder, E. D. : Water and Wastewater Treatment, McGraw-Hili , New York , 1977.
4-50 Scott, G. R.· "Ae rati o n ," in Water Quality and Tr('{/tment , 3d cd ., M cG raw - Hili , New York ,
1971 .
4-5 1 Slee l. E. W .. and T. J. McGhee. Wat er S lipply and Sewerage . 9th ed., M cGr aw- Hili , 1979.
4-52 Stumm, W, and C R . O'Melia . .• Stoichiomet r y of Coagu la tion," J A WWA, 60 514 ( 1968) .
. 4-53 Sundcrs tr o n , D . W .. an d H . E. Klei W astew at er Treatment , Pr e ntic e- Hall, Englewood Cliff s,
N. L 1979.
4-54 Tebbutt, T.H. Y . . Principles of Water Quality Control. 2d cd. , Pergamon. Oxford, Eng land , 1977.
4-55 Todd. D. K. Grou nd water Hydrolo<JY, Wiley, New York, 1960.
4-56 Vcsilind. P. A . : Em'ironmental Pol/lltion and Cantrol . Ann Arbor Science , Ann Arbor, Mich.,
197"
4-57 Walker, D. J.: .. Sedimentation ," in R . L. Sanks (cd.) , Water Treatment Plant Desiyn, Ann Arbor
SClcnce . ."'nn Arbor. Mich .. 1978 . In modern soc ieli es pr o per management of wastewater is a necessity. not an
Walker. Rodger Wllter Supp/r Treatment ami Distrlbutivn. Pr e ntice- Hall . En glewood C litIs . opt illn . The public health consequences of poor wastewater management have been
N ..I . 1978 . discusse d in pr ev ious chapter s. Hi stor ically . the practice of collecting aild treating
4-59 \Vebt:r. "Y . J. (el1.) : Phrsi oc/temical ?ruct' s.ws .ItJ{ Qllolity ('Of/Ero!, Wile y Inter scien ce .
was tewa te r pri or to dispo sal is a relatively recent undertaking. Although remains of
New York. 1972.
sewe rs hav e been fo und in :.Jncient c itie s. the extent of their use for wastewater
carriage is not known. The elaborate drainage system of ancient Rome was not
used for was te disposal. a nd wasles were spe ci fically excluded from the sewerage
sys tems of London . Pari s. and Bo ston until well after the turn of the nineteenth
centur y.
Prior to thi s time, city residents placed" night soil" in buckets along the streets
"a-lid' . into "honeywagon" tanks. The waste was
transported to rural areas for disposal ove r agricultural lands. The invention of the
flu sh loilet in Ihe nineteenth century drastically changed waste-disposal practices.
Existing sys tems for transporting urb a n wastes for disposal on agricultural lands
we re not adeq uat e to handle the large vo lume of liquid generated by the flush
toilets. Faced w ilh this tran sportation problem, cities began to use na tural drain-
age sys tem s and storm sewers for wastewater carriage. against the advice of such
men as Edwin C hadwick. who in 1842 recommended "rain to the river and sewage
to th e so il.·' [5-21] Construction of co mbined sewers was commonplace in large
cities during th e la tter half o f the nineteenth century. Since storm drain systems
naturall y e nd ed at wa tercour ses. waterborne wastes were discharged directly to
stre:.Jll1s, lake s. and estuaries without treatment. Gross pollution often resulted ,
an el'hea lth pro.blems were transf e rred from th\} sewere d community to downstream
users of th e wa te r.
The 'fir st "mo dern " system for wastewater carriage was built in
Hamburg . Germany. in 1842 by a n innovative English engineer named Lindley.
Lindley's sys tem included many o f the principl es th a t are still in use today. [5-10]
1\10S1 or th e improvements in wastewater collection sys tems ove r the last 100 years

207
 208 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMroNT AND DISPOSAL 209

have consisted of improvJd materials and the inclusion o f manholes, pumping greatly from industry to industry, and, consequently, tre 2.tment processes for
stations, and other appurtenances, industrial was tewater also vary, a lthough many of the processes used to treat
The treatment of wastewater lagged consideHlbly behind its co llectIOn. municipal wastewater are a lso used in industrial wastewater treatment. Acomplete
Treatment was considered nece ssary only after the se lf-purification capac ity of coverage of industrial wastewater treatment is beyond the scope of this text,
the receiving w2ters was exceeded and nuisance conditions became intolerable. and the interested reader is referred to other text s on the subject. See Refs. [5-7,
Various treatment processes were tried in the late 1800s and ea rly 1900 s, 5-1 8, a nd 5-38}
a.nd by the 1920s , wastewater treatment had evo lved to tho se processes in Water collectecI in . municipal wastewater systems, having been put to a
common use toda y. Design of wastewater-treatment fa cil iti es remained empirical, wide variety of uses. co ntain s a wide var iety of contaminants. A list of contaminants
bowever, ulltil midcentury. In th e last 30 to 40 ye ar s, great advances have been commonly found in municipal wastewater along with their sources and their
Imide in understanding wastewater treatment, and the original processes have been environmental consequences is given in Table 5-1.
formulated and quantified. The science of wastewater treatment is far from stati c, Quantitatively, constitue nt s of wastewater may vary significantly, depending
however. Advanced wastewater-treat ment processes are currently being developed upon the percentage and type o f industrial waste present and the amount of dilution
that will produce potable water from domestic wastewater. Problems associated from infiltration / infl ow mto the collection system. Results of an analysis of a
with wastewater reuse will no doubt challenge the imagination of engineers for typical wastewater from a municipal collection system are given in Table 5-2.
many years to come. The compos ition of wastewater from a given collection system may change
Philosophies concerning the ultimate disposal ofwaqewater have also evolved slightly on a seasona l ba s is, refle c ting different water uses. Additionally, daily
over the years. As previously mentioned, the practice of land disposal was replaced fluctua tions in quality are also observab le and correlate well with flow conditions
by the convenience of the water carriage system with direct di sc harge to surface as noted in Fig. 5-1. Generally. sma ller systems with more homogeneous. uses
waters. Operating under the assumption that the "solution to pollution is dilution," produce greater rluctu,ll ions in wastewa ter composition.
the assimilative capacity of streams was utili zed before treatment was deemed The most s ignificant components o(wastewater are usually suspended solids.
necessary. For many years. little, if any. treatment was required of small com· biodegradable organics. and pathogens. Suspended solids are primarily organic
munities located on large streams, while a high level of treatment was required by in nature and are composed of some of the more objectionable material in sewage.
large cities discharging to small streams. In more recent times, the polic y has shifted
to require a minimum level of treatment of all waste discharges, regardless of the
capacity of the receiving stream. Under current practice in the United States, all Table 5-1 Important wastewater contaminants'
,.;'" :-
dischargers are given a permit sfating the maximum amount of each pollutant
Contaminant Source Environmental signifIcance
.. ..... ..... thaI ·they·are 'at]Dwed' to discharge :' DischaTge'permits' aTe-'rro'longer-intended to
just prevent discharges that exceed the self-purification capacity of the streams, Suspended solrds Domestic use , industrial wastes, Cause sludge deposits and
but are concerned with obtaining the " fishable. swimmable" goals mentioned in . erosion by infiltration/in flow anaerobic conditions in
Sec. 2-17. aquatic environment
Where extensive treatment of wastewater is necessary to meet stringent I3iodegradab!e organics Domes! ie :1 nel i ndust ria I waste Cause biologicat degradation,
discharge permits: the quality of the treated effluent ofte n approaches that of the which may use up oxygen in .
receiving stream. These effluents should be considered a va luable water resource , receiving water and result in
undesirable conditions
particularly where water is scarce. Regulatory agencies enco urage utilization of
Pathogens Dome st ic waste Transmit communicable
these wastewaters for irrigation. non-body-contact recreational activities. ground-
disea-ses
water recharge, some industrial processe s, and other nonpotahle uses.
Nutrients Dom estic and industrial waste May cause eutrophication
Refract ory organics Indu strtal waste May cause taste and odor
5-1 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS problems, may be toxic or
carcinogenIc

Wastewaters are usually classified as ilidustrial wastewater 0 1: muniCipa l' waste- Heavy metals mining, etc Are toxic. may interfere with

water. Industrial wastewater with characteristics compatible with municipal effluent reuse

wastewater is often discharged to th e municipal sewers. Many industrial wa5te- ahll\"C level ill watt:f May interfere wilh ettlucnt r ellSe

\\aters require pretreatment to remove noncompatihle sub stan ces prior to dis· sllpph hy dOl11estic and / or
industrial U Sc
charge into the municipal sys tem. Characteristics of industrIal wastewater va ry
210 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 211

Table 5-2 Typical analysis of municipal wastewater soo O.S

Concentration

-' 400 0.4

Constituent, mg j L * Strong M edium W ca k cO
E
SoJids, to tal 1200 '720 350 :?
Dissolved, total
Fixed
850
525
500
300
250
145
S;
-0
"
300 0.3
- E
Volatile 325 200 lOS '0
C i
...£
Suspended, total 350 220 lao '"f?- 0.2 LL.
75 55 20 200
Fix e d
275 165 80 '0
Vol a tile C

0'"
Sett leabl e soli d s, mL / L 20 10
Biochemical oxygen demand, 5-day, 20"C (BOD,) 400 220 liD 0 100 0.1
co
Total organic carbon (TOC) 290 160 80
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 1000 500 250
Nitrogen (total ils N): 85 40 20 o L- __ L-__ L-__ L- __ L-_----'L...-_--' 0
Organ ic 35 IS 8
12 M 4 AM 8 AM 12 N 4 PM 8 PM 12M
Free ammonia SO 25 12
Nitrite s 0 a 0 Time or day
Nitrates 0 a a
4 Figure 5-1 Typicat variation in flow, suspended solids, af)d BOD , in municipal wastewater. (From
Ph o sphorus (tota l as P) . 15 8
5 3 I Me" ·,,I! & Edell', Inc. [5-36].)
Organic
Inor ganic 10 3
Chlorides 100 50 30
Alkalinity (as CaCO J ) 200 lOa 50 Although pathogens causing some of the more exotic diseases may rarely be
Grease 150 lao SO present, it is a sa fe assumption that a sufficient number of pathogens are present in
all untreated wastewater to represent a substantial health hazard. Fortunately .
* Un less otherwise noted.
Sourc e : Fr o m Metcalr & Eddy , Inc . [5-36J
few or the pathogens survive wastewater treatment in a viable state.
Traditional wastewater.treatment processes. are.d.esigned to reduce.suspended ........... ... . .
so lids. biodegradable organics. and pathogens' to acceptable levels prior to
Body was te s. food waste. paper. rags. and biological ce lls form the bulk of suspended
disposal. Additional wastewater-treatment processes may be required to reduce
solids in wastewater. Even inert materials such as so il p<lrticles become fouled by
levels of nutrients if the wastewater is to be discharged to a delicate ecosystem.
adsorbing organics to their surface. Rem ova l o f s uspended so lid s is essential prior
Proce sses !o .remove refractor y organics and heavy metals and to reduce the level
to discharge or reuse of wastewater.
of lIlorganic dissolved solids are required where wastewater reuse is anticipated,.
Although suspended organic so lid s are biodegradable through hydr o lys is.
biodegradable material in wastewater is uSllall y considered to be soluble organ ics
Soluble organics in domestic wastelvater are co mposed chiefly of proteins (40 to
60 percent). ca rh ohydra tes (25 to 50 per ce nt). and lipid s (approximately 10 5-2 EFFLUENT STANDARDS
percent). [5-52J Proteins are ch idl v amino acids. while carbohvdrate s are co m-
pounds such as s ugar s. starch es. and ce llulo se. Lipid s include o il. and g rease. The Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-500) mandated the
All of these material s contain carbon that ca n be converted to carb o n di ox ide En viro nmental Protection Agency to establish standards for wastewater dis-
biologically. thus exerting an oxyge n demand as di sc usse d in Sec. 2- 13. Pr o teins Charges. Current standards require that municipal wastewater be given secondary
a lso conta in nitrogen. and thus a nitrogen o us o xygen d emand is al so exerted. treatment and that mo st effluents meet the conditions shown in Table D-7 of the
Th e bIOchemica l oxygen d e mand test is ther efo re used to quantif y bi o degradable appendix. Seco ndary treatm ent of municipal wastewater is generally assumed to
o rgan rcs. include se ttl;ng. biological treatment. and disinfection. along with sludge treatment
All forms o f " ·o[t'I"h IJrne [iU{/IIJ(J('11S may be ro und in d(lrne stic wastewater. As and di sposal. Thus. the principal components o f municipal wastewater, suspended
di sc usse d ill Sec. 2- 15. the se inclucle bacteria. pr o tozon . and helminths. Solids. biodegradable materiaL and pathogens should be reduced to acceptable
Th ese are discharged IIY pe rs o ns who arc infected with th e di se a se. levcl s through secondary treatment. Industrial dischargers are required to treat
 212 WATER
E.NG I N I: ERFIJ S\ S II MS 1·0R WASTE\\ X I ER DISPOSAL 213

their wastewa ter to the lev e l ob ta in able by th e" bes t availab le techn o logy " for Table 5-3 U nit opera tion s, unit proc esses, and systems for wa stewater
wa stewater (r ea tm en t in that particular type of indu str y. tr ea tm ent
The EPA re gulati o n s further define rece ivin g str eams a s "effi ue nt-Iimited "
Contaminant l !ni! OPCf:11J()Il. LIllI{ pro cess. o r Ircatm e n! system
a nd stream is a stre am that will mee t
its in-stream sta ndards if a ll discharge s to th a t stre a m me et lh esecondary-treat- Suspendeo solio s SeutmentalHHl
ment a nd "bes t- ava ilable-techn o logy" standards. Municipalities and indu strie s Sc reeni n g 3Jld commi nu tion
d ischarg ing to effluent-limited stre ams a re assigned discharge permit s und er t he Filtration yartali o ns
Fl o tatIon
Nati o n a l Ib lluti o n Disch a rge E limin a tio n System (N PDE S); the se permit s reflect
Chemical-p\ 1Jymt: r additIon
th e seconda ry tr ea tm e nt and bes t-ava ila ble -tec hn ol ogy sta ndard s. Coagulati on sedimentati on
A \Vater-quality-limited stream wo uld no r meet th e proposed in- str eam s tand- Land tr ea t ment sys tem s
ards, even if a ll di sc harges met seco nd ary -tr eatment and
B ll)degradabk org anll :::'
level s. FIXed- film Iric kllng filler s
I-j.xt.:d.nlm ro tating bIol ogic al cont a CI OfS
Lagoon and oxidatIOn pond variation s:

5-3 TERMINOLOGY IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT In te rm ittent

Land Ircatlll t: JlI
fi lt ration

system ::.
The termin o logy used in wastewater tr ea t men t is often confusing to the UI1 -
( ' hlorln alll Hl
initi a ted per son . T er m s s uch as unit o perati o ns, unit pr ocesses. reaClOrs. systems. Il ypochln n n:ilion
a nd primary, secon'Clary. a nd terti ary tr ea tm ent fr eq ue nt ly appear in I he lite ral ur e.
and th eir usage is no t a lways cons istent. The mean in gs of th ese te r ms. as us eci i'n I.and IrC<.Jtml' llt :' ) S ICIll S

thi s text. are discu sse d in t he fo llowing paragraph:.. Nutrient s'

M eth ods u sed fo r tr ea tin g muni c ipal was tewaters are often referred to as Nitrogen n itnn C<lll oll and d en itrificati o n
\oal'!<tt!ons
either unit o pera ti o ns or unit proce sses. G enerally. IIllil opl'rario/l s inv o lve COll-
!' I,\cd -fi ll1l Illtrlfi c at lon and dC!1llriti cali o n vaflatl ollS
. tamin a nt remova l by phy s ica l fo rces, whil e un ir proc('sses in vo il e biologica l and / or
':\JllIl1 01l1a
ch em ica l reactions. I\ )Jl
The term reactor refer s to the vessel, o r containment structure. al o ng with all
........ . o f its a ppurt ena nces, in which th e ullit operation or unit proces, takes place'.' La nd t reatment sys tems
A lth o u g h unit o pera ti ons a nd pr ocesses a re natura l ph e nomena. they llla y be Phosphor", ivktill-I..all addition
initiated, enhanced. or o th e rwise con tr o lled by a ltering the environment in th e Lim e cOilculatio n sedilllt."nt<llion
reactor. Reacto r design is a very important aspect of \\astewater and phosp hor us rem o val
I,and Ire,IIJlh:n t sys tem s
requir es a thorough und ers tc)nd in g of the unit processes a nci unil operallon s in-
vo lved. Rcfr ;\ctOI y ( ':lr\.1PIl
T c rtl i.Jr) 01.011aliol1
A WQsreW(lrer-O'eallneI11syslem is composed o f a combination of unit opera-
l; 1IHllr callll t'111 sys t C' Jll :"
tions and unit processes designed to reduc e certain of wastewater (0
Chemica! pr c'( lpilall01l
a n accep ta ble leve l. Many diff ere nt co mbin a ti o n s are pos sib le. Al t ho ugh piau i-
l Oll
ca lly a ll wa stewa ter -tre a tm en t systems a re unique in some respect s. a geil e ral Land 1[(';11111('111 s:s tCnlS
grouping of unit opera ti ons and unit processe s acc o rding to target co ntamlnan! s
I(l n t:,\ (h an gc.'
has evolved ove r th e years. Unit opera ti ons a n d pr ocesses commonly used in R CH:r:-;l' o...,mn:-;JS
was tewa ter t"rea t men t are listed in Tab le 5-3 and are a rr a nged according 10 Fk ct r o d i;.lly . . ls
co n ve nti ona l group ing. Actually, o nl y a few wastclVater-trea tme:lt methods fall
com pl e tely int o one ca tego ry. Thu s th e use fuln ess of thi s c lassification sys tcm is
so mewhat comprom ise d .
Muni c ipal wastewater-treatm ent sys tems are llften d ivide d int u primar y,
secondary , and te rti a ry su bsys tems. Th e purpose of {)lil/lIlrr /r (,lItnJl'lI/ is ( 0 remove
so lid materi a ls from the inc oming was tewat er. Larg e debl 'is may bt: rcmoved hy
 214 WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 215

Primary
Screens clarifier Effluent to
From primary -----+1 .further treatment
Emuent to treatment or to stream
secom13ry
Raw

J
trea tmen t
w as te wa ter

Comminuter
Part of
studge returned
I Settled sludge
r ·------
,
(grinding)
Undernow to /
sludge trea tment
To sludge Ireatment
Figure 5-2 Typical primary treatment system.
(a)

sc reeilS or may be red uced in size by grindin g dev ices. Ino rgani c so lids are re-
move d in gr it channe ls, a nd much of the o rganic sll spended so lids is re move d by
sedimen tati o n. A typica l prim a ry trea tm enl sys te m ( Fig. 5- 2) sho uld remove
approximately one- ha lf of the suspen ded so lids in the incoming wa stcw ater. Th c
Effluent to
BOD assoc iated wi th these so lids acc o unt s for abo ut 30 percent of the influent ___ further treatment
BOD . From
lrca tm cn t or 10 stream
Seconda ry tr eatm ent lIsua lly con sists of bio log ical co nversio n o f disso lved and
co ll o id a l o rgani cs int o biomass that ca n sub seauent ly be removed by sedimenta-
Trickling
tio n. Co nt ac t between microorgani sms and the orga nics is o ptimized by suspendin g fitter
the biomas s in the was tewa ter or by pa ssing the wa stew a ter over a film of biomas s
att ached to so lid surfac es. The most co mm o n suspe nded bioma ss sys tem is the Effluent recycle
activa ted- s ludge pr ocess shown in Fig. 5-3a. Recircu la tin g a portion of the bioma ss
maintain s a large number of o rgani sms in co nta ct with th e \vastewnt er and speed s To sludge
. ·lip ·t"tie· c·on·ver slo n ·pr-ace·s·s·.'The classical aHacheclcbioma ss sys te-m is thetTicklin g treatment
filter show n in Fig . 5-3b. Stone s or o th er so lid media are used to increase th e surface (b)
a rea fo r bio film gro wth . M at.ure bioilim s peel o fl' the surface and a re washed o ut
to th e settlin g bas in with th e liquid und erflow . P a rt of the liquid effiuent ma y be Figure 5-3 Secondary treatment system : (a) activa ted sludge system and (b) trickting filter system.
recyc led thr o ugh the sys tem for additi o nal tr ea tm ent and to maint a in o ptima l
hydrau lic fl ow ra tes.
Seco nd a ry systems pr odu ce excess bioma ss that is biodegradab le thr o ugh nalur a l systems. with oxyge n bein g suppliee! by a lga l photos ynthe sis and surface -.
end oge no us cata bo lism and by o ther microorgani sms. Seco nd ar y s lud ges are reitera ti on. Thi s oxyge n seld o m penetrates to th e bo tt o m of the pond, an e! the
usua lly combined wi th p rim a ry slud ge fo r furthe r t reatmen t by anaerobic bio- solids that settle are decompo sed a naer obica lly. In th e aera ted lagoon system
logical pr ocesses as show n in Fig. 5-4. Th e result s ar e gaseo us end pr oduct s. (Fig. 5-5b) oxyge n is supplied by mecha nic al ae rati on, a nd the entire depth of the
pr incipa lly methane (C H 4 ) and ca rb o n di o xide (C0 2 ), a nd liquid s a nd inert pond is aerobic. Deco mp os itio n of the bioma ss occu rs by ae robIc endogeno us
so iids. The methane has significant hea tin g value and ma y be used to mee t pa rt of ca tab o lism. Th e sma ll quantity of excess sludge that is produced is ret a tned l!1 the
the power req ui reme nt s of th e trea tment pla nt. Th e liquid s contain la rge co n- bottom sedim ents.
centr Ct ti ons of organ ic co mp o und s a nd are recyc led thr o ugh the tr ea tm ent plant. In mos t ·ca ses. seco nda rv treatme nt of municipal wastewater is sufficient to
Th e so lid res idu e has a hig h mineral co ntent and may be used as a so il cond itio ner meet stan·dard s. In instance s. howe ver. addi tional treatment may
a nd fertilizer o n agr ic ultur a l lands. Oth er means of so lids disposa l may be by be requ ired. T eniar y lr ('(/tm ellt mo st oft en invo lves furt her remova l ofs uspc nded
inc inerati o n or by la nd tillin g. suiids ,md /or the remova l of nutri ent s. Solids remova l may be acco mpltshed by
Some time s prim ar y a nd seco ndar y trea tm en t can be acco mplis hed toge ther. as tiltrati o n. ,;nd ph osp hor us a nd nitr oge n compounds ma y be rem oved by co mbina-
shown in Fi g 5-5. Th e oxid:1tio n pO lld (F I!"-. 5-5(/) most nea d )' a prr nxi l11ates tions o r phys ical. cbemica l. and bio log ica l proces ses.
 216 WATER ENG INE ERl D SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWA TE R TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 217
'"\
Excess water A ca refu l inspec li o n of Figs. 5-2 thr ough 5-5 leads to an int erest ing observa-
to primary cla rifi er tion. The " remova l" pr ocesses in was tew ater tre atment are essenti ally co ncentr a t-
ing. o r thi cke nin g. processes. Suspe nded so lids a re removed as slud ges. and
dissolved so lids are co nvert ed to suspended so lids and subseque ntl y become
Sl ud ge from
primary and
removable slud ges. Ham mer [5-25J sta tes that prim a ry and second a ry treatm ent.
- - se'condary fo llowe d by slud ge thi ckenin g. ma y co nce nt ra te organic materia l rep resented by
c1ar'ifiers 250 mg/L of suspend ed so lids and 200 mg/L BOD in 375 L of municipal wa ste-
water (the average per cap ita contrib uti o n) to 2.0 L of slud ge co nt a ining 50,000
mg/L of so lids. M os t of Ihe o bjec tio na ble mat eria l initiall y in th e was tewa ter
Gases

I
I
CH 4 , CO 2 ,
N H 3 , e lc.
is co nce ntrated in the sludg es a nd mu st be dispo sed of in a sa fe a nd enviro n-
mentall y acce pt ab le manner. Vesilind [5-5 5J no tes th a t a maj o rit y of the ex pen ses ,
effo rt . and pro blems of wa stewa te r trea tment a nd d ispo sa l ar e associa ted with

\1 Diges led
sludge 10 --
di sposa l
the sludges.
Design of was tewa ler-tr eatmen t systems is an important pa rt of a n envir o n-
ment a l enginee r's wor k. A th o ro ugh underst anding of the unit ope rations and
proce sses is necessary hefore the reac to rs can be designed. Th e fo llow ing sectio ns
(o r
me chani ca l
of thi s cha pter ar c devo teclt o the va l'io us unit o perations and pr ocesses co mm o nly
dew a lering) used In treat ing muni Cipal wastewa ter Man y of these are simi la r. if not ident ical.
Figure 5-4 Slud ge Irealme nl syslem.
tv those used in prepar ing powb le water. With the exce pti on of nutri ent remova l.
tertia ry treatment opera ti ons fo r lI'astewa ter invo lve essentiall y the sa me principl es
useci in prepal ' ing wate r of poor che mical qu a lity fo r a po table supply. Wh ere
mat erial wo uld he clu[llica led. th e reacler is referred bac k to C ha p. 4.

Prim ary Treatment

To furth er
Wastew, 11CI' CO Ilt[\II1S a wide va riety of so lids of va rious sha pes. sizes. a nd c1ensit ies.
--+----..... ... Ire" lm en l Or lfTecll ve remova l (lf lhcse so lids may require a co mbinat io n of unit operati o ns slic h
Iu stream :ISsc ree nin g. grind ing. <I Ill! set tling. i\ \t hough no mater ia l is remove d by t he pr ocess.
!iolV-measlll"ement deviccs ar e esse nlial fo r Ihe operation of wastewater-treatm ent
plant s and arc genera lly included in the pI:ima ry system. Op eratio ns to elimin ate
(a )
large ohJec ts anei griL along with flow meas ure ment, often referred to as prenm'inory
i }"(' or InC liI. d re an integra l part of primary trea tm ent. Op erat ions commo n to prim a r y
systems in must \\'aSlcwa ter -treat me nt plan ts a re de scribed in the fo llowing
para gra ph s.
)
, 1/ ,1/ ,1/

Raw waSl ewal er

/""
,v.
/t' /I'
.
Surf ace
ae ral ors
To fUriher
Irea l menl o r
XO s[ream
5-4 SCR EEN I NG

Screenll1l( de:IICCS ,liT used to remOve coarse so lids from wa stewa ter, Coarse
/ 1' /1"- /1' 'io\ids of st icks. r;lus. bo 'lreis. and o th er lar ge objec ts th a t often ancl. in -
cx [lllc lbil.lin<i their \" I V lVaslCWdl er co tleetio n Beca use the primar y
(b) ;,r
[l1Ji"[lOSC ,cree lh I, to' p["(ltec i pUI11[ls and ot her mechanical equipmcn t and to
Figure
prele nt clogging (If l a \l es ;11lL! o ther <t[lpurtenan ces ill the lI'astewater pl an t.
lag oon 5-5
. Prima ry seco ndar y w;lIer treatme nt In comorna!lOI1 . ( (I) O 'if
I allo
' n pond and (h) acraled
scree ning IS norillall : th e first opcra tl on pe rfclrmed o n the Inco millg I\ClstCwate l'

,
S
218 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 219

Wastewater screens are classified as fine or coarse. depending on their con-

Direction
stru ction. Coarse screens usually consist of vertical bars spaced I or more centi-
of flo w
meter s apart and inclined away from the incoming flow. Solids retained by the
bars are usually removed by manual raking in small plants, while mechanically
• • :. o· - .•. - ....... .
cleaned units are used in larger plants. Fine screens usually consist of woven-wire
Section cloth or perforated plates mounted on a rotating disk or drum partially submerged
in the flow, or on a traveling belt. Fine screens should be mechanically cleaned on a
continual basis. Typical screening devices are shown in Fig. 5-6.
Screening devices are contained in rectangular channels that receive the

o
flow from the collection system. Manually cleaned devices should be readily
access ible for cleaning. and mechanically cleaned systems should be enclosed in
suitable housing. Proper ventilation must be provided to prevent accumulation
of explosive gases. A straight channel section should be provided a few meters
ah ead of the screen to ensure good distribution of flow across the screen. Hy-
Plan draulically, flow veloCity should not exceed 1.0 mls (3.3 ft/s) in the channel, with
(0) 0.3 mls (1 ft/s) considered good design. Head loss across the screen will depend
on the degree of clogging. Clean bars and screens result in a head loss of less than
0.1 m. Provisions' should be made for a head loss of up to 0.3 m for manually
clean ed or for manually operated , mechanically cleaned screens.
The quaniity of solids removed by screening depends primarily on screen-
opening size. The quantity of screenings removed from a typical municipal waste-
water as a function of the screen size is illustrated in Fig. 5-7. Screened solids are
coateo with organic material of a very objectionable nature and should be promptly
dispo sed of to prevent a health hazard and l or nuisance condition . Disposal in a
'sanitary landfill . grinding and returning to the wastewater flow. and incineration
are the most common disposal practices. .

100
<U
90
'"
:':! 80

'-
70
0

E
60
'<>
a 50

"" 40
S
c::
" 30
'--
0
20
E 10
0
0 3 4 5 6 7
(b) Openin g be tw ee n bar s, c m

Figure 5-6 Scree nin g dt,; \'ices use d in wa Sl e\V:ll e: tr ea tmt' nt (u) ma nuall y clean ed ha r r;H.: k (li"om Steele Figure 5-7 Quantit y of sc reenin g from municipal wastewat e r as a function of bar spacing using
r
[/nd M cGhee 5-501 (b ) 1l1t:l:ha n icall y clean ed bar scree n (co ll rfe5Y E1Jl"irex IlI c._ (/ R exl10 r d Co m pa ny). rnechanically clea ned bar sc reens. (From tlie/cal(& £ddr, In • . [5 ·36].)

I
(-
 ENG I N EERED FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AN D DISPOSAL 221
220 WATER

Shredding de\ices should be loca ted ahead of pumping facilities at the tr ea t-

5-5 COMMINUTING
As mentioned ,above. scree nin gs are so metime s shredded a nd returned to th e
wastewater flow, A hamm ermill de vice is most often used for this pur pose, More
often, a shredding device ca lled a comminu/or is loca ted acro ss the flow path and
intercept s th e coarse so lids and shred s them to appr oximate ly 8 mm (i in) in size,
These so lids remain in th e wastewater.
Man y kinds of comm inut o rs ar e avai lable. Basic pan s include a scree n and
cut tin g teeth·. The sc reen ma y he a slo tted drum th a t rotat es in the vertica l plane .
Sta tionar y teeth th en shred material' th at is inte rcepted by the screen. Other
types use a sta tion a ry semicircu lar scree n and rotating or osc illatin g cu tting teeth.
Another device. ca lled a borminll/or. uses a verti ca l bar sc reen \v ith a cuttin g head
that tr ave ls up and down th e rac k of bars. shre dd ing the intercepted materiaL
T yp ical sh redd ing unit s are show n in Fi g. 5-8.
Channe l des ign for comm inut ors is similar to th a t for Since material
does no t acc umul a te on the device . head loss rarel y exceeds 10 'Clll (4 in). ('0111-
minutor s are high-maint ena nce items. a nd pr ovis io ns sho uld be made to bypa ss
the unit when repa irs are needed. In sma ll plants. bYP:lsS thr o ugh a bar scree n
is usuall y pr ovided. Lar ge r plant s may o perat e seve ra l comminutor s in parall el
so that flow from o ne o r more disabled unit s may be proportioned thr ough
th e remaining unit s.
ment plant. Grit remova l ahead of the shredder will S<lye wea r on the clitti ng head .
Usually, however. gl'it chambers are located at or above gro und leve l to facilitat e
grit handling, a nd pumps ma y be necessary to lift the sewage to them. In this case.
shreddin g is done ahead of the pumps and cutt er wea r must be to lerat ed.
5-6 GR IT REMOVAL
Municipal waste\vater cnnt;llns :1 \\'ide asso rtm ent of in organic so lids such as
pebbles. s:lm!. silt . egg shelb. gl ass. and metal fra gments. Operations to remov e
the se in(lI'ganics \\ ill :list) rem ovc some urthe larger. heavier organics such as bone
chips. seeds. and coO'ce and tea grou nd s. T oge ther. these compose the mat erial
kn ow n a<; .r;ril in \\astl'wa ter treatment system s,
Most of the suils ta nces In gr it ,II-e abra sive in nature and wi ll ca use accelerated
wear un pump s and sludge-h:lndling equipment wi th wh ich it comes III con tact.
Crit deposits in :!reas of 10\\ ' hydraulic shear in pip es. sump s. and cl,Hifiers ma y
abso rb grease and su lidify. l\dclltl o nall y. these materia ls are not biodegrauable
,Inc! occupy valuable space in sludge digeste rs. It is therefore desirable to separat e
them fwm the organic suspended so lids.
Beca use inh ltr:ltion is a major so ur ce of Inorganics, th e quantity of grit va ries
with the type, age. ;Ind co nd itlun o r the pipe in the co llectio n syste m. Th e type and
quantity of industria l \\'aste ,Inti the prc\ 'alence of domestic garbage grind ers are
3
also cOllll'ibuting f;lctor". Q U;lIltil ies rangi ng from 4 to 200 m / 10" m} have been
reported, with a typical \a lue llf.arll und ISm } ' 10" m' of wastewater. [ 5-36J
.G.ri t . rCI1!Qya I. rac:i.Ilt.ies,. \)as lc;t1I,Y ..co.nsist ..0.1'. ,In .en Iarg(:d .cha[j[jel area where
redu ced \'elocitics ;d lo\\' t' rit to settle Ollt. Many cl;nfig urati ons ' o(g'r;t ta nk s
arc availahle, wit li the 1ll0,t rCl'Cnt 11lS1,dlali uns usual ly being chann el-type or
aerated rectangular basins such as those shoWIl in Fig. 5-9. Th e depo sited gri t is
removed by mec hanical scraper s.

- 'I
'

I
(a) (b)
II I
Figure S-8 Typical shredding dcvices osed in wastewaler Irealmenl plants: (0) con"nlllUlor, Willi
Fi.l:!Ufl' 5-9 T )plcal gfll I Cllhn all'qll lpnh:nl cIJallllL'I-!ypc Ch;ll11 and hucktt grn chamher (cOllrtL\T oj
lcelh behind Ihe slalionary stollcd drum: (b) barnllnUlOrwith IravcltngCUlling ItraJ (Uili/'/('S)'
I:'l/l"Irl'X /11(' {f UI'\,I1f1rd ("0111/)(11/1'1
of C/O ... CorpOral/Oil),
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 223
222 WATER

SOLUTION
Weir plate
1. Assume a rectangular cross section with depth L5x width at maximum flow

Ax = W X 1.5w = 1.5w2

Opening for Q m3 s d min

10,000- x - - x x-
now passage d 0.3 m. 1440 min 60 s

= 0.39 mi '

w=0.5Im

D=0.76m

2. Assuming a settling velocity of 0,02 m/s. the detention time is

\ I--- Theoretical c" = Dlv,

\ I sectIOn
= 0.76 m /(002 m/s)
\ =' 38 5

3. Determine length.

__ ---' Practi cal L = c"v.

sect Ion = 38 s x 0.3 mls
= 11.4 m

Tank dimensions are therefore

(b)
.. Figu<e .5.10 .Veloclty .conaol sections for. horizontal. grit. (hamlels:. (ll) .prnportiolliJlg .weir lInd. (b).
parabolic chann el section . (Adapl edfrom Sleel e and McGhe e [5·5 0]. )
Hydraulically. grit chambers are designed to remo\ ·e. by type-I settling.
discreie particles with diameters of 0.2 mm and specific gravity or2.65. In channel-
type . horizontal-flow grit chambers (Fig. 5-9). it is important to maintain the
hori zontal velocity at approximately 0.3 m/s. A 25- percent increa se ma y result
in washout of grit. while a 25-percent reduction may result In retention of non-
target organics. Since a wide variation in flow rates may be encollntered. the
horizontal velocity must be artificially controlled. A proportioning weir on the
effluent end of the tank (Fig. 5-IOa) or a parabolic tank sect Ion (Fig. 5-1 Ob) is
often used to maintain steady . flow at 0.3 m / s. The design of channel-type' grit
chambers is illustrated in Example 5-1.
Example 5-1: Designing a channel-type grit chamber A grit chamh 'er is designed to reo
move particles with a diam e ter 01"0.2 mm. specific gra vity 2.65. Settling velocity for the se
particle s ha s been found to range from 0.016 to 0.022 m /s. dcrcndin g on their shap e
fa ctor. A flow-through velocity of 0.3 m!'i will be maintain ed by a rrop o i"tlonin g weir.
Determin e the channel dimensions for a max imum wastewater now of IO.OOIl m ·l /d.
\\' = 0.51 m
D = 0.76 m
L = 11.4 m
In larger treatment plants. the' trend is toward aerated grit chambers. Turbu-
lence created by the injection of compressed air keeps lighter organic material in
suspension while the heavier grit falls to the bottom. Since roll velocity. rather.than
horizontal velocity. serves to separate the .no.ntarget organics from the grit,
artificial control of the horizontal velocity is not necessary. Adj"ustment of air
quantit ies provides settling control. The design of aerated grit chambers is based on
detention time at peak flow. Typical design parameters are shown in Table 5-4.
Aerated grit chambers may serve another useful purpose. If tlie sewage is
anaerobic when it arrives at the plant. aeration serves to strip noxious gases from
the li4 Uid and to restore it immediately to an aerobic condition, which allows for
better treatment. When an aerated grit chamber is used for this purpose. the
aeration period is usually extended from 15 to 20 min.
Grit. particularly from channel-type grit chambers. may contain a' sizable
fraction of biodegradable organics that must be removed by washing, or
must be disposed of quickly to avoid nuisance problems. Grit containing organics
mu st either be placed in a sanitary landfill or incinerated, along with screenings,
to a sterile ash for disposal.
 ENGt NEERED SYST EMS Fo n W ASTE WA TER TREATMENT AN D DISPOSAL 225
224 WATER

Table 5-4 Design parameter for aerated organi c solids if go od grit and sc um removal ar e provided for in preliminary
treatm e nt. The th eo ry and pra c tice o f primary settling operation s in wastewater
grit chambers
ar e esse ntiall y the same as th ose fo r clarifying water for potable supplies. and
Valu e th e rea d er s hould review Sec s. 4-4 an d 4-5 before pr oceeding.
M os t o f the sllspended solid s in was tewater are " sticky" in nature and floc cu-
hem Range T yp ical
lat e na turally. Prim a ry settlin g o pe ra tion s proce ed essentially as type-2 settling
without the addition of chemical coa g ulants and mechanical mixing and floccula-
Dimensions:
Depth, m 2··5 tio n o peration s. Th e o rganic mat e ri a l is slightl y heavier than ' water and settle s
Length. m 7. 5- 20 slowl y. usua lly in th e rang e of fro m 1.0 to 2. 5 m/ h. Lighter material s. primarily
Width. m 2.5· 7.0 oil s a nd g rea se. fl oat to th e surface a nd mu st be skimmed off.
Width-depth ratio I : 1- 5: I 2. I
Prim a ry sedim entati o n is acco mpli shed in either long-rectangul a r tank s o r
Detention time at peak
flow. min 2- 5
circul a r tanks similar to those de sc ribed in Sec. 4-5. Scum removal in rectangul a r
Air supply. tank s is accompli shed by havin g the s ludge scraper s penetrate through the surface
m J I min . m of length U.15- U.45 U.3 as the y return to the effluent end o f the tank . Floating material is carried to a
Grit and scum quantitie s' coll ec tio n point so me distance be hind the effluent we irs where it is re mo ved o ve r
Grit . mJ!lO J m' 0.004 - 0.200 0.01 5
a sc um weir or by a tran sver se sc um sc rap er. Cir c ular ta nks have a skimmer arm
SOllree: From Metcalf & Eddy. lnc . [5-36]
att ac hed to th e slud ge-scraper dri ve mechani s ms. The scum is wiped up an
inc lin ed apron and into a scum tr o ugh for removal. In botll case s, a scum bafl'le
sh o uld be locat ed between SC Uitl re mov al faciliti es and the efl'luent weir. Th e
5-7 FLOW MEASUREMENT m odifi cation s necess ar y fo r scum remova l ar e s ho wn in Fig. 5-11. Separated sc um
is usua lly di s po sed of with sc rec nin gs, un washed g rit , or digest ed sludg e.
Although the measurement of wastewater flows does no t in itself result in removal D es ig n crit eri a fo r prima ry sed i me n tat io n ta n ks are presented in Table 5· 5.
of contaminants. it is an important adjunct to wastewater treatment. A knowledge
of hydraulic loading rates is necessary for the operation of many of the reactors in a
wastewater-treatment plant. Chemical additives. air volume. recirculation rat es . Table 5-5 . Design criteria for primary sedimen-
and many other operating parameters depend upon the hydrauli c flow rate . tation tanks
. Additionally, records of flows should be kept to establish trends in flow quantitie s Val ue
.. . .... for.eva+uation·of.infiitrationjinilowq·uantities and to estimate future capacity need s.
Par a mdc r R a ll!-!L' T ) pic al
The most common devices used for measuring flows in a wastewater -treatment
plant are Parshal flumes and Palmer - Bowlus flumes. These devices. essentially I.'i 2.5 2.0
D ete ntion time, h
open-channel venturi meters. have an established flow-head relationship from O ve rfl ow rate , m J/ m ' . d
which the flow is determined by simply measuring the water elevation at a gi ven Ave rage 110w 32- 48
point. Continuous-stage recording devices can be installed to provide flow records. . Pea k flow 80- 120 100
\Vcir l oad i ng, m J/m · d 125· 50(1 250
The hydraulic design of flow-measuring devices is beyond the sco pe of this text.
D im t:nsio ns: m
and the interested reader is referred to other texts. See for instance. Refs [5-50.
Rcc tan g ula r
5-30.5-48]. Dcp lh 1 } .il

Lcng lh 15 -90 25 - 40
Wid lh * } 24 6· 10
5-8 PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION Sludge scr ap er sp eed. m 111111 11.0 I 2 1.0
Ci rc uia r
Primary 'sedime'l)tation is ;1 unit operation de'signed to concentrate and remove D e pth 4 .1
suspeqded organif.: from the When primary treatment was D iam e te r ; .h {,(I 1° 4 1

considered sufficient as the total treatment. primary se ttling wa s the most im- Bo tt o lll Sll.lP C, Tll m : 1ll 6() IW ,U
Sludge sc raper .s peed, r m ill 00 2 Il 0\ ('I !H
portant operation in the plant. Its de s ign and operati o n were critical in reducing
waste loads to receiving stream s. With the current univer sal requir e ment for '" iVl ust divide inl\) b;l\ :;' of no1 !!rclt l '\ 6.0 III \\"1(_k
secondary treatment. primary sedimentation plays a lesser role . Indeed. many of for mec han ical s ludge cqui ;lllc ll l
the secondary wastewater-treatment unit processes are capable of handling the SOIlI',,,: From M e tc alf & Fd ch . In c. [1.36J
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 227
226 WATER

lnl el In lar ge plant s. th e use of several rectangular tan ks with common walls reduces
well co nstru ct ion cos ts and sp ace requ irem ent s. Sma ller plants tend to use circular
tanks because of the simplicit y of slud ge remova l. Some se ttling basin arrange-
ments common ly Llsed in primary tre a tm ent are shown in Fig. 5- 12.
Slud ge should be removed from the primary sedimentation tank before
anaerobic conditions deve lop. If the sludge begins to decompose anaerob ica lly.

Drive unit
Scum trough Supports
Drive Budge
-shaft

Scum Eftluen l weir

bafne Ernucnl
launder

12

Rep laceab le r------- w:-:-e l-·

Scurn
Sludge drawoOff pipe
pil
ur elhan e
strip
la)

(a)
Alternate weir location (';\
(center takeoff) \..J Maximum water Alicrntl.te weir local ion
(rim takeoff)
Bridge
Handrailing
8
Efnu ent pipe

12

Sludge drJw -off pipe

(b)

Traveling
bridge Bridge
travel
Collecting

W31c r level
Sludge collt:ctlon POSition
Emu"nl
.....
(b)

}. j)!ur t' 5- 11 Scum 1I..:muv ai from surface (If cI;lflflc'1 ((II dlagLlI1l (it .... (courtesy
0/ In/dco f)f!yr eI1l0flf, ' /c) : (b)" SClllTl lrough arr<lng.l:n1clll ([lltU!" Clm,{ny oj" ,\/(JI//(IfUl /)/'f'(1rtnlL'f1f
(c)
I h(//{h lim/ ElIllr(}nml'II/(t/ .)'cil'nc('s).
Figure S-12 T ypica l pr imary clorifier s: (a) circular basin, cenler feed Ufom lv/etcalj & Eddy, In c.
(/» CIrcular baSin. rim feed (from Metcal} & Eddy [ 5-36J): (e) long-rectangular basin with
Iraveling bridge sludge scraper (collrrnr of FMC Corpuratioll, Mat erial Hamllin" Sl 'stems DiL·isionj .
 ENGtNEEREO [OR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 229

SOL UTIO N
80
1. From Fig. 5- 13. a n overllow rate of 35 m 3/ 1ll 2 . d should yield a suspended-solids
removal efficicncy of abollt 60 percent. Required surrace area is
70
\
143 m 2
,olid, -
60 2. Using a circular tank. the d ia metcr IS

-;;;
>
,, =( 4--n/1)I
I 2

1 14
13.5 m
0 SO

C
E

<U
'" 3. !\ ssuming a sidn vall dept h of 3 n1. ,,,Iu me of tank is approximately

14 ] x 3 = 429 tn '
<U 40
"-
'-.... and the detention ti me at ''''crage fl0\V is
4' l) m'
.......... .. ---.-- = 0.09 d = 2.06 h
30 Ill ' 'd

4. At pc" k now conuJlions. the o"err]o\\" rate is

l"'-....... .
20 1/5 00 m·l d
-: - --_... ' = 87 mid
14 ] m 2 '

Figure 5-13 Suspended solids and

10 BOD remova l as a runction or and the detention lime i<; "pp rnxlIl1'l tely SO min (a lillIe low). From Fig. 5-13. the
o 20 40 60 80 100 ove rflow ratc. (Adapted }rom <;uspcnded-solids removal ellicicncy drops to about 3Rpercent for peak flow conditions.
Ove rOo w rale, mid S teele alld M cGhee [5-50].)

gas bubbles will be produ ced and will adhere to so lid particle s a nd lift them to-
ward the surface. This reduces the compactness of the sludge and make s remova l
much less efficient. Sludge removal system s sho uld be designed to move sl udge from
the farthest point in the taBk·1O th e sludge hopper within 30 min to I h of whe n it
settles. 'Removal from the hopper to the digester should be made at frequent
intervals.
The quantit y 'of slud ge removed in primary sed imen ta tion Illay depend
on several variables , including th e strength of the incoming waste, the efficiency
of the clarifier. and th e co nditi ons of the slud ge (i.e., specific gra vit y. wa ter conten t,
etc.). Remov al efficiencies of well-designed primary tanks depend upon overflow
rates, as shown in Fig. 5c 13. Average suspended-so lids remova l for well-operated
systems should be around 50 to 60 percent. BOD removal relates on ly to th e BOD
of the solids removed , since no dissolved organics are remo ved and bioox id a tion
in the primary tank !s
neg ligib le.
Example 5-2: Designinga primary settling basin A municipal wastewater-treatment plant
processes an average f10\\ of 5000 Ill' /d. with peak flows as high as 12,500 Ill' /IJ. Design
a primary clarifier to r<:mo\<.'approximately 60 percent of the suspended solids at a vcrage
. flow.
Secondary Treatment
The effluent from primary treatm ent stdl co ntain s 40 to 50 percent of the original
suspended solid s and virtuall y all oftht: o riglll<J1 disso lved organics and inorganics.
To meet the mlllimli m EPA s1<ln dards for d ischarge. the organic fraction, both
suspend ed and dissol ved. mu st be significantly reduced. 0
referred to as secondar y t reatm ent. ma y co ns ist ofchemical:.rhys ica l
bio logica l pr OCesses.. CO ll1oina tion s :)f opera tion s such as
coagulati on. microsc reell ltlg. filtr ati o n. chemica l OXidatIon, ca rb o n ad sorpt io n.
and oth er proces ses can be used to r': move th e solid s and reduce the BOD to
acceptable levels. Currently. th ese o pe rati o ns repre sent a high-cost opt ion with
respect to both capi ta l ilnd operating eXp'enses. and thu s are'no t common ly used.
Riological processe s are used 'in practically al l municipa l wastewater-treatmen t
:,ystem s \-,here seco ndar y treatment is empl oyed . .
In bio log ical treatm ent. mi croo rgani sms use the o rganic s in wastewater as
a food supply and COil vert tiJem inl(} bi o log ical cells. or biomass. Because was te-
wate r conlain s a wide variety of organi cs. a wid e vari ety of organ isms, or 3..1J:Jix£d
m/rur e. is reqlllr ed 1"0 1' n llnpkt c tre;ltlllcnt Each type of organ ism in the mixed
 , 2;' k

230 WATER
-1 r1 f ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DIS POSA L 231
,';([>'
I)
culture utili zes the food source most sui table to its metab olism. Most mixed
cultures will also contain grazers, or organisms that prey o n other species. The
newly created biomass must be removed from th e wastewater to com plete the Endogenous
treatment process. phase
The microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment are essen tially the
same as those that degrade organic material in natural freshwater systems. These c:
organisms and their metabolic pathways were de sc ribed in Secs. 3-7 a nd 3-8. .2
Th proce sses are not allowed to proceed in their natural fas hion , however, but c:
0)
are controlled in carefully engineered reactors to optimize both the rate and u
c:
completeness of organic removal. Removal efficiencies that would be effected over o
U
a period of days in natural systems are accomplished in a period of hours in
engineered sys tems. Design of biological sys tem s require s an understanding of the
biological principles, kinetics of metabolism, principles of mass balance, and
physical operations necessary to control the environment in the reactors. Basic
Time ---
biological principles were disc ussed in Secs 3-7 and 3-8 and sho uld be reviewed
Figure 5-14 Biomoss growth ond rood utilizati o n .
by the reader before proceeding. The fo llowing sectio ns describe the kinetics of
biological growth aild substrate utilization and the principles of reactor des ign.
Maximum growth cannot continue indefinitely. The food supply may become
limiting, environmental conditions may change (i.e., overcrowding, waste-product
5-9 GROWTH AND FOOD UTILIZATION buildup, etc.), and a population of grazers may develop. Cells that are unable to
obtain food from externa l sources begin endogenous cataboJism or the cataboliz-
The relationship o f cell growth and food utilization can be illu stra ted by a simple
ing of stored protoplasm for maintenance energy. Other cells die and lyse, or
batch reactor such as a stoppered bottle. A given quantity of a food containing all
break open, releasing their protoplasm, which adds to the available food. Segment 3
the necessary nutrients is placed in the bottle and inoculated with a mixed culture
of the curve, the stationary phase represents the time during which the production
of microorganisms. If S represents the quantity of soluble food (in milligrams per
of new cellular material· is roughly offset by death and endogenous respiration.
liter) and X represents the quantity of biomass (in milligrams per liter) , the rate of
Although some reproduction continues beyond the stationary phase, endo-
.. .tiiliizatlon' 6((6od dSjdi 'a'ridifie'f11ie 6fbiorriass' grow th' dX jdt can be represented
geno us respiration and death predominate in segment 4 of the curve. In this
by curves as shown in Fig. 5-14. final phase, biomass s lowiy decreases, approaching zero asymptotically
There are several distinct segments in the biomass curve that warrant further
after a very long time.
examination. The microorganisms must first become acclimated to their sur-
The most common method of quantifying biomass is the sus ended"solids
rounding environment and to the food provided . The acclimation pe riod, called
test. When the wastewater contains only soluble organic material, this testilio uld
the lag phase, is represented by segment 1 on the curve and will vary in length,
- be fairly representati ve, alt00ugh it does neit distinguish between living and dead
dependlllg on the history of the seed organisms. If the organisms have been
cells. The volat ile suspe nded- so lid s test is a better test when the wastewater con-
accustomed to a similar environment and similar food, the lag phase will be very
tains a sizable fraction of suspended inorganics . Neither test will differentiate
brief. Once growth has been initiated, it will proceed quite rapidly. Bacterial cells
between biolog ical so lids aJld organic particles originally in the wastewater.
reproduce by binary fission; that is, cells divide into segments that se parate to
In the log-growth phase. the biomass increa ses according to
becom e tw o new independent ce lls. The regeneration time, or the time required
for a cell to mature and separate, depends on environmental factors and food ix
supply and may be as short as 20 niin. Wh!en maximum growth is' OCcurring, the --= kX (5-2)
dt
rate of reproduction is exponential according to th e equation
dX
(5-1) where ... - = the growt h rate of the biom ass mg j Lt
(I!
where N is the number of organisms produced fro m one indi vidual after 11 re- X = the conce nt ration of biomass, mg j L
generation times. Maximum growth thu s oc cur s at a loga rithmic rate, and seg-
k tl:: growth rate constant, r - I
ment 2 on the grow th c ur ve is called the log-grOlvrh phase.
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 233
232 WATER
is a first-order equation in biomass; that is, the growth rate rx is proportional to
Direct evaluation of the growth rate constant is impossible for mixed cultures
the first power of the biomass present. When S <:g Ks. the system is food-limited.
of microorganisms metabolizing mixed organics. Several models have been
InJhis case
developed, however, which indirectly establish a _alue....£ k. The most widely
accepted of these is the Monod equation. [5-37J This equation assumes that the r, = cops t au.l.-
rate of food utilization, and therefore the rate of biomass production, is limited by and the growth rate is zero order bioma-ss; that is, the gro')Vth rate is independent
the rate of enzyme reactions involving the food compound that is in shortest of the biomas s present. When S = K s ' the growth rate constant is one-half the

-
supply relative to its need. The Monod equation is maximum as per the definition of Ks·
Substituting Eq. (S-3) into Eq. (5-2), the rate of biomass production becomes

where ko = maximum growth rate constant, t - 1

0' +S

S = concentration of the limiting food in solution. mg/ L BOD, COD ,

(5-3)
I
.
"
dX
= -- = ---- -
dl
koSX
K, + S
If all of the food were converted toJ2.iomass, then the rate of food ut ilizati 'on would
(5-4)

equal the rate of bioma ss pr oducti o n in Eq. (5-4). Because catabolism converts
or TOe ' part of the food into waste products, the rate of food utilization will be greater
Ks = half saturation constant, i.e'., concentration of limiting food when than the rate of biomass product ion.
k = mg / L
dS
r, =-- }" - Yr ,
The growth rate of biomass is therefore a hyperbolic function of the food con- dl
centration, as shown in Fig. S-\S. or
Several observations can be made relative to Eq. (S-3). When there is an koSX
- _._0 ___ _ (5-S)
excess of the limiting food, i.e.y K.s' then the growth rate constant k is approxi- r, = y Y(K , + S)
equal to the maximum growth rate ko 111 Eq. (S-3), and the systerri is enzyme-
limited. Since the enzymes are supphed by the microbial mass, the system IS where
essentially biomass-limited, and the equation
(";7';' .. <: '
..)
.. j ..
I,. r ' : f')
dS
••••••••••••••• ; ••••••••• • • p .

r, = -,- = rate of food lItllization_ mg: LI

., , (I

The factor Y varies dependin g o n the metabolic pathway used in the conversion
process. Aerobic processe;s are mqre efficient than anaerobic processes with
respect to biomass conversion and thus' have a value for Y. Typical
value s of Y for aerobic reac.tions are aboutf0:4 td\'{l.8'kg biomass per kilogram
c of BODs ,while anaerobic reactions range from 0.08 0.2 kg biomass per kilogram
r; ko ------------==------ of BODs. ----...;
o Equation (5-4) is II1compkte without an expression to account for depletion
u

" of biomass through endogenolls respiration, Endogeneous decay is also taken to

be first order in biomass concentration. '- I ::= .
ilX
- (end)= ·- k<lX (5-6)
ill

Where = endogcncoll s deca y cons tant {. 1 Incorporation of Eq , (5-6) into

K , Eq. (5-4) result s 111 •

Limiting food concentration S, mg/ L d.\' koSX (5-7)

- -- LY
dl t:. , + S d
Figure 5-15 Monod growth rate constanl as a function of limiting food concentratioll.
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 235
234 WATER

1-----------------------------------1
Endogeneous decay has very little effect on the overall growth rate in the
initial phases of the growth curve in Fig. 5-14. In the stationary phase, however ,
endogeneous decay is equal to the growth rate and becomes predominant in the Primary effluent! ! Effluent

enclogeneous phase. Secondary

I clarifier
Several external factor s may affect the rate of biomass produc tion fo C;d Reactor
These include Gr:mperat !!Ji plix aDd toxin). Rate constants increase I )
" with increasing temperatures within the range of 0 to 55 °C, with a corresponding
_ '[' increase in biomass and food utilizatl op Increase s in reaction rates I QR II Studge I Sludge
,y,/" approxImately follow the van r Ho.fl-ArrhenlU s rule of doublIng wIth every lO°C
/ Trr(.! It1crease 111 temperature [5-47J up toa maxImum temperature. ExcessIve ea t
denatures the enzymes and can destroy the organism.
-
Sludge)
waste --+-Q I
Xu return . Qu' Xu I
-X----'---------:--'
W' u
underflow

The pH o f the surrounding microorganism is also important. Enzyme systems

have a fairly narrow range of tolerance. Microorganisms that degrade waste-
I
'( 'J water organics function best n!a r neutral plol, with a tolerance ran ge offrom abo ut L ___________
I
______ .. ___
I
__.J
jl H 6 to H 9. (a)

Other factors such as toxicants. salt concentration. and ox idant s influence

biomass growth. T oxican ts- poison thc conccntrations inter-
fere with internal-external pressure relafion ships. and oxidants destroy enzyme 1-----------------1
and cell materials. Microorganisms are capable of adjusting to a wide range of
most environmental factors. provided changes occur gradually. Sudden changes.
I I

such as a rapid drop in pH or a s lug of salt. may do irreparable damage to the Primary effluent I I Effluent
Reactor Secondary
culture. QO' SO· Xo I Q + QR clarifier Q - Q",
variable X and 5 X, S. )
Several types of reactors ma y be used in biological tr eat ment of wastewater.
Although batch reactors may be useful in a few applications. those considered here I
I < iX" 5,
will be co ntinuou s- flow sys tem s. Reactors may contain s uspended cu lture s or
attached cultures . In culL4I:es, the microorgani sms are sus pended 111 the
wastewater either as single cells o r as clusters of ce lls callcd , pod' They 'ate'
.. . \. .....................si;d;;l· ···f
surrounded by the wastewater which contains their food and other essential Sludge I u I underflow I I
elements. J1t.cached cultures consist of mas ses of organisms adhered to inert II

surface s with wastewater passing over the microbial film. Qw' XU)

.
I---------------------------------- System boundary J
5-10 SUSPENDED-CULTURE SYSTEMS (b)

Suspended-culture reactors may be of three basic types: (l) comp letely mixed
witho.ut s ludge recycle, (2) completely mixed with s ludge recycle. and (3) plug-
!low with sludge recycle. Recycling sludge. which consists primarily of micro-
organisms. increases the biomass in the reactor and therefore directly affects the
.'
biomass production and food utili zation rate s described by Eqs. (5-5) and (5-7).
Figure 5-16 Typical aClivated·sludge systems' (a) completely mixed reactor and (b) plug·flow reactor.
increase the available biomass and speed up the reactions. The a.ctivated-slugge
is thus a p[Qcess with sludge return and ·may be either
a completely mixed or a plug-flow proces's, as depicted in FIg. 5-16a and b. The.'
process is aerobic. with oxygen being supplied by dissolution' from entrained air.

5-1] ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Completely Mixed Reactors
The activated-sludge process is a suspended-cu ltu re system that has been in use
Equations (5-5) and (5-7) serve as a starling point for activated-sludge analysis.
since the early 19005. The process derives its name from thc f:lctth'lt settled sludge
Reaction rate equations are coupled with system variables. and. for a completely
containIn g li vi ng. or actll 'e. microoreanisl11 s is returned ttl thc reactor to
• \ " c (f (' Y..I .
r.)r
 LN( ; INU·.RFIl FUR WAST EW ATER TREA T MENT AND DI SPOSA L 237
236 WATER

mixed system, mass balance equations are written with reference to Fig . 5-16a. Combinin g these eqll:lti uns givcs
Mass balance equations are written around the entire system (dotted line) for
Qo Y
biomass and food . At steady-state conditions . i.e.. no change in bioma ss or food _.-- - (So - S) - k (5-1 2)
1 )( V X d
concentrations with time, these equations are as follows:
The in verse of the ex prcssion s Q",Xj VX and Qo/ V have uniqu e ph ysical
Bioma ss + Bioma ss =. Bio ma ss o u t
significance ITl th e :tct i\ itlt::I-s ludg e system modeled in Fig . 5-16a. The quantity
in growth (effluent .+.w asted slud ge)
I Ir"'" ) ;// /1
/. /Q" = (1. Y' (5-1 3)
(5-8)
is the hyd raul iulc:Lt:lltion time ITl Ihe rc::tctor ba sed on intluent flow. Th e ra tio o f
the total bio mass In the to the bi omass wasted per given time
Food in - Food consum ed = Food out
VX
--- = e (5-14)
. koSX _ (Q _ Q)S
QoSo - V Y(Ks + S) - 0 w +
Q S
w
(5-9) Q,::''' '\ (
represent s the ave rage §e th at mi croo rgani sms spend in the-;:;;; ctor J Thi s
3
where Qo, Qw = influent and waste-s ludge flow rate, respective ly, m /d par ameter. called the IIji' dlI c('//- r es J(lc lI cc lir!.!!.'. wIll be grea ter than the hydraulic
'X 0' x. X,. X" = biomass· concentration in influent. reactor, effluent. and clarifier detention time since mos t o f the sludge from the clarifier is returned to the reactor.
3
underflow (waste sludge), respectively , kg/m Substitutin g Eqs. (5- 13) and (5- 14) Into Eq . (5-12):
So . S = soluble food concentration in the influent and reacto r. re-
spectively, kg/m)
V = volume
I
- -
II, -
y( So - S)
---_._- -
OX
"
d (5-15)

K" ko, kd' Y = kinetic constants as defined in Sec. 5-9, kg/m) , d - I , d - I , kg/ kg
The co ncentratl OI1 of bi ll rnass.
Equations (5-8) and (5-9) can be simplified by making the following ass ump-
tions :
IJ, Y (S o- S)
1. The influent and effluent biomass concentrations are negligible compared to
x .-_._.-
(5-16)
O( I + "dOc>
biomass at other points in the system.
2. influent food concentration So is immediately diluted to the reactor co ncen- Although this equati o n IIldicat es th:lt s hortening the hydraulic det enti o n time
. tr'ation S because of the complete-mix regime .. increases the M LSS when the oth er vari ab les are held constant. ther e is a limit
3.. All reactions occur in the reactor; i.e .. neither bioma ss producti o ri no r food beyond which this is not tru e. When the hydrauli c detenti on time appr oaches the
utilization occurs in the clarifier. regenerati on time fo r the microo rgani snls. cells ar e washed out of.1h..e reac.tor before
Because of assumption 3. the volume V represents the vo lume of the reactor growth ca n occ LlI-.-Co nseqll cntly. .Y decreases and S approaches So. meaning that
only. no treatm ent is 'lCcLlFI·ing. I

With these assumption s. Eqs. (5-8) and (5-9) a re rearran ged as follows: Plug-Flow Reactors
. . .
The plug fl ow With sludge recycle reacw·r (fi g. 5-1 6h) is oft en used in the activ::ttecl-
(5-10)
sludge pl··occss. I\ ssnn llng mixing III the tr:Clnsverse plane but minimal
mixing in the d irccti()n ()r 110\\·. the mixtm e of wastewat er and return ed sludge
as a unit thr()ugh tlie kinetics for bio mass produ ction is
= Qo.2::, (S - S) (5- II)
Ks + S V X 0 silnilar to the PJ(lCC SS ·(SCl·. 5-'!). wi th tl10 exception of an initiall\' hi oher
. c
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREAHIENT AND DISPOSAL 239
238 WATER

bio ma ss co ncentrati on and lower food co ncentrati on because of sludge return. most promisin g. Biological con stants associa ted with the wastewater and the
Law ren ce and McCarty [ 5-29J der ived expr ession s for an a verage M LSS and reactor are determined , and the ope rating par ameters that will produce the desired
degree of trea t ment are quant ified. 1\ prelim inary design of each altern at ive is made ,
food utili za tion as follows:
and the one pro ving the most cos t-effective is selected for the more detailed design
necessary fo r its constr uctio n.
(5- 17)
Although few abso lutes app ly to process and reac tor selection , some general
observations can be made in light of recent experiences. ' Beca use of required
and reactor volum e, extended aeration systems are often limited to Aows of 7500 m 3 /d
(2 Mgaljd) or less. High-rate processes, except f()I' pure oxyge n system , produce
1.:.0 5X a hard-to- settle slud ge and ar e not usually used where a high-quality effluent is
r , = - ---- (5-18)
Y K, + 5 required. Comp lete-mix reactor s are supe rior to plug-flow r.eactor s where wide
fluctuation s in flow rates occur. Instantaneo us diluti o n in the aerator" dampens"
where X = ave rage bioma ss conce ntr ation in the reac to r (milligram s per liter). out shoc k loa ds that wou ld carry through plug-flow systems and result in va riable
Th ese equation s are applic ab le only when 2: 5. eele effluent characteristics. Where loa ding is reasonably constant, plug-fl ow syste ms
Int egrating Eq. (5- 18) over the detenti on time in the reactor and substituting produce a more mature sludge with excellen t settlin g characteri stics.
the appr opriate bou nd ary conditi o ns and recyc le facto I' yield s the follow ing O ne fac tor in activa ted-s ludge design that shoufd be stre ssed is the inter-
equation: dependen ce of the biolog ica l reactor and the seco ndar y clarifier. High biomass
concentr ations ancl short aeration period s may produce good trea tment efficiencies
____k 0(_5 0_- }1 ____ I.:.
(5- 19) wi th respect to soluble BOD . The sav ings in aeration tank volume is o ffset, how-
(5 0 ,- 5) + (I - 'l.)(K, In 5 j 5) <l
ever, by the large seco ndar y clar ifier req uired to clarify the effluent and thicken
the sludge. Beca use of thicke nin g limit atio ns, it is the secondary clarifier th at usua lly
where (/. = recyc le facto r. Q/Q, sets the upper limit s on the bio mass co ncentr atio ns in the reac tor.
Si = concentratio n of sub str ate after mi xmg with recyc led sludge, mg/L Design variab les for activat ed slud ge reactors ha ve included (1) volumetric
' Ioadin g rate s. (2) food-to-ma ss ratios, and (3) mea n cell-residence time s. The
v'olumeiri c loa din g rate VI- is the Illass of BOD in the influent divided by the
5 = + a5 . volume of the reac tor. or
, 1+ CI.

(5-20)
Process Variations
In practic e, severa l variations 0 1' the completel y mixed and plug-now systems arc the unit s of wh ich are kilogra ms of BOD per cub ic meter -day .. he food-to-ma ss
oft en used . Some invo lve subtle difference s. such as rates and po ints of a ir o r waste- rati mass of BOD removed' divided by the bioma s e reactor ,
water applicat ions, de tenti on times, reac tor shape s, and methods of intr odu cing
air. O thers involve more drastic differences. such as so rpt ion and settling pri o r to
bio logica l ox ida t ion and the use of pur e oxyge n rat her than a ir. Th e most co mmon FIM = Q(5 o - 5) (5-21)
of the se va riati ons are identified in Fig. 5- 17. VX

the units being ki log ra ms or BOD per kilogram of bioma ss· day.
!
Design Considerations The mean cell residence time, e, in Egs. (5-14);(5- 15), and (5- 19). is current ly
Th ere are man y factors. which must· be con sidered in the des ign of activated- the most co mmonly used design parameter. Both the r i M-ratio and 0" approach .
slu dge systc ms. 'Combinati ons of the pr ocess var iatio ns and reac to r types that are to design allow fo r trade- off between reac tor vo lume and co ncen tr at ion of M LSS
with the was tewa ter cha racteristics and environ mcntal co nstraint s
in the reac tor. . .
Typica l design parameter s for activated sludge systems are given in Tab le 5-6. \
mu st hc selected. Ex tern a l facto rs such as cons tructi on cos ts, operation and
maint enan ce difficulties and C'ost, and space limitati o ns Illust a lso be cons idered.
Usu:11Iy. the enginee r select · fllf de tailed ana lys i,;severa l ()fth e schemes tha t a ppear
The design of a co mpletely mi xed activa ted-s ludge reactor is illustra ted in the
example Oll page 243.
,
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 241
240 WATER

Effluent
-
Secondary Efnuent
Brush·lype
clarifier
aeralors

I (c)
Sludge

L_______
(a)

Primary effluenl Effluen t

Prim ary effluent Effluent
Seco ndary
Reac tor clarif ier

Influent Effluent
Secondary
clarifier Primary
I
I cmuent
Sludge
:: ct . b roll
L ____
Sludge
__ _
Or I
return raw was(c-
I Reacto r
/ water :
, : 1 \ow f/r-A
.: . I· LUX?4
Sludge return (omitted in 1 . Sl ud ge (Iv\.
(c)
. Compr esse d· air
L_________
I .
__________l ____ ___
(g)

Pure oxygen __O_x_y:..g:;.e_n_re_t_u_r_n,__ Was te Figure 5-)7 COIllIllon \ariatiolls o f the activated- sludge procl: s=>. (a) Step ae ration. influent adclJlion
gas at intermedIate provides m·ore uiliform BOD removal throughout tank . (h) Taper ed aeration:
points
illT added in prnportiun In BOD exerted. (c) ('ontact biomass adsorbs organics in
Pr imary Contact b<lslIl anu se ttles out in clarifier. the thickened sludge ISaera ted before heing returned
e fflu e nt Efflue nt
b"sin . (d) sludge oxyge n added under pre ssur e keeps dissolved
Seco nd ary oxygcnlevcl high. Ie) OXldalion dilch. pl'ln ,·,ew U) H igh rale· shon detention time and high rood !mass
clarifier . ratio in ;lenllnr 10 maint:lin clilture in log-gr o wth phase . tg) Ex tended aeration lo ng oet ention time
I
I ;Ind f0 0 cl ma :--s ratin I n ;]l.'r<tlor 10 maintain culture in endogcll\ ) US phase.
I
I Reactor
I
I Sludge
I
Sludge return
IL _________________________ I ________
..l.. was te ......
(d)
 ENG INEER ED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEWAT ER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 243
'-=0
8: eo
o coee Example 5-3: Designing an activat ed-sludge reactor A n activ a ted-sludge system is to be
'""
-t:
-E
ell
-'" a-. 0\ a.. (1\ a-
I
' /')
-r
I
V"'l
.q-
'A
.,.
I
If)
">1"
I
or,
..q
I I
CO
0-
used fo r seco nda ry Irea tm ent o f 10,000 m 3/d o f municipal wastew a ter. After primary
clarifi cat io n, Ihe RO D is ISO mg/ L, and it is desired 10 ha ve not more th im 5 mg /L of
;..,
so lubl e BOD in the e mu ent. A co mplet ely mixed reactor is to be used, and pilot -plant
U
a nal ysis has esta blished the fo llowing kinetic valu es : Y = 0.5 kgjkg, kd = 0.05 d - 1.
":>0 'u"c
Cl
0
eo "
E fE
",
</>

'"
,J,
OC
</>

00
'r,
,J, ,J, '"
0-

X
,J,
</>

OC
0
0'
2,
OC
0
0-

'"
".
''-' C
, ,J,
0- 0-

X>
.;\
C-
Assumin g an M LSS co ncentr a tio n o f 3000 mg/ L and an underflow concentration of
10,000 mg/ L fro m the seco nd ary cla rifier , determine (I) the volume of the reactor, (2) the
'-
.
"
E ..,.
mass a nd vo lu me of so lid s th a t mu st be wa sted each day , a nd (3) the recycle ratio .

:2 :2: A schema tic o f the system is show n in th e acco mp a nyin g figur e.

0 00 u.. u.. u.. :2: u.. L;.. / .
G: 1: "- "- "- V 0.. 0.. 0 U V
...
""
OJ
U"
'"' 0
U ,r,
',-, ' '-'
6 6
,A .)., ,J,
I I
</>
V',
C-
0
O 0 0
v:,
0
6
."
I
.,
''-' v.
0

,r \ .
r-
'""" '"
et: E a'i '"6 '"6 '"6 '""" '"6 6'" 6
lllnu ent
""
0. 0 0
:g 00 0
'n c
0
C
cooco
co.:::. C

<= 00
r'l ...c
:= M
r
("',
I I i , ,
.....E0
00 '0 0 00
0 00 ,,:::, 00
'-0
'" 0, ..,

cOJ
§ C
co ..,
"" ;;
C C C

""
OJ c 00
, -to c,
, C"

:r:'"' E .D
!:: .c I
=
OJ
C1l
:::, "" " ''-'
" 6
.",
:=
-q; u
·c
E
-;c.
.", -c .
0:; CJ) 0
6
00 C 0
'"-;- -C
, .., co
,...,I 9
E 0 r ;l
I

-""""...
U > .2"
0
'::l co
ell
-'"
-C
6 6 '0' b' .:...'
OC 0 -Co 00
...:. -
-c.

-
U,
I QY( So- S)
vx k"
0
'-
3
'"... 0. 1 c1 - I = (0.15 kg/ m - 0.005 kg/ m3) _ 0.05 c1 - I

V 3.0 kg/ m )
. <.1
E "
'E
0 -r -r '-C; 'r, O
""... c -r- ""T,
_ _, 241.67 m 3 /0
-g 0. 1) d = _. - -._- ._-
""
c:
C
0 ('l (" I ,..", (" I r l
V
", . "-
<= V = 16 11 m )
.S:
... "
U
C 2. At equ il ibrium co ndi tio ns. Eq. (5- 14) a pplie s.
OJ v or , f;
g- -r
,
'X C
;
ma ss of so lids in reacto r VX
-,: i3 "
<= II, "'" = Q" X ;:
0:
<= c VX
C1l
';; .2 _ Q" X" = -It
0'" - c
2 C'": 161 1 111 ) x 3.0kg im 3
"?
'r,
o 2 '-J N -------_._ -
c: E 1 10 d
:: x
.c
0:
g Q".X " = 4H3.3 kg/d
Z-lZ f- I c..... j"
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 245
244 WATER

If the concentration of so lids in the underflow is 10,000 mg/ L Air diffusers Man y types of air diffusers are avai lable from manufacturers. Fi n e-
bubble diffuser s produce many bubble s of approximately 2.0 to 2.5 mm in
483.3 kg/ d 3 .
Q ... = ----, = 48.3 m Id diameter, while coarse-bubble diffuser s inject fewer bubbles of a larger (up to
10 kg/ m -
25-mm diameter) size. Both typ es have advantages and disadvantages. With
3. A mass ba lance around the secondary clarifi er can be wri tt en as fo llows' respect to oxygen tran sfer, the fine-bubble difl'user is more efficient because of the
larger surface area per vo lume of air. However , head loss throu gh the small por es
(Q + Q,)X = (Q + Q, - Q...)X,. + (Q, + Q".)X" necessitates greater compression of the air and thus greater energy requiremen t s,
Assuming that the so lid s in the effluent are negligible compared to the innuent anc!
and compressed a ir must be filtered to remove all particulate s that would plug
the tiny diffu ser openings. Coarse-bubb le diffusers offer less maintenance and
underflow.
lower head loss, but poorer oxygen tran sfer efficiencies. One compromise is t o
QX + Q,X = + QwX" locate a mechanical turbine just above a coarse-bubb le diffuser so that the shear ing
action of the blade at high rotational speed breaks the lar ge bubbles into sma ller
Q,(X" - X) = QX - Q... X" ones and disp erses them through the liquid. Typical installations of air diffuser
Q = QX Q•. X" systems are illustrated in Fig. 5-18.
, Xu - X

The recirculati o n rati o is

1\
.1:"'.' .

Q, 4.217
- = -- - = 0.41 ,0 ,
Q 10,000

Aeration of Activated Sludge

--The' rate at· which'oxygen 'is consumed 'by ·the·microurg,mism· ilnI1c"hiolo gical'" (a) (b)
reactor is ca lled the oxygt'11 UTilizatiol1 rate. For the activated- sludge proce sses.
the oxygen utilization rate will always exceed the rate of natural replenishment.
thus so me art ificia l means of adding oxygen must be used. With the exception of
the pure oxygen system. oxygen is supp lied by aerating the mixed liquor in the
biological reactor. .
The oxygen utilization rate is a function of the characterist ics of both t hCl\<lstc-
water and the reactor. Treatment of ordinary municipal wastewater by extencled
aeration usually results in an oxygen utilization rat e of approximately 10 mg,- L . h.
Treatment of the same waste by conventiona l activated-s lud ge proces ses results
in an oxygen utilization rate of about 30 mg/L· h. and up to 100 mg iL . h if
treatment is by th e high-rate process. [5-25J Oxygen addition should bc sufficient
to match the oxygen utilization rate and sti ll maintain a small excess'in the mixed
liquor at all times to ensure aerobic metabolism.
(d)
Aeration technique s consist of using air ditfusers to inject 'comprcssed afr (e)

into the biological reactor and /or using mechanical mixers to st ir the co ntent S Figun· :'- IH T ypi cal appllc:lIInn \)f ddfu:-l'd aCfdll()n (oJ MIXlIlg action by mounted
violent ly enough to entrain and d istribute air through the liqUid. It is CO ll11l1on On nf [t) n g, 11;1 rro\\" k , ! h) 111cch:l1lical t u rhi nc it bd\ hblc d i n"use r (t'ollrtfS), nf;\'/ 0I1l0rt {/
a n1arsl>hu
practice to use diflused air in plug-flow systems and mechanical aerators in ,,'{(Il l' f)t'/ lurtnWI'I1 u( I-Ica/,IT): (C.-, dlA'u"cr:-.;lt bUlium uf 3Cr:llioll bi:1Sin. (d) hubhk aClion rc-
completely mixed sls lems, althou gh there are exceptions In bllth fr'.)l11 III (d
"""'- - - - - -

J-
....
246 \V ATl'R

Mechanical aerators M ec ha nical aerators produce turbulenc e at th e air-liquid

interface. and this turbul e nce en trai ns a ir int o th e li qu id . Mechanical aera tors
may have h igh- spee d imp e llers ih a t a dd lar ge qu a ntiti es of a ir to relatively small
quantities of wa ter. Thi s aerated water is then mixed wi t ti the reactor conten ts
through ve loc it y gradient s. Lar ge impell ers driven at slo J speeds agitate larger
quantitie s of wate r less violent ly. Typical unit s of bo th types are shown in Fig. 5-1 9.
Use 01' th e smaller J ed units is co m on in exiended aera ti on system s,
whi le the slow-speed units are more common in ac IV e -s ud ge
sys tems. Bru sh-t ype aerators are used to pr ov id e both aeration and momentum
to wastewater in th e oxida tio n-dit c h va ri a tion of the ac tivated -slud ge process.
Their use is illustrated in Fig. 5-20.
(a)

.-
,.,'

(a) (b)

(b) Fi gur E." 5-20 O xi lial iDn d ilCh "H.' ration . (a) Rot or aerat o r bru sh used in oxidation d i tch (photo ( ourtt' sy
o/Kathl een M tllrr-I/ {)(mf) : (h ) brush a Clio n in :.I n oxi d alion dilch (photo COllrtCS), oj Lakeside Equipm ent
Fi gu re 5- 19 T y p ical mcc h a ni l:al lI se d in tl c tl 'v atcd -sllldgL' pnh.:C">Sl''', (lI) I.tl\ \ -spec d IlH:chani cal C"'p.): « ) 1) l' lcd "r ac r " I,W, ill o xicinli o ll chi Ch lrholV COur'f Sl" oj" Ll1ke sid f EquipmeJlt
;it: rato l mlHJflle d on fi xed pl at fo rm (,!lU}(O COffrln.l 11/ 1::11111'('.\ ItlL. tf R e ynfl rd C O/"fl{IO IIY): (h) h lgh -
Corp.).
' j1lTd (pho/(I ('/l lIrl f>.\\ ' uj " . 111 i l"l.' \ I f!( . (/ N t' .\ 1/lInl ( ' oml'{/I1\ ).
 248 WATER ENGINE ERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 249

5-12 PONDS Su nlight

Wind

In addition to the activated-sludge processes, Qther suspencleclcculture biological

systems are available for treating wastewater, the most common being ponds and
lagoons. A po nd, alternatj yely known as a stab ilization pond 0 jdgJjO .l
:\ pond, and sewage lagoon, consists of a large , shallow earthen ba sin in which waste-
r

2'
-water is retai ned lo;g enough for natural purific ation processes to provide the
g"
necessary degree of treatment. At least part of the system mu st be aerob ic to N
U
produce ' an acceptable effluent. Although so me oxygen is ,provided by difftision :0
from the air', the bulk of the OlL)Cgen-i. p.ond p.wvided by photo synthe sis. A""",, po, so, 2v
are distinguished from p onds in that oxygen for lagoons is provided by
-' artificialie.I:ation

,
here are several varieties of ponds and lagoons, each uniquely
suited to specific applications.
in which dissolved oxygen is present at all depths are caTTed
aerobic pon!!J... Most frequently used as additional treatment processes, aerobic
ponds are often referred to aSJio lishing or " terciar y" poncjs. Deep pond s in which
----,--t-rt-t - Orga nic acid s and
oth er reduced com pound s
__
oxygen is absen t except for a rel atIvely thm surface layer are called anaerobic o f C,N.P.S

ttl 1 ! 1
ponds. Anaerobic ponds ca n be u sed for partial treatrrient of a stron g organic
' wastewater I?ut must be foll owed by some form of aerobic treatment to produce
acceptable end products. Under 'fav o rable po nds in which
both aerobic and anaerobic zones exist may be used as the to tal trea tment sys tem
for municipal wastewater. .
Lagoons are classified by the degree of mechanical mixing provided. Wh en
sufficient energy is supplied to keep the entire contents , including the sewage solid s.
mixed and aerated , the reac tor is ca lled an aerobic lagoo n. The effluent from an
aerobic lagoon requires solids rem ova l in order to meet suspe nd ed-so lids effluent
standards. When only enough energy is supplied to mix th e liquid porti o n of the
lagoon, solids to the bo tt om in areas of low velocit y gradi ents and proceed
to degrade anaerobically. This facility is called a (l ClI tative ague and the pro,cess Im permeab le lining
differs from that in the facultative pond only in t e meth od by which oxyge n is
Figure 5-21 G e neralized d iagram of facultati ve pond reaction.
supplied. I .

The majority of ponds serving municipalitie s are of the facultative

type . The remainder of this di scussio n will relate to the facu ltati ve proces ses, the
interested reader being referred elsewhere for more information on th e other
systems. See especially Refs. [5-6J and [5-36].
Facultative ponds and lagoo ns are ass umed to 'be(§omp letel y mixed reactors
without rec ychl R aw wa stewa ter is tran sported into the reactor and is
released near the bottom. Was tew ater so lids settle near th e influent while biological
solids and fl occu lated coll o ids fo rm a thin sludge blanket over the rest o f the
bottom. Outlets are located so as to minimize short circuitin g.
System Biology
t
1- A generali zed diagram of the pr ocess es that occur In facult a ti ve po nd s is sho wn
in Fig. 5-21. Aero hic cond itio ns a re maintained in the upper po ri io ns of the pond
L
by oxygen generated by algae , and , to a lesse r exte nt by penetr a tion o f atm os pheric
oxygen. Stagnant cond itio ns in th e slud ge along the bottom prevent oxygen
tran sfer to that reg ion and anaer o bic condition s prevail ther e. The bo undar y
between the'ae rob ic ar.i a naerobic zo nes is not stat io nar y. Mixin g by wind acti o n
and penetration by sunlight may exte nd th e aerobic area downward. Converse ly,
calm wa ters a nd wea k lighting result in the anaerob ic layer rising toward the
surface. Diurnal changes in light co ndition s ma y result in diurnal fluctuati ons in
the aerobi c-a naerobi c int erface. Th e v 'Ow .ugh which the-pl'esence o f di s-
solved oxyge n fluctu ates is ca lled til ne becau se o rga nism s in thi s
Zone mu st be cap able of adju stin g t eir metabo lism to the change in oxy gen
condition s.
Co nsidera hle inter aclio n ex ists between th e zon es. Organic ac ids and gases.
prod ucts of deco mp os ition inlhe an ae robic zo ne. a re relea sed and beco me so lub le
 250 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 251

food fo r o rga nisms in th e ae rob ic zo ne. Biologica l solius prod uced in the are removed by sedim entati on is not qu antifia ble. a ma ss bal ance for so lids cannot
zo ne ult imate ly settl e to the bo tt o m where they di e. pr o viel ing foo el fo r the anaer o bic be written . A mass balance for the so lu ble foo d can be wri tten . because sol uble food
benth ic organ isms. is assum ed to be uniformly distributed thr o ugh o ut the react o r by mixing of the
A specia l relat ion ship exists between the bac teria and algae In the aerob ic liquid. If the convers io n ra te is assumed to be first orde r in foo d concentration.
zo ne. Here the bacter ia use oxygen as an electr o n accepto r to oxidize the waste- then ma ss balan ce ca n be wri tt en as fo llows :
'- '
wa ter o rgan ics to stab le end product s such as CO 2 , NO J . . and P0 4 .1 Th e
a lgae in turn use th ese comp o unds as a materi a l SO Llrce a nd. with sunligh t as BOD in = BOD ou l + BOD co nsumed
a n energy so urce, pr oduce oxygen as a n enu produ ct. Th e oxygen is then used bv
QSo = QS + V(kS) (5-22)
the ba cteria. Such mutuall y beneficial arrang emcnt s. callt:d Sl'IlIhi (} {i c
often occu r in natur e.
Upon rearranging. Eq. (5-22) become s
The proces s is similar fo r the faculta tive lagoo n. In this case. huwevc r. \)xyge n
is suppli ed primaril y by artificial ae ral ion , a nd the elreet o r al gae. existing here S I I
(5-23)
in co nsiderab ly lesser nu mber s than in pond s. is negligibl e. Th e aer o bic-an<lero bie So -1+ kV/ Q = I + kB
interf ace is mo re sta ble in th e lagoo n.
Climate plays a n imp o rtant role in th e op era ti o n of bo th po nds and 1:lg()o ns. where SISo = fracti o n of so luble BOD remaining
Within natura lly occurring temperature rang es. hl()I')glc:iI reacti o ns ro ughly k = reac tio n ra te coe !1icient. d - I
do ubl e fo r each IO"C increment in wa ter temp era lLi re Wh en wat er tcmpel'a tur e Ii = hydraulic dete nti on time , d
dr o ps to nea r freezing. bio log ica l acti vity virtuall y ce:lses. k e C(lI'er creat es furth er V= rcactor volum e. m J
prob lem s by bloc kin g o ut s un light. a n Im po rt ant clem ent in po nds. and IntCl'J'cring Q = fl ow rate,m) /d
with surface aera to rs. In co ld cli mate s. it is oft en necess ar y to pm vidc reac tor
vo lume sufficient to sto re th e entir e wint er nO\\ ·. If seve ral reactors a re arran ged in series. th e emuen t of o ne po nd beco mes
Becau se of the la rge Imld requir ement and IIlColllpatihil,l y wi th mos t 1:J1ll1 the Influent to th e next. II sub strat e ba la nce wri tt en ac ross a series of n reacto rs
uses. the use of po nds a nd lagoo ns is genera lly restl'il'ted tll S ill a II comilluniti es with results in the fo ll ow ing equa tio n:
semirura ls ett ings. Wh ere th eir use is poss ible. cllnsidcrab1e in bllt" Glpital
cos t a nd opera ting co st ca n be Additi o na ll y. the lar ge lo lume-to -inflo w (5-24)
rati o pr o vides a mpl e d iluti on to minimize the elTccts of highl y \ ar iable hydrauli c
and lJlga n ic load ing . typ ical' of s',nili,i. 'C;)',il,iiIl lli l . Lit i Ie i ;) r'
ski ll is required to keep the sys tem o perating. When facultativ e ponds are used to trea t municipal wastewa ter . it is common '-
.... Th e primar y disadva nt age is the high suspend eJ -slllid s co ncentl'atioll s in practice to use a t leas t thr ee po nds in series to minimi ze short circuitin g. Marai s
th e eAloent. Alth oug h prin cipa lly bio logica l in natur e. tlll:SC oft en exceed the [5-35J and M ara [ 5-34J dem o nstrat ed that maximum efficiency occ urs when
I r C' seccinciary.- trea tment standard s. Thi s problem been I'e licled somewhat by ponds in series a re of th e sa me appr oxima te size. When this is th e case. the firs t
, L. reevalu a tio n of the disc harg e sta ndard s by EPA tll ;111 0 \\ up ·to 75 mg ' L of b'i(\ logica l pond. ca lled th e primary pOlld. will ret a in most of th e sewage so lids a nd will thu s
/' so lids in the effluent fro m po nds and lagoon s. ;\ n additi o na l disad vant age fo r
pond s may be od o r problem s duri ng the pw\rl y trea tcd wastew:lt cr has
be the mos t heav ily loa ded. It ma y be nec essa ry to prov ide ae ration in the prim ary
pond to pr event co mplete anaerobic condi tion s w ith their a ttend ant odor prob -
bee n sto red du ri ng the wint er season. • lems. Th e resu lt is one facultativ e lagoo n followed by two or mo re facultative pond s.
Alth o ugh th e above model s are useful for visua lizing the pond and lagoon
processes, it is imprac tica l to expec t instantane o us mixin g of influent with such
large reac to r volumes. In 'prac tice, a wide ran ge of disper sio n occ urs becau se
Design of Ponds and Lagoons of reacto'\, sha pe and size. mixing by wind ac tio n or aera tors. and influent and
Severa l appr oache s to th e des ign o r po nds a nd lagoo ns ha lT heen pr o po sed. . effluent ana ngeme nls. Thirumurtlii [ 5-53J developed grap hical re la tionshi ps
The mode l mos t co mm o nly assumed is th cOlllplet ely Illixeu reactl)r with o ut between food remova l and values for kB for disper sio n factor s ranglllg from
so lids In th e case of facu lta tive systems. cllInplctc mixing is assumed to IIlfinity fo r co mpl etely mixed reac to rs to ie ro- fo? ug-ftow react0 9 · The se
-:lpp lv o nly to the liquid po rtion of th e react o r. Waste\ \at er so lids a nd hio logical Ig. . -_2. ca n )e used for design . pr ov ided va lues of k are
so lids that fall to the bo tt o m a re no t res uspend ed. Ik C:llIsc th e rate at which so lids
 252 WATER ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 253

Table 5-7 T ypical design parameters for facultative ponds and

lagoons

Parameter Fa cullative pond Fa cu ltative lagoon

Flow r.egirnc Mixe d surrace layer

Pond si.ze: ha 1 -4 lIlultiples 1- 4 multiple s
Operati o n* Series or ·Ser ies o r para lIe l
Detention time , d* 7- 30 7-2 0
Depth. J11 l e2 1-·2 .5
pH 6,59,0 6.5 - 8.5
Temperature range, "e 0 -50 0-50
Optimum temperature, <':- C 20 20
BOD , loading , kg/ ha dt 15- 18 50-200
UOD s 80- 95 80- 95
Princip;Ji cOll ve r si0!1 A Igae. CO,. C H.,. Algae. CO" C H 4 •
product s h<Jcteriai cell tissue bacte rial ce ll tissue
Algal Illg/ L 20 -XO 5 -20
Elllucnt slispended '(1lids.
40 - 100 40 -· hO

.. Oepcnd\ on climat iC cll IH.iilion s.

Pe rcen t remaining, 5 /S o
Figure 5-22 Graphi c relati on,hip between S ,So anti kll in Eg. (5-c4). (From Thinmlllnhi [5-53].)
i· T ypIcal "alucs (much higher values have been applied at vario us locati o ns).
Load in g values are orte n specillcd by Slate IX)lIulion-con tr ni agenc ies.
! Includes algat.:'. micr oo rgani sms. and residual influent suspe nd ed so lid s.
\'a lucs arc hased on ;til ,"ilu e" t so luble BOD, or 200 mg / L and an influent
suspe nded-solid s concentration of 200 mg/ L .
SOllre£': Fr l' lll i\k" 'ill r & Edel]. Inc. [5-36}

with the ene rgy dissipated by the ae rat o r. and tran sfer ra tes ranging from 0. 3
.. .. . .. .... ........... A.wi.de. range .of. Yal.tles.for A. is.. in .the..I.i.\e.r.aLLI!.c,.A.I.\\l(:ll!gh
man y to 2.0 kgj kW . h are common. Mor e exact figures can be ob tained from the
variables relating to both th e re:1ctor and W:1stewater a fTect f.: , wa ter
equ ipment manufact urct·s when o perati o n cond itions are kn own. The design of
appears to be the mo st significant. Equation s of the fo rm
facultative po ncls ancllagoons is i-IluSlratecl by th e following exa mple.

Example 5-4: Designing ponds and lagoons W astewater Au,," from a small
com munit y averages JOOO m J ,d during the "inter and 500 0 m ) 'd Juring the Th e
a\cragc lempera t ure o f the colde,t month is 'S' C. aqd th e average temperalure of t he
are commonly used . Value s freq uentl y used for /.:20 range from abo ut 0.2 to 1.0.
\\:IIme s t m o nth is 25' (". Th e :twrage BOD , is 200 -mg : L with 70 percent being so lub le.
while values of the temp eratur e coefticient </> may range frol11 1.03 to 1.1 2. The se
Th e reac ti o n coe fficien t k is 0.2 3 d - , at 20°C. ;;net th e va lu e of 4' is 1.00. Prepare a pr e limin-
values mu st often be determin ed expe rimen tally for a given pond sysle;11. Because
arv desig n ror a ra c ultat ive pond treatlllent sys te m for the comllluni ty to remove 90
oflhe complexity of accuratcly assessing the f.: constant. design of ponds and lagoons
perce nt o f t he so lttbl e HOD .
IS often based on loadin g factors and ot her empiricall y deri ved param eters
Parameters and values frequ entl y used are given in Table 5-7.
Although so mc photosynthesis undoubt edly occ urs In facultative lal!oons.
ox ygen requirement s are assum ed to bc met by aeration . Tv.;o kilograri1s 0f (' ,'Illpttte the rate co ttstants ,,,I.lus ted rOt temperature .
should be sU'pphed for each kilo gra m of BOD s in th e inHuenl t'O ens urc'acl equai c Sununer' 1..: "' :::.: 2u
2
oxygen for the so luble BOD released from th e anaero bic zo ne as well as fo r the
= 031 d "
BOD in the raw wastewa ter. The ra te of oxyge n tran sfer is a function of water
temperature . oxygen deficit. and aerator characteristic s. In co nditi o ns no rm ally /-, - :"
encountered in wastewater lagoons . the rate of oxyge n transfer cllrrel;lt es lI'ell 0,11 d '
L
L
254 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEM S FOR WASTEWATER TREA TMENT AND D ISPOSA L 255

2. Fr o m F ig. 5-22, determine kO when S/So = 0. 10 and th e di spersio n fa c tor is 0.5. Ass ume aera tors tran sfer 1 kg 02/kW . h

kO = 4.0 1d kW·h
1640 kg 02 /d x - x -- - = 68.3 kW
24 h 1 kg O 2
4.0
Summ e r . (1 = --. = 12.9d
0. 3 1 Use thr ee a erators at23kW
4.0
Winte r : = -- = 36.4 d
0. 1\ /"
5-13 ATTACHEI>-CULTURE SYSTEMS
Use lo nges t tim e. () = 36 .4 d
3. Co mput e vo lum e of p o nd s.
6 ttached-culture sys tems emplo y reactors in which wastewater is contacted
v = IJQ = 36.4 d x 3 X 10 .1 m )/d = 109,200 m J .-mi crob ia l fi lm s att ac hed to surf ace s. Surface area for biofilm g rowth is increa sed
Use thr ee po nd s (as s ho wn in th e acco mpan yin g sketc h) . each 36,400 m ), () = 12 d . by PGCin g a porous mediu m'Trl the reactor. When random ly packed so lid medium
\ IS used. th e reactor IS called a a d vent o f m od ul ar sy nthetiC
( med ia o f high poroSIty a nd low we ight en ab les a vertIcal arrangement o f medium
era tor \;; evera l meters hi gh , leading to the ' te rm More recentl y, th e use of

- »' rotating disk s pa rtiall y submerged In wa stewa ter ha s led to the rotatina blO,
iogJcal co nlaCLQr (REe) process . A lth o ugh other attached-cu ltur e sys tems.
Innu ent IIlcluding submerged filters (a n ae ro.QiE) a nd fluidized beds, may h ave app licat io n
0 Po nd # 2
under certain condi ti o ns, th e discu ss ion here will b e lim ited to tri ck lin g filters.
0 Prim ary b io-t o wer s, a nd RB Cs .
po nd I In the tri cklin g filter a nd bio-t owe r, th e medium is stationary and ! he waste-
water is pa ssed over th e biofi lm in int ermitt ent doses . In th e RBC th e medium
+ mo ves th e biofi lm al te rn a te ly through wa ter a nd air. Becau se both sys tem s
ma intain a ero bic conditi o n s a t th e bi o tllm s uriac.e. bo th are classified a s aerobic
Po nd # 3
pr oc esses . .---
Emu ent
- In addi ti on to th e bi o log ica l react Q.r. an attached-culture sys te m usually
ll1c1udes both primary and seco ndary- darification.· The.pfimar.y. c1ar.itier . may . be ....
omitted in bi o- towe rs a nd RB C installation s where plugging o f the vo id s paces can
be av o id ed by gri ndin g the so lid s in th e was tew a ter to sufficientl y sma ll sizes
.j . Use d epth o f 1.5 01 fo r po nd s.
pri o r tb applica tion o n\ o th e medium.
36,400
Ar ea = '-1.-5- = 24, 267 01 2
= 2.4
Sys tem Biology
(N o te: l \dd I 01 depth for sludge sto rage in primary pond .).
Th e bi o lo gica l metab o lism o f wastewa ter o rga nic s in a tta ched-culture sys tem s
.". Ass umm g ph o tosy nth es is will not be s ufficient to meet ox ygen requir e me nt s in th e
is remarkab ly simi lar to th a t in suspended-culture sys tem s, the dissimilarities
primar y p o nd thr o ug ho ut th e year. size a era tion equipment.
in react o r character ist ics n otwi th srand in g. The biological organ isms that att ac h
Fu r primar y po nd s umm e r conditions : them selve s to th e so li d surfaces of th e medium come from essen ti a lly tb e sa me
V 36,400 m ' gro up s as th ose tn activated-sludge systems. Mo st are heterotrophi c o rga ni sms.
IJ = - = ---- --c --. = 7 'l d
Q 5000m 2 / d .. witb facultative bact eri a bei ng predom inant. Fungi and protozoa are a lso abun-
dan t , a nd algae are pre sent near th e where light is ava ilable . Anim a ls such
klJ = 0.3 1 x 7.3 = 2.3 as ro tire rs , slud ge wo rm s, insect larv a e , snails, etc. may a lso be fo und . Nitrifying
Fr o m Fi g. 5-n with d = 0.5, S/k--O. I o rgani sms a re found In significant numbers o nl y wben th e ca rb o n content o f the
80 D rem ove d = 0.82 x 200 = 164 mg/ L ... wastewater is low.
Ox yge n s upp lied = 2 x 0. 164 kg/ m ) x 50UO 111 3/d Th e o r ga nism s attach themselv es to th e medium a nd grow int o de nse films
= 1640 kg/ d
of a visco us. je ll ylike natur e. W as tewater pas ses over thi s film in thin sheet s wi th
 ENG INEERED SYSTH fS FOR WAS T EWATE R T REATM EN T AN D D ISP OSA L 257
256 WATER

dissolved organic s pa ss ing j nto the biofilm due wi.Lb.W fo r suspend ed-cultur e syst ems [ Eqs. (5-5) a nd (5-7)]. Design equ atio ns fo r att ached-
the film. Suspend eCfpai1iC les and colloid s ma y be retained on th e growth systems have been deri ved la rgely on an empiric a l ba sis.
surfaces wheretheyareclec;omposedinto soluble produ cts. Oxygen from th e
._ and from air in the void spaces of the medium pr ovide oxygen for
ae.robic reactions at the biofilm surface. Waste product s from the metctbolic
('/' y,.....k diffuse outward and are carried awa y by t he water Or air current s
moving through the void s of the medium . The se pro cesses are dia gram ed in The nam e tricklil1g fil ters is a p plied to a reacto r in which randoml y packed solid
forms pr ov ide surfa ce ar ea fOI' bio film growth. The system must contain equip-
Fig. 5-23. .
ment for distri b utin g th e wastewa ter ove r the medium and for removing the
Growth of the biofilm is restricted .to one dir ection -- .outw ard from the so lid
effluent. Th e term fi lt er fo r thi s pr ocess is misleadin g, since few of the ph ysical
./h,c:p rface. As the film grows thicker , conceniration gradients of both oxygen and
processcs assoc ia ted with filtrati o n thr o ugh granular media function in tri ckli.ng
food deve.lop. Eventually. both anaerobic and end ogeneou s metaboli sm .occur
/7 at th e blOfilm-medlum surface IIlterface. The attachment mechani sm is weak ened . filters. Jnstead. so rpt ion and su bseq uen t bio log ical oxid at ion a re t he primar y

- I,"" and the shearing action of the wastewat er flowing acro ss the film pulls it from its
1 mooring and washes it away. Thi s process. known as sloughipg, is a funcli.on of
both the hydraulic and or ganic loading rate. Biofilm "itij uickly reestabli shed in
mea ns o f food rcmoval
lmQ.Qrt a nt chara cteristics of th e medium includ e specific surfac e area and C)
porosity. Th e surface arem refers to t he amount of surface area of the media /
that is a vailable for biofilm growth. Th e:J)orositr j) a measure of the void space
places cleared by sloughing .
availab le fo r passage of the was tewat er and air and fo r ventilati o n of pr odu
The rate of food removal in attached-growth system s depends on man y factor s.
These include wft-l ewa ler flow a te,_ Q!ganic. loadin g raLe. of difTusivit y gases.
In mosl cases the medium in tricklin g filters is co mposed of cru shed ston [ 4fV.pr<;r
of food and oxygen int o the biofilm. and temperature. The depth of penetration
. :these mat eria ls prov id e ha rd . durabl e. chemica lly resistant surfa ces fo r....
of both oxygen and food is at high er loading rates. Ox ygen diffusivity
biofilm gro wth. Sizes I'an ging from iO to J00 mm (2 to 4 in) pr ov ide specific surface
is usually the limiting factor. Aerobic zones of the biofilm are usually limited to a
areas to 65 'Il 2/ m 3 (1 5 to 18 ft friO). with of40 to 50 peJ"{;ent.
depth of 0.1 to 0.2 mm [5-10], with the remaining thicknes s being anaerobic.
Plastic med Jao f vari o us shape s may be used instead of th e sto ne or slag, with
The number of variables affecting the growth of biomas s. and sub sequently
the rate of su bstrate utilization , makes mathematical mod eling of attached-growth sizable ad vanta ges in surfa ce a rea and porosity. Are as up to 200 f,'r
systems d"ifficult: Biofilm growth . sloughin g. and regrowth . and its aei'o bic- (57 ft 2 / f(3 ) an d por osities of. 9) err.ent ar e a vailabl e with loose- bulk packin g r fI (.11'
anaerobic nature. prevent application of equilibrium equation s similar to tho se materia l Th e usc 0 [' modular media ma de J"rom wODden slat s or pla stic. sheet s is
, fil(,r' r;(' 1'. . fl" r ' .....r·r . r; . ' also'p oss ible
. - ,",- -
\ I 0 \. r l. " '
Th e appli cati o n of was tewa ter o nto th e medium is acco mpli shed by a ro tating
D distribution system as shown in Fi g. 5-24. Under a hydr a ulic head of about 1.0 m.
Jet action throu gh the nozz les is sufficient to power the rot o r. Thi s a rran gement
/Air space . results in IIltermitt ent"d o.sing. with o pp ortun ity for air circulati o n throu gh the
pores between d osing. Disper sion of the \\;astewater is acc ompli shed in the to p
few centim eters of rand o mly pac ked medium. resultin g in unif orm hydraulic
loadin g remainin g depth. Electrical mot o rs may b<f necessary to
drive the ro to r where variabl e fl ows o r insufficient head wo uld result in une ven
appli cat ion.
Th e und erd rain syst em is designed to ca rr y away the treated wastewat er a nd
the sloughed bi o ma ss. Pr o pri eta ry mod ules such as th ose sho wn in Fig . 5-25 are
oft en used . Th ese a re designed to flo w partial ly J"ullto fac ilita te the circulation of
air thr o ugh the mcdium . .
Seve ral operational modes are ava ilabl e for tri ckling filter s. Sta nd ard -rai e
filters have low hydr aulic loadin g a ncl el o not IIlclude pr ov ision fo r recycling .
Anae ro bi c,
_High-rate filters ma intain high hydraul ic loadin g b y recircul a tin g porti o ns of the
endo genou s ac(ive cflluent. Fil ters pla ced in series inc;ea se th e effecti ve depth . thu s increas ing th e
effiCiency. i\ great numb er of poss ibiliti es ex ists I'or fl ()w regimes.
Figure 5-23 Alia ched-cullUre pr ocesses.
 ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DIS POSAL 259
258 WATER

Table 5-8 Typical design criteria for trickling filters

Ile m Lo w-ralC fi ller In lermedia te-ra te filter H ig h-r a te filter

H ydr aulic toad ing.

m .ljm ' · d t- 4 4- t O 10- 40
O rga n ic loa din g.
kg/ m J . d 0.08--0.32 0.24- 0.48 0.32- 1.0
Dept h . m \ .5- 3.0 1.25- 2.5 1.0- 2.0
Recirculat io n rati o o 0- \ \-3;
Filler m edi a R oc k , s la g, e lc. R oc k , slag, etc . R ock, s lag. sy nthet1t
mat e ri a ls
Powe r requ ircm e n ts.
kWilO J m J 2- 4 2- 8 6- 10
Filter flies Many Int e rmediat e Few, la rvae a re was hed
away
Fi g ur e 5-2 4 R Olal ing a r m d is tri - I nrerrnitlenl . Cont inu o us
Slo ughin g
butlf1g wastew at er ove r activa ted Not m o re than 5 min 15 to 60 s (co ntinu o u s) Not m o re than 15 s
Do sing in te r vals
bio till c r (courtesroj lI'epl u/le M icro- (genera ll y inl e rmitt e nt ) (continuou s)
floc. fll c.) . Usua ll y rldl y nitrifi ed Pa rt ia lly n itrified Nilrified at low loa ding s
Effl uen t

h r Man y fac tors affect the o perati o n of tricklin g tilt e rs .. the .mos t imp o rt ant be ing
So urc e: F ro m Met calf & Edd y. In c. [ 5-36]

J.:....! / fl ow rate s, and )emp.eLat.ULe.oJ ambien t a ir.

f\ high o rganic loading rate res ult s in,a rap id gr ow t h uf bioma ss. Exce ss ive g ro wth Th e bi o m ass-wa ter-a ir int erfa ces mak e trickling filters extremely sensitive
t Illay rcs ult l n plu gging o f pore s a nd fl ood in g of po rt io ns o rth e medium . to tempera tur e va riati o ns. Effluent qu a lity is thu s likel y to show dr as tic seasonal
'll' In cre a sing d he lps to kee p th e cha nges. du e primarily to c han ges in ambient air temper a ture. Re la tive tempera-
'tC bed o pen. Ra ng es o f hydraulic an o rg an ic loacli ng rate s for lrick lll1g rllte rs are ture s o f th e was tewa ter and th e a ir a lso determine the direction of air flow through
sho wn in Tabl e 5-8. The se load ing rat es limit th e d e plh n f conve nti o nal tri cklin g the medium. Coo l wa ter a bso rb s heat from the air. and th e coo led air falls toward
tilter s 10 abo ut 2 m becau se o f head loss th ro ll g h th e rando ml y packed medillm. the bo tt o m o f the fi lter in a cocu rr en t fashi o n with the water. Co n verse ly, warm
water- he'at s the a ir, ca us ing it to rise throu g h the underdrain and up through the
medium . At te mp era tur e differential s o f less than about 3 to 4°C, rel a tivel y little
air move m e nt re sult s, and sta gnant co ndition s preve nt goo d ventilation . Extreme
co ld may result in ic ing a nd d es tru cti o n o f the bio film.
Histo rically , tr ick lin g tilter s have pl ayed a n imp o rt a nt role in was tewater
treatment. Th e ir s implicit y and low o perating co st hav e made them a I) aHracti've
opti o n for sma ll co mmuniti es in wa rmer clim a te s. However, modern effluent
sta nd ards th a t d ema nd hi gh-qu a lit y e ffluenl b n a co ns istent ba sis m ak e the use of
the c lass ica l tri c kling fi lter que stionab le. Alth oug h multistage , hi gh-rat e filter s
can be de s igned to me et m os t secondary e ffluent sta nd a rd s. recent adaptations of
the bas ic pr ocess. d esc rihed in th e fo llo win g sec tion s. have proven m o re economical
in the co nstru ct io n o f new faci liti es.

Bio-Towers .
Bio- towe rs are esse nti a ll y Li ghtw! ig ht,_ m od ul a r medi a
fo rmed by wel din g co r ruga ted an d fl at sheet s to g..ether Ifl a lte r-
v_erl ica l stackin with o ut th e exc es -
Fi g llTl' 5-25 'r ypical hlo ck ... u ... c-d in tri ckling filter uIH ..h::rdrain (c Oll rlt'SY oj " 'O IN I'o/hlfio ll Sive weig ht that wo uld res u lt fr o m s ton e o r slag med ia . Additi o na ll y, th e po rosity
( '(l l/lfol F( ,t!/'I{/l/Ol/)
 260 WATER
ENG I NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREA TME N T AND D ISPOSAL 261

and regular shapes provided by this medium overcome the head los s problem en- Tahle 5-9 Properties of trickling filter media
countered in randomly packed reactor s. Modules of thi s medium similar to that
Specific
shown in Fig. 5-26b may be stacked to height s of up to 12 m to provide a large !\rIass/ urlll surface Void
volume in a relatively small containment structure. W oode n lathes in alternating volume. area, space.
patterns , as shown in Fig . 5-26c, are so metimes used instead of a plastic medium. Medium Nominal si7e. mill kg / m' m2jm 3 percent
The pertinent characteristics of these media are given in Table 5-9.
Application of wastewater may be by a rotating distributor similar to that used River rock
S·mall 2S ·65 12'0 - 14"0 55-70 40- 50
in a trickling filter if the surface configuration of the bio-tower is round. Most often, 800- 1000 40- 50 50- 60
Large 100- 120
application nozzles are stationary. with water being spra yed over the medium from Blast-furnace slag
a pipe grid as shown in Fig. 5-27. Underdrain systems are similar to those for Sl11all :50 90()· 1200 40- 50
trickling filters but must be designed (or higher flow rates. Large 75- 125 800· 1000 45- 60 50- 60
Plast ic
COllvt:ntional 000 x 600 x 1200' :10·· I OU 80- 100 94- 97
High ·s pecific surface 600 x 600 x 1200' 3D-IOO 100- 200 94- 97
Redwo od 12nO x 1200 x 500' 150- 175 40- 50 70- 80

* SlIt.: o f module uf medillm .

SOli,.,,· Fn,,]] Metcalf & Ed,h. In t. [5·.<6J

Inlluent

Eflluent
Secondary
clarifier
I Alternate recycle
I
............ .......... ·····1··
Secondary sludge I
1--- ---------------""
1
1 Eflluent recycle
t
Sludge
disposal
(a)

-.
(b) (el
Figure 5-26 Bio·tower system: I l l) lliagr;trllmalic , ke tch: (I,) m od ule o f plastic mediu m (COUrlcS\" o(rhe
AlulIlers Corp.): Ie) wt)pd billtn('dia /t'f)lIffl'SY Inc.). . .
 262 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATE R TR EATMEN T AND DISPOSAL 263

Bio-towers a re operated in a fas hi o n s imilar to high-rate trickling filter s. where Sa is the BOD s o f the mi xture o f raw and recycled mixture applied to the
The di s per sion cha ra c ter is tic s o f the pla s tic modul es are les s effect ive than with medium
rand om packing, and the hydraulic flow rate must be mamtained at a hig h leve l to
en s ure that a ll s urf aces are wetted thro 1ughout th e entir e depth. Dir ec t recirculation s = So + RS e (5-28)
a 1+R
of 1 to 3 tim es the inflow is com monly pr ac ti ce d. The ,diluted sub strat e res ult s in
respiration thLO.ugh .ou.t mo s t o f th e dept h o f th e tower. Ca r bon-
1nd R is ratio of the recy cled fl o w to the influent flow .
aceous BOD is ge ner a lly sa tisfied in the upp er reaches of the medium. If th e
Th e de sign of bio- lOwer s is illu stra ted by the following example.
ca rb on co nt e nt o f the wastewater falls below a bo ut 20 mg / L, nitrif yin g bact eria
bec o me compet iti ve a nd ammo nia is co n verted to nitr a te. A we ll-o perated bi o-
Example 5-5 : Designing a bio-to\Ver A bio-tower co nipo 'sedor a modular pla stic medium

r
tower sh o uld be able to produce a nitrified effluent.
is to be used as th e seco ndar y-treatment co mpon e nt in a municip a l wastewater tr ea tm en t
Bio- towe rs have several advantage s over c lass ica l tricklin g filt ers. The poros it y . pl a nt. rl ow fr o m the primary cla rifi er is 20,000 m 3 j d with a BOD of 150 mg j L. Pil ot -plant
a nd nature o f the packing allow g reat er loa din g ra tes a nd \d rtuall y el iminat e a na lys is ha s es tabli she d a tr ea tabilit y.co nsta nt o f 0.055 min - 1 fo r the sys tem a t 20°C,
'r' plugging prob lem s. Incr ease d ventilation m i{lim izes odor probl e ms und er m ;s t and th e n racto r ca n be ta ken as 0.5. Two tower s a re to be used , each with a squar e s urra ce
o peratin g cond iti o ns. The co mp ac t na tur e ot the reac tor a llows for eco no mi ca l and sepa rated by 3 common w,i ll Th e medium is to have a d e pth o f 6.5 m , and th e re-
h ousi ng fo r opera ti o n in severe climate s. Di sad vantages includ e a re la ti ve ly ci rculati o n ratio is to be 2 to 1 during ave rage tlow periods. Determine the dim ens ions o f
hi gh pumping cost necess itated by the larg e recyc le requirement a nd th e head loss th e unit s required to pr o du ce an efflu ent with a soluble BOD , or Minimum
thr o ugh the deep bed. te mp e rature is expected to be 25°C. r,....,
De sign o f bio-towers is usually based on formu las deve lo ped for tri c kling -----
filter s, with allowances being made fo r medium characteri sti cs. The most com m on ly SOL UTION
used fo rmul a was propo sed by Eckenfelder [5 -20J a nd is of the form
I. Th e Infiu e nt concentrat ion o j' BOD s is determined from Eq. (5-28).
Se = e - kD1Q" (5-25)
So 150 + 2 x 10
S = ----- = 56.7 mg/ L
where Se = e ffluent sub st ra te concentration, BOD s, mg/ L " I + 2
So = influent s ub strate conce ntrati o n, BOD s, m g/ L
2. Th e tr eatabilit y co ns tant mu st be adj usted ror te mperature [Eq . (5-26)].
D = depth o f the medium , m .
Q = h ydr a ulic loading rate, m 3 1m2 • min k ,; = k,0( 1.035)25- 20
k = tre a ta bilit y co n stant relatin g to th e wa stewater and th e med ium
= 005 5(I03W
char ac teri s tics, min - 1
= 0.065 min - 1
n = coe fficie nt relating to the medium c ha rac ter istics
Th e va lues o f th e tr ea tability co n sta nt k range fr om 0.01 to 0.1. A ve ra ge va lues 3. 10he loadi ng ral e is ro und by so lving Eq . (5-27 ) ro r Q.
fo r municipal wa s te o n modular pra siic media are around 0.06 a t 20°C. [ 5-23J 10 e-0065Xh.S /QO.,
Co rre cti o n fo r ot he r temperatures can be m a d e by adju s tin g th e tr eatabilit y fac to r 5'07 =
a s fo llows [ 5-19] I

(5-26) 10 10
c - (I + 2) = (' - 0.41!Q"' + __ (2)(' - 0.42/QO. ,
)67 56.7
Tr ea tab ilit y fact ors s ho uld be d etermined fr om pilot-pl a nt anal ys is o f was te-
water and se lected m edium. Th e coefficient n fo r ' m odu lar pla stiC media can be 0.53 = 1.35('- 0 .4 2: QO '

ta k en as 0.5 with o ut s ig nifi ca nt er ro r. [5-6J I

0.39 = ('- 0.4 2/ Q O. .'
Th e above fo rmula d oes not account for recirculation o f was tewater. Bec au se
bi o- towers a lm os t uni ve rsally e mpl oy recirculati o n_ Eq. (5-25) mu st be mo dified 094 = 042 /Qo ;
as fo llow s :
(lo s = 045
Sc I' - kDI Q"
(5-27 )
Sa (I + R) Q = 0.20 1ll 3, m 2 . mtn
 I;:"'JGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEW,\ TER rREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 265
264 WATER

Rotating biological con t actors

4. The surface area of eac h unit is determined as follows:
1d 3
20.000m 3 /d x . = 13.9m / min Inlluent Effluent
1440 m ill

13.9 m 3 / min
. = 34.8111'
2 x 0.2 m 3; m 2 . Illin
L _________
Each unit is squa re. so dimensions are
L= W = (34.8 m ') 1' 2 = 5.89 m. say 6 J11
Sludge
wask
Eac h unit is 6.0 J11 x 6.0 m x 6.5 m deep'. The system is shown schemalica ll y in Ihe
(a)
accompanying ske tch.

Effluent relurn

Bio- tower
#1
o

InOuent 6.0 m Effluen l

Bio- tow e r
#2
E
o
I
I
I
I
I
I I
L--------T--------J
I
-. +
Sludge
(b)

F;gur c S-2l! Rotating biological conlactor ,ystc m . (0) diagram "r Ihe rotallng biological contactor
systenl: (h) multiple instalh1tion covers on units In hackgr o llndJ (/"1010 ulllflesy 0/ IVolker
Proc/;'ssf,\: Corp.).

Rotating Biologic al Contactors

Th e rotating biolog ical co nt actor (RBC) reactor is a unique ad'U1tation of the
att ac hed-growth. pLOcess. Med ia in the form of larg e. flat disks mounted on a
shaft are rotat ed thr o ugh specially con toured tanks in which was te-
water flows on a con tinu ous basis. Th e system is shown in Fig. 5-28.
. The medium cons ists of plast ic shee ts ranging from 2 4 m..:li diame ter and
up to mm thick. Th in ner material -s can be used by sa nd wiching a corr uga ted
sheet between two tlat disks and welding them together as a unit. Spacing between
fl at disks is ap proximately 30 to 40 mm.-The disks ai·e mounted th rough th e cent er
on a steel shaft in widths L!J2. to g m. Ea;;h sha ftful or medi um . along with its t<lnks
and rotat ing Jevice. becomes a reactor module. Seve ral modu les ma y be arranged
in paralle l and / or in series to meet the tlow and treatment requirement s.
The disks are subm erged in [he wastew<lter to abou t 40 pcrcent of[ ileir diameter
;Jnd are rotated by power supplied to the shaft. ApproxiITI<ltcly 95 percent of the
surface area is thu s alter nate ly immerscd in the wastewa ter anci then exposed to
thc atmosphere abol 'c the liquid. ){otational speed uf the unit r3nges fi·o Ill I to
_2 r: min and must be sufticicntto prp" ide the hydraulic·shcar nccessary slo ugh-
ing ,mel tn mai ntain enoug h turhulence [ 0 keep [hl' su l·ilL; III suspe nsion as t.he
WastcIV;![.::rpa sses through the tank
M icro()rgan isms grow ing on the med iUlll 'li rLlce: rcnlll le !" I()d from the \\·<lste-
\Ia ter and oxygen from the air tn slI st<lin their Illetah,llic prncesses Growth and
sloughing or the biofilm occur o n : 1 cc> ntinul )[ls ,IS desc ribed Thick-
ness or thc binlilm Illa) reach .2 :, 1 4 III Ill. 11I1 the \laSlel\·atcl- strength
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR W ASTEWATE R TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 267
266 WATER

and the spee d of tbe dis k. Since the biofi lm is oxygena ted exte rnally
from th e was tewat er. anaerobic co nd itions may deve lop in the liqu id . Pr ov isio n
for ilir injectio n nea r th e bott om of the tank . is usuall y prov id ed when multipl e
mod ules in series are used. 0.9
U nd er no rm a l operating conditions. carbonaceous sub stra te is removed in
the initia l stage s of th e RBC. Carbon co nvers ion be completed in the first 0
sta ge of a se ries of modules. with nitrificatlun being comp leted after the fifth
stage. [5-5 IJ As in th e pmc:.ess. proceeds o nl y after carbo n
"
c:
.9
0.8

·U
concent ratio ns have bee n substantiall\" recluced. Mos t dc si!!.ns of I{ HC svs tems wi ll 0.7
include a four o r fi\e mZJdules in series to oblain of the C
u
wa stewater.
Th e RBC system is a rela ti vely new prllCess for was tewater treatme nt. and 0.6
expe rience with full-sca le app lication s is Illnitcd. The pro cess appears to be well
Figure 5-30 Temperatur e co rr ection
suit ed to the tr ea tment of mun icipal wa stewater . however. O ne modu le of 3.7 m in
__ __ L--L __ for toading curves in Fig. 5-29.
diamete r by 7.6 m lo ng con ta in s app roxilllatel y 10.000 m ' of surface area for bio- 35 40 45 50 55 60 Muttipt y toading rate by co rrec tion
fi lm grow th. This large alllo unt of bioma ss permi ts short co ntact time. main ta ins a fac tors (courtesy oj Autotr ol Corp .).
T empe ratur e, of
stable sys tem under variab le load ing. and sho ultl roduc lt meeting
seco ndary- tre a tment standard s. Recir cu lat ing el uent throu gh the reactor is not
Disadvan tages of the system include a lac k of do cumented o per a ting ex-
necessa ry. T he slo ughed bio mass I S relat ively den se and se t! ies we ll in t he seco nd ary
perience . high cap ital cos t. a nd a se nsi tivity to temperature. Covers mu st be
·clar ifier. Ot her ad van tages inc lude low power requiremenl <Ind simp le ope ratin g
provided to pr otec t th e media fro m da mage by the elements and from excessive
procedures. A 40-kW mo to r is sufficient tll turn the 3.7- by 7.6-m unit prev io usly
algal grow th s. Adeq uate ho using also he lps to minimize temp erature problems in
de sc ribed . Powerin g th e system by compressed ai r is e\ 'en more economica l and
colder climate s.
ha s th e added benefit of aerating the wastewater. Design of a n RBC unit is based on hydraulic loading rate s. Graphs showing
relatio nsh ips betwee n load ing rate s and efficiency similar to th e grap h shown in Fig.
tnflu e nl sut ubl e BOD , rng/ L 5-29 can be obtained from manufa ctur ers for specific media and vario us was te-
water strength s. Required surface area is then tran slated into the number and size
of the module s necessary. Temperature corrections can then be made using Fig.
5-30. The des ign of a n RBC syst em is illu strated in Examp le 5-6. It sho uld be
emphasi zed that final des ign of an RBC system sho uld be based on loa ding rates
j'
30 obtained fro m pilo t-p lan t modeling as op posed to genera lized figures such as
...J 40 20
E' those shown in Fi gs. 5-29 a nd 5-30.
""
E ci
0
isco 30 co 15
25
Example 5-6: Designing a rotating biological contactor Determine the surface area
:c quired for an RBC syslem to treat the wastewater described in Example 5-5.
-=:
s; to
;:: SOLUTION
c:
10 w.: .1. Enter Fig. 5.29 with:
Influent BOD = 150 mg/L
Effluent soluble !:lOD = to mg/L
o 0
240 320 360 The hydraulic loading rate is found to be 0.05 m3 /m2 . d.
2. Disk a rea is
fh drJutlc Il,,,dlllg rat e . I. d .

Fig ure 5-29 and fat e relatI onshIp I"I..)J Bl()· Surf medium trl.:allllg Illunicipal wa ste-
water (C O llrlt 'S)" o( Ali lOfro/ ( ·()rp. '
 ENG I N EERED SYSTEMS FOR WAStEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 269
268 WA T ER

3. Ass umin g a 7.6-m s hafl for a 3.7-lll-dia meler d isk with a 10 lal s urface arca of I x 10
m 1 . 40 modu les in para llel wi ll be req ui red to prov ide si ngle-stage treatmen t of the
4
o Clarified zone zone

wastewa te r. For nit rifical ion. a maximum of five sla ges (200 modu les) will be requ ired.
R;il
. . '.'\. Uniform seli ling zone
L&J lone Co)

5-1 4 SEC ON D A RY CLA RIF tOO

Th e bio mass ge nerated by seco nd::ny tr ea tm ent repr esent s a substa nti a l o rga nic
load and m ust be remove d to mee t acce pt a ble effluent sta nda rds. In po nd s a nd
lagoo ns,. thi s remova l is accomp lished by se ttlin g within the reac to r. In ac ti va ted-
75
slud ge a nd att ac hed -cultur e systems. so lids are remove d in seco nda ry clar ifiers.
Beca use the cha rac ter istics of bio logical so lids In suspend ed a nd a ttac hed c ultu re
sys tems a re significa ntl y different. the de sign and opera tion of seco ndary cla rifiers
in these system s a re a lso d ifferent.
50

Activated-S ludge Clarifiy s

Seco ndar y cla rifiers fo r ac ti va ted sludge must acco mp lish two objec tives. Fir st.
t hey mu st pr od uce an effluent sutflcien t Iy cla ri fied to mee t discharge sta ndard s.
Seco nd ly. they mu st co nce ntr a tc the bio logica l so lids to min im ize thc q uantity
o f slud ge that mu st be ha ndled. Because bo th fun ctio ns are criti ca l to s uccess ful
operatio n, seco nda ry cla rifiers must be des igned as a n int egra l pa rt of a n ac ti vated-
slud ge system. o
Th e bio logica l so lids in ac ti vated sludge are f"loccukn t in natu re and, a t con-
\ .-'....,
ce nt ra tions less th a n abou t 1000 mg/ L. settle as a ty pe-2 suspensio n. Mos t bio- Tim e
log ica l reac tor s. howeve r. o pera te a t co ncen tr a tio ns in excess o f" 1000 mg/ L. a nd
th ickenin g in the seco nd a ry c la rifier res ult s II I eve n grea ter co ncent ra tions. A Figure 5-3 1 Zone :-'ClliJllg .

.. . . . . .. .. . ' c-oncent rat ed'susfTPl1srOlrwm;' defi'ned' jii S'ec: 4-4 as a suspe nsio n In whic h pa rt icles
ar e close en o ug h toge th er so tha t t heir veloc ity fields ove rla p with th ose of ne igh-
bor ing pa rt icles a nc! a s ignifican t upward disp lacement of wa ter occ urs as pa rti cles
se tt le. In co nce ntrat ed suspensio ns. these a nd o th er fac to rs ac t to preve nt inde-
pend ent settli ng. Gr o up s of pa rticles se ttl e a t th e sa me ra te. rega rdl ess of size
d ifle rences of t he indi vidu a l pa rt icles. The co llec ti ve \'eloc it y of pa rt icles dc pends
o n se vera l variabl es , t he mos t obv io us of whic h is th e co ncentr a ti on of th e sus-
pension. th e veloc it y be ing in verse ly pro poni o na lt o th e conce ntr atio n.
In seco nd a ry c la rifiers. t he solid conce nt ra t ion must be inc reased fro m the
co ncentr atio n of th e reac to r X to t he co nce nt ra t io n of th e cla rifier un de rflow Xu·
Se tt ling veloc ities cha nge corresponding ly. resul ting in zo nes wit h difle ren t se ttling
charac teristics. T his phenomenon. known as zone s<,{{ling . ca n he Illustra ted by a
simp le ba tch ana lys is in a co lum n. de scribed below .
Ba tch ana lysis If a colum n IS filled with suspension and al lowed
to settle qui escentl y, the co nt ent s will soo n ciivid e,int o zo nes as show n in Fig. 5-3 1.
In zone B, t he in itia l concen tr at lun Co is pr eser\"ecl a nd sctt les a t a un iform ve loc ity
cha rac teristic of that conce nt ra ti o n. Th:: resu lting clarificd zo ne. zo ne A, is
le ngt hened a t this sa me ve loc it y
Below th e uni fo rm ve loc ity zo ne. twO o ther Lt>nes deve lop_ As the par ticles a t
the bottolll come to rest o n the floo r of the cy linder. the pa rt icles Immed ia te ly
above L:t1 1 on top of them. form lllg'a zo ne In which pm tic les a re m ec hanica lly
supported frolil belml ·. T his zone. I:lbe lcd lOn.: D In F ig. 5-31. is ca lled the CO /11-
pressi;JI/ zOll e. and particle s In zo nc halt: onl) a slight veloci ty I'"csuiting from
consolidaiion. .
The a rea between zo ne [) and zo ne H cll ntain s a ClltlCelltratiotl gradien t
ranging from slightly gl-e;lter-than Co .l ll St beloll Zllne B tll sligh tly less than th e
concentration ;It the lup o f the com pl-ession Zllnc. Co llectil 'e \'cloc ities of particl es
in Wile C. appropri a tel) ca lled thl' ,h{("k(,lIilI.lI :()II<" . llccre; l,e III pr,')portion to thi s
concentration gradient.
;\s time pro gl·esses. the intcrLlc es betlleen the zones mu\e re latil 'e to eac h
other Rekr rlne a£;lin tu Fil:. 5-3 1. the C [) interf;llT nlllyes upward as parti cles
frOlll C d;OI; Int(l zun: D. /\ s iLlng' ;IS the cllnccn t r; ltin n gradien t in zone C-
remain s unchan£cd . the Width "I' tlw; Z(lil e Ililist als" remain cllnqant. :lIld Sl' the
H- C IIHcrface dISplaced lIpw;lrd <It the same Jeh,elt\ :IS thc C · D interfac e.
I3cc<lllsc the !\ . 1\ Illtcrf;ICe 1l111ICS dml 'nll;l rd :It the lInifmll1 settling I'eloci t)

l
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 271
270 WATER

Q,. X,

(Q + Q,) X,

c}
C2

L ____ Time
('I

Figure 5-32 Relationship between initial concentralion alld settling curves.

of particles in the initial concentration, zone B is eroded from both top and bottom
until itbecomes nonexistent (1 = I) in Fig. 5-3 I). After this time, the newly created
A- C interface settles at a decreasing rate as the interfacial solids concentration
Figure 5-33 Zone seltling in secondary clarifier. (AdapledJrom Vesilind [5-55].)
increases successively from Co Uust at the disappearance of zone B) to the con-
centration of the top layer of the compression zone just as zone C also disappears
(1 = 15). The A-D interface thus formed will subside at a slow, uniform rate as and Clevenger [5-12J and later modified by Yoshioka et a!. [5-56J, DiCk and
the solids consolidate under their own weight. releasing some of the interstitial EWll1g [5-16], Dick [5-15], and Dick and Young [5-17]. Solids flux is defined as
water to the clarified zone above. the mass of solids per unit time passing through a unit area perpendicular to the
All of the interfaces involving the clarified zone should be readily visible if the direction of flow. In secondary clarifiers, it is the product of tile solids conceritration
container used in the analysis is transparent. Other interfaces (B-C, C- D) will not , ····(mass!vo·lmne) times the velocity (length/time). The preferred units are kilograms
oevisibJe·oecai.ise coricentrilioli clialiges at' t1-iese'
pClin is' 'sfiglit' the' sei iiJiig' per cubic meter (kg/m3) times meter per hour (m/hr), or kilograms per square
characteristics of activated sludge can be graphed by recording the visible inter- meter per hour (kg / m2 . h). .
facial height at succeeding time intervals. A plot of the interfacial height as a The downward velocity of solids in a secondary clarifier has two components:
function of time, similar to that superimposed on Fig. 5-31, can then be drawn. (I) the transport velocity due to the withdrawal of sludge, and (2) the gravity.
The effect of varying the initial concentration of the activated sludge is illustrated scttllllg of the solids relative to the water. The transport velocitv is a functiOn of
by the family of curves shown in Fig. 5-32. the underflow rate and the area of the tank. - .
Continuous-flow analysis The zone settling principles just described for batch (5-29)
analysis are also applicable, within limits, to continuous-flow secondary clarifiers.
.An "idealized" secondary clarifier is shown in fig. 5-33, with the appropriate and the resulting solids flux for a clarifier operating at a given underfl;w rate is a
zones labeled. If steady-state conditions are imposed with respect to flow rate and linear function of the solids concentration.
suspended-solids concentration for both the influent and the undertlow, all of
the zone will be maintained at static levels. Because the A - B interface is stationary, G" = 1'"X i = (Q.,/A)Xi (5-30)
water in the clarified zone rises toward the overflow at a rate equal to the collective
whereG u is the soiids flux at the particular depth where the solids concentration
settling velocity of the Co concentratio.n, thus satisfying the clarification function
IS Xi ThiS relationship is shown graphically in fig. 5-34.
of the secondary clarifier. The sobds nux due to gravity settling is defined by
The thickening function is accomplished via the concentration gradient in the
thickening and compression zones and is more difficult to determine. The thicken-
ing function c<ln be found by uSing the solids nux method flrst proposed by Coe
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 273
272 WATER

where Vg is the settling velocity of solids at Xi concentrations. As the solids con-

centrations increase into the thickening zone, the gravity settling velocity decreases.
)nIl1ostconcentratedsuspensions, the concentration-velocity product will increase Gravity flux
initially , because the concentration increase is more rapid than the velocity de- '"
::l
A
crease in the upper part of the thickening zone. As the solids approach the com-
"0
pression zone, the gravity settling velocity becomes insignificant and the con- (/)

centration-velocity product approaches zero. The total solids flux is the su m o f the
underflow transport and 'gravity flux B
XL
(5-32)
So lid s concentration Solids concentration

and is limited by a minimum value resldting from p'rogressive gravity thickening. (a) (b)

't For a given underflow rate, the limiting gravity flux also determines the underflow
concentration Xu' as shown in Fig. 5-34.
Yoshioka et al. [5-56J showed that slight modifications to the graphical
approach of Fig. 5-34 give greater flexibility for matching underflow concentra-
1"u)
tions to their associated limiting flux rates . As shown in Fig. 5-350. a line beglI1ning
at the de s ired underflow concentration X" and drawn ta ngent to the gravity flux Cu
curve intersects the solids flux ordinate at the limiting flux rate . The Yoshioka ><
method is verified by comparing similar triangles in Fig. 5-35b. The absolute value
of the slope of the tangent line is the underflow velocity. while the abscissa value at
c
the point of tangency is the limiting gravity flux concentration. The ordinate value if) c Lt
corresponding to the point of tangency is the gravity solids flux , while the inter-
GL - Gg , is the flux du e to the underflow transport. The relationship be-
tween underflow velocity. limiting solids concentration, .and limiting tlux rate is
readily demonstrated by this technique (Fig. 5-35c).

xu) Xu2
I
I
XL) Xl.2 XLI

Solids concenrration

..c c/. Underflow trallsport (e)

(p".X,)
Figure 5-35 Yoshioka's graphica l mel hod for jdelCrminillg solids flux. (a) Yoshioka's modification;
(b) verification of Yoshioka's modilicatioll. Notc ;si milarity of triangles ABO and ACO , (e) eITects
of underfiow ve loci ty 011 solids co nc entration. I

Secondary clarifier design Sec o ndary clartfiers mtlst bc' de signed for effl uent
clarification and solids thickening, hoth of which re late directly to the surface area.
To determil1e the rcquired surface area. an underflow concen'tration selected
and the overt-low rate alld limitin g solids flu x established or as sumed for the
particular activated sludge under consideration. Batch analysis similar to that
SoliJ : : ,.:oncen tr atiollx" mg / L previollsly described can he used to provide overflow rates and thickening charac-
Figure 5-34 Solids nux a fUllction \)1' :"t)lids COIlCelllralinll and uIlJert1o\\ " vcloclt: .
teristics, prmldcd ,amples Ill' activated sl ud ge arc available. A sing le
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 275
274 \VATER

te st at the ex pec ted concen tr ation Co is suffic ien t to establish th e over fl o w rate.
Th e str aig ht-lin e portion o f th e interfac e vs. time grap h es tab lis hes th e se ttlin g
ve locity o f th e initial concentra ti o n a nd thu s es tabli shes th e overflow rat e. Beca u se
it is not possibl e to d e termin e concentra ti o n -ve loci t y relat io nship s in th e thi c kenin g
zo ne , a serie s of tes ts, each a t different initial concen trati ons, is neccs sar y to
esta bli sh the so lid s tlux curve. Onl y th e str a ight-l ine portion o f each curv e is used
to ob tain th e ve lo city Vi relating to each co ncen t ration X i' The res ultin g so lids
flux is ViX i ·
Obtainin g a ppropriate s lud ge sa mpl es for b;ttch ana lys is is o ft e n diHi cult and
so metim es impo ssib le. In mo st cases the ac ti va ted- s lud ge reac tor that is to pr o-
duce th e suspension for the clarifier is al so ju st be ing d es igned. Beca use any va ltd
m o del mu st dupli ca te bo th t he design a nd ope ra tio n variables o f th e p ro p ose d
reactor as well as the charac ter istic s o f th e was tewa te r, it is unlik e ly th a t an ".
existin g prototype will be readil y ava ilab le for o btaining the sus pen sio n. Pil ot-
plant stud ies o f the reactor. co upled with batch se ttlin g analy sis, s ho uld Yie ld Figure 5-36 Secondary clarin e r with r a pid- sludg e -return sys tem (courte sy of FM C Corporation,
usa ble data, provided all th e variable s in the wa s tewa ter-reactor sys tem have bee n ,\tIofer ia! Syslerns Dil :ision).

modeled co rre c tl y.
Wh e re a n a lytical data are n o t a vai lab le. the engin ee r Illus t re ly o n litera tur e
va lue s for design data . Value s w hich have pr oved success ful in so me sys te ms are
pre sented in T a ble 5-10. It sho uld be empha s ized. h oweve r. th a t ca reful con-
s id erati o n of reactor a nd wa stewate r c harac teris t ics sho uld he mad e before
selectin g ge ne ral empir ica l data fo r d es ig n. .' . co nditi o ns, while normal underflow rates range from 20 to 40 percent o f the wa ste-
Becau se it is unlik e ly that anyone surfac e area wil l exact ly sa tIsfy both the
cl a rificat io n a nd thick enin g fun c tion s, bo th areas ar e calc ulat ed and th e mor e
co nse r va tiv e o f th e two is use d , Alth o u gh ne ith er des ign inco rp o rate s d epth , th e
e ngineer should be awa re th aI ? ep th iSinlp orl anISuffi .cie.lll,clepth
'st'ciiage' o'f soliJ s due to norm a l fluctuatton s o ( flow and so lid s
loa ding. Typi c al d ep th s o f seco ndar y c larifier s ra nge fr o m 3 to 5 m.
The phy sical units use d fo r seco nd ary c la rifi cation are quit e similar in appear-
ance to th ose used in pot ab le wa te r sys te ms (Sec . 4-5) and fo r c larifi ca ti o n
in wastewater tre a tment (Sec . 5-8). Din 'erence s in so lid s cha ra c te ristics demand
so mewh a t different me c hani s m s. Slu dge sh o uld be re move d as
ra pidly as pos s ible to en sur e th a t th e hi o log ic;ti so lid s are still viab le up o n th eir
return to the aeration unit. A rapi d sludge return also prevent s anaerobic con-
ditions from deve lop ing, with 'subsequent slud ge fl otat ion due to the release of
gases. The sys tem mu st be capab le of handling a wide ra nge of flow .
Underflow rat es may exceed 100 percent of the wastewater flow under upset
wa ter fl ow.
A typica l c irc ular-t a nk seco ndar y clarifier with rapid-sludge-return equipment
is show n in Fig . 5-36. The s lud ge enter s the " V ".s ections o f the sc ra per as it rotates
and is lifted ve rtically through the sludge-ret urn pipes to a co mm o n conduit
thr o ug h w hich it is remo ved fr o m the ta nk. Sludge is thu s rem oved from the entire
Ooo r o f the tank at each revolution o f the scraper.
Ear ly practice ha s tended towa rd the use o f circ ular tank s, although the advent
of ra pid -s lud ge-re mo val mechani s ms for rectangular tanks ha s resu lted in a n
increa se in th e ir use. Ph ys ical parame ters asso ciated wi th th e design o f secondary
cbriliers a re g ive n in Tabl e 5- 10. The design of sec ondary c larifier s is illustrated in
Exampl e 5-7.

Table 5-10 Design data fo r clarifiers for activated-sludge systems [xample 5-7: De signing a secondar) ' clarilier,for acti,.ated sludge !\ column was
rUIlto deter mine the sett ling of an activated- sludg e sllspension . Th e results
On:rtlo\\ IClIC. Loa ding . of the analysis a re show n in the lable be low.
Ill
J m- d kgem' h
------- D epl h,
T ype o r Irealmcnl A\"t!ragc Pca\.. ,\ \crage . I'eak m 5200 6500 8200
('one M LSS. mg! L 1400 2200 31)00 3700 4500
_ I

Sell ling fo ll owi ng ai r -ac ti vated 3.0 1.85 1.21 0. 76 0.45 0.28 0. 13 0.089-
slud ge (excluding ex tended
40 -l X , I) 0.0 9.0 3.5 ·:-
aera li o n)
Sc.:tlling rl) lI owing aerali01l 16 2.) 1.0 5.0 7.0 1.5--5 3
T he influent co nce ntr ation of MLSS is 3000 mg/ L and the no", rate is 8000 m jd De ter-
mine the size of the clarifier th ai wi ll thi cken the so lids to 10.000 mg ,L
Sour(,e : !\(bpteci [",m M el('olr & Eddy. I nc [5-.16]
Jlt ,
)
276 WATER
ENG INEERED FOR \VASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 277

bl )
SOLUTION 5, Check clarification function:

It \ 1, Calculate the solids flux from the above data:

G = MLSS(kg / m 3 ) x velocity (m / h)

'il.
,l1i;
• '114
I
Cone mg/ L ' 1400 2200 3000 3700 4500 5200 6500 8200
At 3000 mg/ L the settlin g veloc it y o f the interface is 1.21 m/ h .

333 111 3 :h
--------- = 275111-
,
1,2 1 mi h
I{i

-
G kg/m2 , h 4,20 4,07 3.63 2.8 2,03 1.46 0,9 0,73
Beca use 275 m' < 416.7 m' , th e thi ckening function govems the d es ign,

2, Plot solids flux vs, MLSS concentration as shown in 'the accompany ing figure , Draw

III a line from the desired underflow concentration, 10,000 mg / L tangent to the curve
and intersecting the ordinate, The value of G at the 2.4 kg/ m ' 'h , is the
Attached-Culture Systems Clarifier
Design of seco ndary clarifiers for attached-cu ltur e systems is similar to that for
limiting flux rate and governs the thickening function, .
primar y clarifiers. The clarificati o n function is the imp ortant parameter becau se
sludge thickening is not a fa ctor In fa cL settling characteristics of the sloughed
Ilr, biofllm, o r hUrJ'IIIS as it IS often called, approach those of 'discrete particl es.

,'l',[-,
4 Over flow rates from 25 to 33 m 3 / m 2 ,d co mmonly used, with a maximum of
50 m 3 j m 2 ,d, [ 5-50J No slud ge is recycled to th e reactor, so the underflow is
negligible com par ed to the overflow Solids are oft en pumped to the prim ary
- 'it'"" .c 3
cIa-riller where they are concentrated along with the raw wastewater solids for
ultimate disposal.
)
The total quantity of solids generated by attached-culture systems is gene r ally
2
less than that generated by suspended-culture proce sses becau se of the endo-
genous nature of the biomass near the media. So lids production can be expected
. !li ' to range from 0,2 to 0.5 kg/kg BOD 5 removed from the liquid, Well- settled , , . .. . ,., ...
yi ..................................·········· ····· sludges ran ge from 10 to 20 perc ent so lids, [5 -50J Liquid recirculation through
high-rate trickling tilters and bio-towers may increase the required size of the
secondary clarifier sub stantlall v, Thi S added volume may be avoided w.ith modular

ltt 2 4 6
Concentration, gi l
8 10
plastic media by dir ec t recircu'latiQn fro m the effluent of the reac tor
secondary dariticr.
to (he

til
I I
3, Determine total so lid s loading to the clarifi er: 5-15 DlSINFECTlON OF EFFLUENTS
d 3.0 kg
8000 m 3 id x --- x 1000 kg / h The disinfection of wastewa ter IS usually require d where portions of the effluent
ltl.'
,r , 24 h m3
may co me in contact with human s, Thc proces ses a va ilable fo r disinfecting was te-
4, Determine the surface area of the clarifier. water etl1ucnts are essen tiall y the same as tho se descr ibed in Chap, 4 for potable
f11 1000 kg/I]
-- ,--------
2.4 kg / h " min 2
= 4167 m-
'
., Watel', The presencc of Illuch gl:eater concentrations of suspend ed a nd disso lved
rr:aterial in the m:l)' result.in interferences not found in potable water.
Chemical oxid:t llts are JCllcr:t1ly cons idered the mo st effec ti ve disinfectant s, with
Assuming a circular shape req uired dos:t!!.cs bein!!. mLich hit! leI" Jail t lOse used for c lea ner wa ter. Chlorine
/4 ) 1, 2 is thc must C();llmnn disini'ecta ntC'i n usc_ even though it may co mbine with certain
Dia = \ ; 416 7 = 23 III
constitucnts in th e wastc\\atci ' {U producc haloi'orm compounds .

-\
278 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 279

Table 5-11 C hlorine dosa ges for va riolls wastewaters 5-16 SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS
Chlo rine dosage (mg / Ll lo
yie ld 0.2 mg l L free resid ua l
Th e quantity and nature o f slud ge depend s o n th e characteristics of the wa ste-
W aslewa le r Iype af ter 15-min contac t time wat er and on the nature a lld effic iencies of the tr ea tment processes. Prim a r y
settling rem o ves the se ttl eable fraction o f the raw was tewa ter so lid s, usua lly
Raw: 40 to 60 percent o f the in fluen t so lids. The quantity o f these so lid s. on a dry mass
Fresh 10 slale 6- 12
bas is, can be determined by the following equation. [5-25]
Se p lic 12- 25
Se llied Mp= x SS x Q (5-33)
Fresh 10 s lale 5- 10
Se pl ic 12- 40 where M p = ma ss of rrimary so lid s. kg/ d
Efflue nl c he m ica l p rec ipl la lion .,-6 = effic ienc y of primary clarifier
Trickling fi ller
SS = to ta l suspended so lid s in effluent , kg / m )
N o rm a l 3-5
Poor 5 10 Q = flow rate , m} Id
ACliva led slud ge Primary sludge con tai ns in o rganic so lid s as well as the coa rse r fract ion
No r mal 2·-4
o f th e o rgan ic colloids. It c o ntain s a sizab le fraction o f the influ ent BOD , will
Poo r 3- 8
Inl e rmill e nl s<lncl fille r become a na erobic within a few ho urs, a nd mu st be isolated to preve nt nuisance
No r mal I· 3 pro ble m s.
Poo r 3·5 So lid s escaping p rim ar y settlin g are ei th er so lubili zed o r beco me entrained in
the bio ma ss duri ng seco nd a ry tr eatme nt. Additional so lids are gene rated b y
SUI/rcc · Fr o m Ec ke n felde r . [5-19]
co nversi o n of d issolved o rga nics into ce llul ar material. Secondary slu dge is thu s
co mpo sed primarily of bio lo g ica l so lids, the qu a ntity o f which ca n be es timated
C hl o rin a tio n o f was tewat er eftlu ent s is ilcco mpli s hed in mu ch th e sa me mann er by th e equa ti o n
a s is the c hlo rination of po tab le wa ter. Lar ger d os age s are requir ed since am- M, = Y' X BOD s x Q (5-34)
m o niun; exe rt a c h lo rin e de mand
that m usf be m et be fo re a free res idual is o btain ed. The exac t amount o f c hl o r ine where iV/, = m ass of seco nd ary so lid s. kg /d .
........ . Y. =. biomass . co nv ers ion .f<lcto r. :· Jr-ac t.io [1. of . food . (BOD ·,) ·m c-0fpo rated·· ." ...... . ', .
necessa r y a lso-d epend s up o n wat e r te m er;lIure. co ntact tim e, a nd d eg ree o f kill
int o bi o ma ss, kg/ k g
nec essar y. Rang es of c hl ori nc ad dit ion necess a ry 10 rrovid e th e neede ree
BOD s = BOD s rem o ved by secondary treatment , kg/ m}
c hlorine in variou s was tewa te rs are give n in T ,Ihie 5- 11. Conta c t tim es o f a bo ut
30 min at a ve rag e Ao w, w ith a minimum o f 15 min fo r peak tlow. ar e Comm o n. Q = tl o w rate . m}jd'
The use o r c hl orine for di s inrecti o n o r wa s tewa ter eHlue nt s ha s co me und er Th e valu e o f y ' is a func.tio n o f bo th the bi o ma ss conver s ion factor [Y in Eq.
close sc ru tin y du e to th e hal o rorm-fol :mation pr o ble m. It is·quit e likc iy 'that 'o th er (5-5)] a lld th e phase o f th e grow th c urv e (Fig. 5- 14) a t which th e p a rti cu la r syste m
di s infcc tant s wil l be req ui reI.j o r th a t di s in recti o n practice s will b e linllt ed to s pec ia l ope rat es . More simply , it may be related to th e food-to-biomas s ratio a s shown in
cascs in th e fli tur e. Fig. 5-37. [5-25] .
Th e con s istenc y o f was tew a ter s lud ges varies with the source. -E nw a r y
slud ge is mo re g.rao!11nr in nalur. e../.haIL seconda ry s ludg.e-.and is gener.allY. illQre
Sludge Treatment and Dis posal co nce nt rated. C o nsistency o f sec o nd a ry slud ge is dependent o n tre a tment pr ocesses
; lll d is mo re vari a ble. So lid s rro m attach ed-gr o wth reactor s a re particulate
Wa stewa ter trea tm en t obj ecti ves are acc omp li s hed by cOllcen tr a ti ng impur ities in natur e and conso lid a te better than the lig ht , f1 00c ul ent so lids from suspeifded-
int o so lid fo rm and th en sepa ra tin g t ese so lid s rruill the bulk liquid . Thi s co n- culture system s. It is some tim es advantageou s to mix primary .and secondary
ce ntnW illLci so lids. re re rred to :1 S shl( . co ntai ns nl<lny o bjec tio nabl e mat e rial s slud ge to fa c ilitate further The solids conten t o f va ri o us sludge s an d
a nd mu s t be di s pose d o f pr o perl y. Slud ge ciisposa l raciliti es usua ll y rep rese nt 40 slu dge mixt u res is given in Table 5-1 2 on a ma ss-per-v o lume baSIS. With each
to 60 pe rcen t o r the co nstru c tion cos t o r was tc water -tn':,i1lllent r lan ts. ac co un t fo r percent so lid s corre spo nding to 10,000 mg / L.
as mu c h as 50 pe rcent o f th e o perat ing cos t. an d <t IT ,tlie cau se o f a d ispro po rt io na te Th e o rga nic co nten t of b o t h primary and secondary sludge is ab o ut 70 percent.
s ha re o r o pe rat ing d iffic ulti es. Si nct: th c spcci fic gra vity o r th ese o rganic s is o nl y slightl y g reat e r th a n I. the uni t
 280 WATER ENGINEERED SYSTD IS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DtSPOSAL 281

95 For a given solids-product ion rate. the volume of sludge varies inversely wi th
Ul
Ul
-l
o4 V Conventional
the sol id s content as shown in Eq. (5-35). Within the concentration range of waste-
waler sludges. increasing the so lid s content by only a minimum percentage resu lts
....
, '"
j;
'--'-
"0
C o. 3 J and
step aeration in drastic reductions in th e s ludge v9 lume. Because the size, and therefore cost, of

I
:l
o processes sludge-disposal facilities is a function of the volume of sludge to be hand le d,
0.
....
<1) considerable savings can be attained by volume reduction.
»
0.
o2
"0
II
0.1 5
Cl

0.10 / Extended
aeration
and
5-17 SLUDGE THICKENING

0.07 II biological
riltration
Sc\eral techniques are ,wailable for volume reduction. Mechanical method s such
as vac uum fiitGulOp and centrifugatic)n may be used where the s ludge is subse-
quently to be handled in a scmisolid state. These methods are commonly used
1
.-1.1_ precedtng s lud ge incineratton. Where furth e r biological treatment is int ended.
0.05
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 volume reduction by gr,l\itv lhickening flotation is common ractice.
In both case ::. th e sludge rcm: lIns in a liquid state.
Fraction or BOD converted to excess solids
I:.!vity thicker ' ar c \'cry similar in design and operation to the secondary
Figure 5-37 Generalized diagram or excess sludge production (Y' in Eq. 5-34) as a runction of rood·to- clarifiers use( in suspe nd eJ-gro\\'lh sys tem s The thickening function is the majo r
bIOmass ratlO. Actual quantities would vary rrom plant 10 plant. (From [5-25].)
design parameler. and tank s are gener7tll y deeper than secondary clarifiers to
p;-(wicle greater thickening capacity. A typical gravity thickener is shown in Fig.
mass of sludge containing less than about 10 percent solids can be assumed to be 5-38. The vert ical ,. picket s" on the scrape r cause a horizontal agitation which helps
equal to that of water without introducing significant error. The volume of wet to relea se water uapped in the Ilocculent str ucture of the sludge. and are commo n ly
sludge can therefore be approximated by the following equation:
used when suspe nded-cultur e syslem sludges are to be thickened.
v= M/ IOOO· S ( 5-35) A we ll-d eSign ed , well-operated gravity thickener should be able to, at lea st,
double the so lids cnntent or the sludge. thereby eliminating half the volume
where V = volume of sludge produced. m 3
j d....
"So!idscoriieliii;fl)riiiick(;nedsILldges:iiICiiig \vifli'c6Jl1monly used loading ra te s
i\.J = mass of dry solids. kg /d
for gravity thick ener s. are includ ed as part of Table 5-12. It should be no te d
S = solids content expressed as a decimal fraction that the design of gravity thick e ne rs should be based on the results of pilot-plant
1000 = density of water, kg/m3 analysis wherev'er possible. since success ful loading rates are highly dependent on
the nature o r the sludge.
Table 5-12 Typical solids conten'( of sludges

Sludge Solids loading

concentration, 0" ror grayity
thickeners,
Type or sludge Un thickened Thickened kg / m 1 d

Separate
Primary sludge 2.5-5.5 8 - 10 100 150
Trickling-tilter sludge 4-7 7- 9 40- 50
Actiyated sludge 0.5- 1.2 2.5 - 3"3 20-40
Pure-oxygen slucf¥c 0.8-3.0 2.5- 9 25 SO
Combined
Primary and trll'kilng-tllief sludge 3- 6 7·9 (,(j . IOU
Primary and n1l.) oitlcd-ilcralion 3-4 K. 3- I 1.6 60 · 100
Primary and air-aCli\"atcd sludge 2.o-4R 4 (, \I.n
5-38 g l;l VII) th i. . "!.:L"IH: r ( ( "t/llr1I ' \T of F"\/C Corporali on. !\/ o,er/a! Handlin!! Sy st e m s
Sui;rn-" Ffl)Jn Elid\ In ,' [5-36J D/ ruio ll " )
 282 W ATER ENG INEE R ED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TRE ATMENT AND DISPOSAL 283

T h icke ned
-
Skimm er mec han isJll
100 0 mL

750 mL
-'

Inn uent 50 0 mL
J;. ..
_ fe_e_d_l_in_e--r-.... • -r----i

Recycle d 250 mL
Mix ing
BOI tom sludge co llec lor suullatan t
Chem icals
Pressu re (a) (b) (e ) \
Air '-'"
cOil lro l Se il led ·
va lve No w supp ose tha t a ll o f the so lid s are a llo wed to settl e (b in fi gur e) a nd tha t th e liquid is
solid s
drawo ff decan ted (c in figur e) unt il th e lo ta l vo lum e is SOD mL. Th e new so li ds fr ac tion is
Che mica l Chemical
Press urt: S = IHfl OOOV
mix tan k feed Aux iliary rec ycle = 0.0 1 kg/ 1000 kg/m 3 x O.OOOS m
3
_. --.)
la nk Prt'ssur i/in g
pu mp conn ec ti o n
r um p ( primar y lank or = 0.0 2
plal1 l efn ue nl) Thu s, increas ing th e so lid s co nt ent by a fac tor o f 2 (in thi s ca se o nl y I per cen t) d ecrea s es
Figure 5-39 Typical di sso lved-a ir fl otat iol1 syslem for thicke ning activate d sludge . (F,.olll M etcalf & th e total vo lum e by a fa c to r o f 2.
Eddl', Inc. [5-36].l
Exam ple 5-9 : Reducing the volume by sludge thi ckeni ng A wa s tewa ter-tre a tm ent pl a nt
con s ists o f pri ma ry trea tm e'nt unit s fo llowed by a n acti vated- slud ge seco ndary sys te m .
As ca n be seen in T ab le 5- 12. waste act lva tec! sludge d ocs no t thicke n well T he p rim ary a nd sec o nda ry slud ges a re mix ed , th ickened in a gra vit y thickene r , and se nt
IT1 gra vity thi cke ners a nd loa di ng ra tes are lowc r th a n fo r o ther to fu rth e r treat m ent. A 's chematic o f th e system is show n belo w .
slud ge. Also. th e effec t iveness of gra vity thic keners fo r prima ry s lud ge is cI im in ished -- )

con siderab ly by mi xing wi th acti vat ed slud ge . T he light. fl occ ulent na tur e of Efnu ent
Innu en t
ac tiva ted sludge lend s itse lf q uite \\·cll to th ic kenin g by di sso lved air fl o tati o n.
howeve r. a nd the use bf the pr ocess ha s been inc reasing in rece nt yea rs
'In' dis so lved 'air ' flo ta tion : '3 'sma ll 'qu a ntit yo f\, 'ii rei': Us'll;t t1y 'seco nda ry eftluen t.
is subj ected to ae rati o n und er a press ur e of abhu t 40() k Pa (5R Ib/ in 2 ). Th is sup er-
sa tur ated liqui d is th en re lea sed near the bo tt om of a ta nk thr o ugh whic h the
slud ge is passed a t a tm os ph er ic press ure. T he ai r is released in the fo rm of very
sma ll bubbl es th a t a tt ac h them sel ves to. o r beco me entra p ped in. the sludge so lids,
fl oa tin g the so lids to th e surface . Th e thi c ken ed s lud ge is skimm ed o fT a t the to p of
the ta nk while th e liquid is re moved near the bo tt o m a nJ is ret urned to t he aera to r. L_ ._ · Thi ckened sludge to
- -- slud ge-disposa l fa cilities
A d iagra m of th e sys tem is show n in F ig. 5-39.
Th e capital a nd o per a tin g costs of s ludg e t h ic kcners a re ju st ified when sludge
d igestio n is pr ac ticed. Th e extent of vo lu me red uctio n by s lu dge th ic kenin g is
illustr ated by the fo llowin g exa mples.
W a s tew a ter, trea tme nt p la nt , a nd sludge cha ra cte risti cs a rc as fo ll ows:

Exa mpl e 5-8 : S lud ge volum e and so lidsTont ent rr hitio nship Supp ose Ih e I- L graduat ed Sludge
\V as tewater Trealme nl planl
cylin de r in the fi g u re be low' co nt a ins a slltdg e l) f I pci cen l so lid s. -Fro ll1 Elf . th e
dry ma ss o f th e so lid s is InflueIH S5 Prima ry clarifier di ameler 25 111 Primary 5.0\ so lids
200 mg/ L
I"fl uent BOD 225 mg/ L Aeralor vo lume 2900 m 3 Seconda ry o 75 so lids
M = 10001 ' S Eftluenl BOD 20 rn gf L M LSS in aeralor 3500 mg/ L T hickened sot ids
1000 kg, m -' x DOO I 11)'\ x CUl l Flo w 19.000 m' /J
= 0.0 1 kg ------------------ -------------------
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR WAS TEW ATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 285
284 WATER

Determine (a) th e solids loading (in kil gram s per day) to the slud ge disposal fac ilitie s h. Fr o m Fig. 5-37 , th e biomas s conversio n fact o r is 0.35.
and (b) the percent volume reduction by the thickener. c. Th e mass of the seco nd ary solids is found by Eq . (5-34).
/1'1, = Y' x BODs x Q
0.133 kg/m J x 19,000m / d
SOLUTION J
= 035 X

I. Determine th e ma ss of the primary so lids and the vo lum e o f th e primary s lud ge. = 884 kgi d
(I. The area of t he primary c lar ifier is
d. The vo lu me of Ihe second ary s ludge 'is
A = rrd' /4
v = _ M."..._
25 m' 1000 x S
= rr x
4 884 kgj d
1000 kg / mJ x 0.0075

h. The overflow ra te IS II R m 3 /d

19,000 m -',!d . . 3. Delermine Ihe 10lal Ill"SS o f so lIds and Ihe IOlal vo lum e of sl udg e 10 the thickener.
---- ... - = 387 m/ d
491 m' . II M I = /.1 p + M ., = n04 + tlX4 3088 kgjcl
3
h. V, = J.'" + V, = 4·U + II R = 162. 1 m ;d
c. From Fi g . 5- I 3 th e etliciency of th t.' clarifier is
-1. Del er mine IhelolJIIl1<ISS "rs(l li<is anc1lhc IOlal \olume o f sl ud ge discharged fromlhe
SS = 58;;: I hickencr te) the s lud ge dispmal Llcililies.
II. Assumi ng negligible ", lids ill Ihe Ihic ker sup ernata nt. th e tOlal mass of sol ids in Ihe
BOD = 32
Ihickened slud ge is 30RR kg/(I
d. The mass of primary solids removed is found by Eq . (5-33) h. Th e lotal vo lume l,f th e Ihi c ken ed sl udge is
i\l p = .: x SS x Q kgi d
= 0.58 x 0.200 kg / m ' x 19.000 m J/ d 1,1"" = IOr)() kg:;;I -;;-004
= 2204 kg id = 77.2 m' Id
and th e vo lum e o r the primary s lud ge is given by Eq . (5-35). 5. Delermine th e percenl of volume reduc li o ll ac hie ved by th e thicken er.
v = _ .. Mp _ _ 162. 1 - 77.2 ,
p 1000 ·5 x 100 = 52;{,
1(,2.1
2204 kg/ d
= 1000 kg/ m 3 x-50s
5-18 SLUDGE DIGESTION
= 44.1 m 3/ d
2. Determine the mas s of the seco nd a ry so lid s and the vo lum e o f the secondary s lud ge. 'o ncentratecJ wastewater s lucJl!,cs. represent a considerab le haz ard to the en-
{/. Find the food-bioma ss ra tio: a ncJm ust- be re nd e?ecJincrt prior to di31osa l. Th e mos t com mo n
(I) The food cons umed in th e aerator is: 'ille'ai1s (Tr it l:iilizing is by bio luglcri dcgrad at ion. Becel use· t h is pr ocess is in rerrded
_....:..
15] mg i L to conve l , cllcls "()lJKc lular end roctucts. the term digesliol1 is commo )ly
BOD in = ( 1.0 - 0.32)22 5 mg i L
app lied to this pro cess. Sludge cJigestlon sen es bo th to re uce the vo lum e o f th e
BOD OU I = e muent BOD 20 mg j L
thic!u:ncd sludge still ['urther to render the rem:J.ining so lids inert and re lativ ely
BOD . consumed in Ihe aerator 133 mg/ L gen-frec. These goals c<In he by either anaerobic or aerobic
0. 133 kg im 3 x 19,000 m 3 /d = 2527 kg/ d digestion . ____

(2) The bioma ss in th e reac lor is 3.5 kg/mJ x 2900 m ' = 10,150 k );
(]) Th e fno d -bio ma ss r:ltio is
Anaerobic Digestion

2527 kg :d _I Anaerobic dig,estioll is h:- f:lr the 1ll<)SI COIll Ill O Il process for dealing with waste-
.----.---- = 0.25 d slud!.!cs cn nt;rinlllg primary sludge . Primar y sludge con ta ins large a mou nts
IO,ISO kg

b·CQuP
 286 WATER
ENGI NEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 287

of readily available organics that would .incLuce a rapid growth of biomass if tJeated Typically. about 50 to (i0 percent of the organics are metabolized, with less than 10
aerobically. decompo sition produces less than percent being converted to biomass.
'" If'. t \r aerobicp.rocesses. The principal function of anaerobic digestion. therefore, is to Reactors for anaerobic digesters consist of closed tanks with airtight covers.

-
II) U\ as much of the sludge as possible to end products such as liquids and gases.
cl)f'r, while producing as little residual biomass as possible. -
Wastewater sludge contains a wide variety of organisms, and thus requires
a wide variety of organisms for itsdecomposiiion. The literature relating to
anaerobic sludge digestion often divides the organisms into broad groups. the
'lcid formers and the methane formers: The 2.f idformers consist of f£lcultative and
anaerobic bacteria and include organisms that solubIlize organic solids through
hydrolysis. The soluble products are then fermented to acids and alcohols of low
molecular weight. The meJhane formers consist of strict anaerobic bacteria that
convert the acids and alcohols , along with hydrogen and carbon dioxide, to
methane. Specific products in the metabolic process are shown in Fig. S-40.
cAC('d
The completely mixed. continllolls-flow model without solids recycle is usually
assumed, although the flrst tWQ.condjtions wjll seldom be mel exactly. Although
most larger installations utilize high-rate digestion, treatment . plants processing
less than 4000 m 3 /day of wastewater often use standard-rate digestion for eco-
-
nomic reasons or simplicity of operation.
A lypical, standard-rate anaerobic digester consisting of a single-stage
operation is shown in Fig. 5-41. The conical bottom facilitates sludge withdrawal
while the" floating" cover accommodates volume changes due to sludge additions
and withdrawals. The sludge separates in the reactor as shown, although some
mixing in the zOIie oGctive and in the supernatant because of
the withdrawal and return of heated sludge. Sludge is fed into the digester on an
intermittent basis and the supernatant is withdrawn and returned to the
secondary treatment uni!. The digested sludge accumulates in the bottom, its

Complex
-r
waste

100'/;- :- fJ(tJ
COD
15% 65 %

20O/C
Gas
Ach'tf2 slorage
,r:M...' . ............... . ".
.. I •
. Supernatant
_ out

Sludge
heater

Digested
sludge
out
Figure 5-40 Paltlw ays and pro du c ts or ana e ro bic di gt:stiprl of \\a \ !ewtlf er slllo gt·. (Frum AJeCarl),
[ 5-31)' )
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS !-OR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 289
288 WATER

Table 5-13 Desi gn param eters for ana erobic digesters Digested s lud ge acc umu lation rate:

Parameter Standard-rate High-r ate

Solids retention time, d 30- 90 10- 20

2. Determine th e d iges te r vo lum e from Eq. (5-36).
Vola tile solids loadi ng, kg/ m' /d 05 - 1.6 1.6-64
Digested solids concentrat ion, % 4-6 4- 6 . V, + V,
Volatile solids reduction, % 35-50 45- 55 V = - ...-- [, + V'[2
0.5- 0. 55 0.6-0.65 2
(}as produc tion (m' / kg VSS added)
Methane con tent, % 65 65

= 49 17 m"
re m ova l o ften be in g de termin ed by s u bse qu en t slu dge d isposa l fac ilit ies rather than
b y o p era ti o n a l n eeds o f the di ges ter. H igh-rate cii[!es ters arc mur e dlicie nt and ofte n req u ire less vo lum e than
T h e standard-ra te di ges ter vol u ine is d e termi ned by loading rat es, di ges tion sin gle-;tage dige ; ter s Th e contents are mechanically mi xe d to ensure better
p er io d , siu d&e s torage. T he se a re re la ted by th e fo llowi ng co ntact between th e o rganic s and the microorgani sm s and the unit is heated to
eq u a tio n s. - incr ease th e metab o lic r;te o f the microorga ni sm s, thu s spee ding up th e digestion
proces s. Optimum temper;llure is aroun d 35°C (95 ° F).
V - VI +
2
2 V II + V2 £2 (5-36) Because no dewatcrinl! occurs in th e hi gh-rat e sys tem, th e vo lume o f s ludg e
is essentia ll y un ch a nged. the so lid s contc:nt is reduc ed. Dewa ter ing o f
w here V = vo lume of the diges te r, m 3 the sludge is necessary and bc acco mpli shed by any of th e mechanical
VI = raw s lu dge loa d ing rate, mj / ct dewa terin g ope ra ti ons d.:sc rib ed In Sec. 5- 19. An alternative d ewa terin g syste m
V2 = d iges ted s ludge acc um ul a tio n ra te. m 3 /d is a seco nd- sta ge dige s ter s imilar to that usc d in standard-ra te operations. A
1 1 = di ges ti o n pe ri od , d high -ril te tw o -stage sys tem is s hown in Fig. 5-42 .. Lit tle gas is generated in th e
12 = d iges ted s lud ge sto rage per iod, d seco nd stage , but the 1Illllle nt is su persa turated with gases that are re leasedm th e
seco nd -s tage react o r. Con se quently_ th e second-stage reactor is usua ll y covered
D esig n pa ramete rs for sta nda rd -r a te dige s ter s are listed in Tab le 5-13. The de s ign
and is equipped fo r gas recovery. The seco nd-stage reacto r is n ot he ated. De s ign
p roce d ure is illus trated in the fo llow ing examp le.
..of. Y9.i.ume. .r.e ql.lirCflWllls. .fm. bigi)-rate. tlVo-stage d igeste rs is illu str ated in th e
Exa mple 5-10 : DesighIhg ':j iinaeroblc'di"ge'ste'r' foll owing examp le.
Exam pl e 5-9 is to be di ges ted a nae rob ical ly in a standard -ra te d igester. Th c sludg e is
known to be about 70 pe rcen t organ ic and 30 percent inor ganic in natur e. App rox imat ely
60 pe rcent of the organic frac tion is converted to liqu id and gaseo us end produ cts after
Fixed
t
D'gesle r gas outlel Floa t ing cove r
a 30-d period. The digested sludge ha s a so lid s con ten t of 5.0 percent a nd mu s t be stored
fo r per iods of up to 90 d . De termine the vo lume req u irement for a standard ra te. si ngl e- Gas slOrage
stage digester.

SOLU TI ON Suptr nata n

outlets
I. Determine the raw sludge loading rate and the digested sludge accumulation rate.
a. From Ex a mple 5-9 the raw s ludge loading rate is Sludge
ou tlets
V, = 77.2 m Old

b. The diges ted s ludge cons ists of so lid s no t converted to liquid s and gases .
Tota l mass of so lids = 3088 kg/ d
Flf sl,tat c Second stage
Organic fraction = 3088 x 0.7 = 2162 kgjd (complelely mixed) (stratified)
Organic fraction remaining = 2162 x 0.4 = 864.8 kg/ d
In organic fracti o n rema ining = 3088 x 0.3 = 926.4 kg/d 5-l2 J)j<.tgram (If hlgh -rale, 1\\"lI-stagc all iH.:robic sl udge digeste r . (Frum Linsley and Frwlz/JII
Tota l mass remain ing = 864.8 + 926.4 = 1791.2 kg!d [5·30))
 ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 291
290 WATER

Examp le 5- 11 : Des igning a high-ra te, two-stage anaerobic digester A high-rate , two-stage Table 5-14 Composition of typical supernatan t from anaerobic digester s
digester is to be designed for the sludge described in Example 5- 10. A digestion time o f 10 d
Primar y ptanl s, Trickling filters, Activated-studge plan IS,
in the first s tage results in th e dest ructi on of approximately 60 percent of the o rga nic s.
mgJL mg/ L mg/ L
Dewatering in the second s tage occurs within 3 d with the stored sludge ha ving a so lid s
content of about 5.0 per cen t so lids. De termin e th e vol ume of th e first- and seco nd -stage Suspended so lids 200- 1000 500-5 000 5000- 15.000
digesters a nd compare th e to ta l vo lum e to tha t o f the single- stage dige ste r in Exampl e 5- 10. BOD , 500- 3000 500-5000 1000- tO,OOO
COD 1000- 5000 2000- 10,000 3000-30,000
SO LUTI OI' Ammonia as NH , 300- 400 400-600 500- tOOO
TOlal ph osp horu s as P 50- 200 100-300 300- 1000
I. Th e \'l) lume of th e first-stage digester is
SOl/f ee: Fr om Benefie ld and Randall. [ 5-6]
v= V,I ,
= 77.2 m 3 /dx 10d
J
I m 3 of gas is produced per ki log ram of so lids dige sted. The heat content of the
= 772 m
methane isapprox imat ely 36,000 kJ / m 3 (970 BTU / f( 3 ). The digester gas is usually
2. Th e volume o f th e second -sta ge digester is com bu sted to pro vide spa ce heating in the treatment plant buildings , to heat-water
for laboratory use. and to heat the digester if a two -stage system is used. These
I
. = V, + V,
--2 - 1, + V 2 1, uses often consume less than o ne-half of th e methane . The remainder cou ld be
used to drive an electrical generator and the resulting power used within the plant.
77.2 + 35.S J Ba nerji and O 'Conn o r [ 5-5J report that a significant portion of the ene rgy
= ------· m It! x 3d + 35.81ll J /d x 'lOd
2 necessary to ope rat e a wa stewat er-tr ea tment plant can be derived from th e methane
J produced by anaerobic digesters. The conversion process require s expens ive
= 3392 I11
equipment an d is a cos tly ope ration and ma int enance item , however. Mo st plan ts
3. Com par e IOta l vo lume to sin gle-sta ge vo lum e . simp ly narc the excess methane.
Volume o f si ng le-stage (fr o l11 Example 5- 10) = 4917 m ' The .supernatant withdr aw n from th e dige ster con tain s large amount s o f
T ota l vo lume of tw o-s tage = 772 + 3392 = 4164 m "
<;olubiliz ed o rganic s' and so lids. as show n in Table 5- 14. Thi s mat eria l mu st be
circulated back thr o ugh the plant for further treatment. Solids fro'm th e
J
Differe nce = 753 Ill
bottom o f the digester should be re la ti vely inert. Pr oced ure s for disposing o f this
materia l are discussed in a fo llow ing sec tion .
Oper a tio n o f anaerobic digester s is complicated by the delica te nature o f the
methane for mer s. Th ese o rgani sms are stri ct <tnaerobics and fun ctio n within a
na rrow pH ra nge o f fl;'p m 65107.5 p H unit s. Th ese orga nisms a re also se nsitive Aerobic Digestion
to sudd en c han ges in o ther environmental factor s such as tempe rature. food
Sludge can be s tabili zed by aerobi c-diw tion. Ge lK@ lIy restrict ed to' bio -
"::':'Ipply. etc. Shock loading (addition o f larg e <tnJllunts of raw slud ge within a
in the ab se nce o f primary slud ge. thi s process js essential ly a -con-
shor t tim e period) can be di sastrou s to anaerobic di ges ters The acid fo rmers
tinu ati o n o!..the aeration process. w ith the volume being reduced by thi cke ning
respond qui c kl y to the increased fo od suppl y 'IHLl pro duce increased amount s of
tn the secondary c1ariner and slud ge thickener. The most co mmon applicat io n o f
acids. Th e methane fo rm ers ca nn o t res po nd as quickly the acid accumu lates.
., obic di gestio n involve s stabili zing slud ge wasted from
lowering Once the lower pH -to lerance leve l o f th e methane
nce an external food so urce is no t aerobic digestion is an endl)genous
foriller s is reached. methane produ ction ceases ancl th e pH can be lowere d to the
::.spirat i.£!l process in_ which the organi SJllS are [mce.d to th eir own
to xic leve l o f ac icl former s unless the situati on is rec tified qui ck ly. The buffering
protop lasm, Th e resu lt is a minerali zed sludge in wh ich any remaining organics a re
capaci ty o f the di ges ter is therefore very importanL·F o rtuna tely. th e alkalinity of
incipally cell walls and o th er cell fragm ent s not readi ly ·biodegradable.
is naturali high becau se f I eso ubili za ti rod :1 :.d
Aero bic dig estion is not as sensiti ve to environmenlal factors as is its a naerobic
by t e . 10 roce_sses. and it s sub sel'luent conve rsilln to HeO J . A sudden
co unterpart and is not as subject to ·up sets. Unlike tile anaerobic proce ss,
i'ClluCfion in alkal init y he rald s a pH drop_ and mor e :tlkalinit y. usua ll y in the fo rm
ae ro bic digestion is ene rgy-co nsumptive. The digested s ludge is relative ly inert but
(,f lime. mu st be ad d ed tll maintain th e bulTeri ng capaci ty.
cI ewa . RQQ1l.y. It is o ften necessa rv to di spo se of theentire vo lum e of sludge in a
Product gases tvpica ll y COllt·
rather dilut e state . -
meth ane.:2." to 30 perce nt C:O-;,'n nd tr :lce :11l10unts o f other !,;ases.
292 WATER
ENGIN[ERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 293

Table 5-15 Typical design parameter s for

aerobic digestion

Pa ra meter Value

Retenti on time, Oc
Acti vat ed slud ge on ly 15-20 d
Activated slud ge plus .
primary 20- 25 d
Ai r required (diffused air)
. Ac tivat ed slud ge o illy
Activated slu dge plus
primary 55 - 6SL ! min . m-'
Po we r requi red (surface air) 0.02-0.03 kW /m 3
So lid s loading 1.6- 3.2 kg VSS/ m .l d

Source: Fr om Slee le and .M cGhee. [5 -50J

Design crit er ia for aerob ic diges tio n a re given in Tabl e 5- 15. Th e desig n
appr oac h is esse ntially the sa me as for ac ti vated-s lud ge reactors.
Fi gun' 5- 43 I njection of \\(lstcwatt.:r sludge benc,alh grass land s. nllnimal dl'ilU rba l1ce o f so d
( CO II"'( 'S I ' of Rickel ,\I/Of7l1j(l('{ lIrtn /J C·ump{IfIY)·
5-19 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
such as cc nt rifuga tion. \;t c uum tiltl·ati o n. fil ter press ing. r by
Seve ral o ption s a re ava ilab le for th e ultim ate disposa l of wastewa ter sludges.
air dr ying. Sl)lids co nte nt achievable by va riull s dew3 tet"ing techniques is show il in
The se includ e incinerati on. Jlac emeJ1.Lio_G s3n.iuu:.y ·la.ndfiIL and incor orat io n
Tahl e )- 16.
into sojls as a feUilizf:.WlWoiLco.ocii..tio ner - ,\Ir d l·vtn g l)f dige sted s llld!!cs IS poss ible in clima tes with sig nitican t evapo ra-
Raw (undige sted) sludges can be incine rated. provided the wa ter conten t
tlnn putcntial. SlllCC ·ine·r-t·.. it·cftn· be·hand led·
is suffic ient ly redu ced. Supp leme nt a l fu el is nece ssa ry to initi a te ;n d maintain
ilnd sto red in the ope n air co ndi tio ns. Ai r-dryi ng
combu sti on and Illuni c ipal so lid wa ste may be used fo r thi s purp ose. Ra w or
faci litlcs Inclu de drying heds slllIilar tll those shown in F ig. 5-44. Th e sa nd a nd
digested slud ge ca n a lso be dispo sed of in sa nitar y landfill s. pr ov id·ed a ppr o prtate
syslem mar he o mitt ed in d ry whe re evapo rat io n from th e
mea sure s are ta ken to co nt ain leachat e a nd to iso la te the sludge from th e enviro n-
surface is to dispose nf the liLJuid. Dried s ludge is removed ·in cake form
ment. The se subj ects are cove red more fully in a later chap ter o n so lid-wa ste
hy so lids-hand ling equipm ell t .
d isposa l. Another. popular form of dewalering llr digested sludge is the sludge· pond.
La nd app lica tion of wastcwater slu dges has been pra cticed for man -y years.
Not tll he co nfused \\iith oXldatlt)t] ponds used in secondary trea tm ent pr ocesses .
modern applic a tions bein g limited to digested sludge. Th e nutrient value of the
slu dge .is ben efi c ia l to vegetati o n, and it s gra nular natur e may se rve a s a soi l
conditione r. Its a pplicati o n ha s bee n Itmit ed to gro und used for forage croris for Table 5- \6 So lids content of de-
nonhuma n con sumption , a lthough th e po ss ibilit y of it s use o n ground used to grow watercd sludge
edib le pr oduc e is still being invest iga ted. Metal tox icity 111 plants and water po llu-
ApprOX1J1l;11L' ... nlll.h
ti9n fr o m excess nitr a tes appear to be th e li mitin g fact o rs in la nd app licati on of l·f)[l\ Clll. ""
slud ges. Sludges may be applied in a liquid stat e by spra ying. ridge a nd furrow , or
by direct injec tion ben ea th the soil. Inje ctio n under grassland s is illustr a ted in· \',I (lIllrll fill 211 .10.
Fig. 5-43. De wa tere d sludge Illay be spr ead o n the la nd a nd cuiti vate ci int n the CClllnrUk!C 20 25
soi l by co nve nti o na l ag ricultur a l eq uipment. F illl'r J()
l)rvln\:t hcd, 40
With the except ion of irr igation pract ices. sludge dispo sa l is g rea tl y facilitat ed . l()
by vo lu me redu ction thr o ugh dewateri ng. Dewa terin g may be acco mp lished by
294 WATER ENG IN EERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPO SA L 295

ma y be replaced by advanced-treatment sys tem s. Advanced-treatment processes

and operations are d esc rihed in the following sec ti o n of this chapter. Because
tr ea t ment sys tem s a re se lec ted to meet dischar ge or reu se criteria with respect to
spe cific parameter s. th e di sc u ss ion is arranged acco rdin g to tre a tment objec tives .

5-20 NUTRIENT REMOVAL

The ro le of exce ss nutrients in entrophic a tion was discus sed in C·hap. 3. Although
th e q uantiti es of nutrient s co ntribut ed by wastewa ter discharges may be less than
tho se contribut ed by agr icult ural runoff and o th er sources , the point-source
nature of wastewate r.di sc harge s makes them more amenable to control techniques.
Thu s, wa stewat e r-trea tm ent plant s th a t discharge to water bodies that are deli-
cately bal a nced wi t h re spect to' nutrient lo ads may ha ve nutrient limitations
imp os ed o n their etflue nt s. The nutrients n of intere st are nitr oge n and
pho sp h orous compounds. Proces ses for removing the se nutnen s ro
Figur e 5-44 T ypica l opell-air sludge dr yi ng bed. (Photo courtesy of R. L. Sanks .)
wa ter are discu sse d in the fo llo wing paragraphs.

sludg e po nd s function as settlin g basin s w ith long retention time s. The so lid s
consolidate in the bo tt om whi le th e s up e rnatant ' ,s pe riodi ca lly remo ve d fr o m the Nitrogen Removal
top <1nci recyc led for re tr ea tment. When th e so lid s ha ve accumulated to a pre-
In domestic wastewater. nitr ogen compounds res ult from the biological de-
se lec ted depth. the pond is t<1ken out o f se r vice an d all o wed to dry out. The dried
compos ition of protein s a nd from urea di scha rged in body waste. Thi s nitrogen
slu dge is th e n removed fo r final di s posal.
ma y be bo und in comp lex organ ic molecule s and is referred to simply as orga nic
rather than b y s pecific co mpound. Organic nitrogen may be biol 6gk ally
converted to free ammon ia (NH)o) or to the ammonium ion (NH4 +) by one of
Advanced Wastewater Treatment .. . different m etabo lic pathways,These.two species,. together termed ammonia
lIil/'{}!1£ll. exist in equilibrium accord ing t o the following relationship: c
The qual it y uf e Aluen t pro vid ed by seco nd ary t rea t me n t ma y no t a Iwa ys be s u ftIc ie n t
to m eet di sc harg e l equirement s. Th is is o ft e n th e case when large quantitie s o f . (5-37)
e lllu c nt arc di sc h<lrge d int o s mall s treams or whe n de li ca te eCl1system s are en-
Amm o nia nitro ge n. the mo st redu ced nitrogen co mpound found in waste-
co u n tcred. In th ese in stance s: additional treatm ent to po lish th e e ffluent Tro)1l
wa te r. w ill he b io log ically oxid ized to nitrate as follows if molecular oxyge n is
second M), sy st e ms wi ll he requi red , o r an <I lt ernall ve m et hod o f was tew at e r present.
di s pusal Illu st he fOlind .
.A dditi o nal usuall y referred to a s..!.::'rliurr Ir<'I illyg! I. o ft en in vo lves Nf-J 4 ; + ---> N0 1 - + 2H + + H2 0 (5-38)
th e of nitrogen a nd s horus com po u nd s. 1211n l nu t r ient s as socW.l.ed N0 2 - + ---> NO ) - (5-39)
with CUtl'O tr eatmcnt may e requir ed to re m ovc additional
so lld s . i]1Qrga nl c. salt s. and l'cI'r;lct(lI Y (\rg ani cs . Combina- Th ese reac ti o ns res ult in th e utili za tion of ab o ut 4.6 m g o f O 2 per each mg of
tion s (lr t he aho \e p rocesses can be use d to resto re to po tabl e qua lit y. Nf-J ; --N ox idi ze d , wi th a b o ut 7. 1 mg of a lk a linit y 'needed to neutra lize the acid
(1-1 t ) produ ced. '. . .'
a lthou gll at co ns lli'era ble c xpen se. Referre d tn , IS !:,L'c/W lIllli,J/I. thi s comp lete tr ea t-
m e 1\ I or \\, 1' Ic·\\·;!·t e r ca n se ld om be di ed exce pl in wa t L'r-sea rcc ,I rea s w he re so me In raw w<1stewater, th e pr edo niinant of nit roge n are-o rganic nitrogen a nd
f()rm o r reu se IS m'lndated . am lllonia. Bio log ica l tr ea tment ma y re sult in conve rsion io nitrate . provided the
Th e ter lll iIilml1CCi I Ir m ll/ WIII is fr equ en til use d to e nco mpa ss all Y or a ll of pro cessess are aerob ic and pro vid ed th e treatment peri o ds are lo ng en oug h.
Iltc "b()\c II'e <l l mcn t tec hniqu es . and thi s Icr lll would scem t(llmpl y that advanced Co ntact tim es in Illost seco ndar y treatment sys te m s. though sufficient to comp lete
tr e,l tlll Cn! r(>lI,,\\'s conve nti o na l seco nd al'Y treatm ent. Thi S IS lI o t ;J1ways tlt c c ase, th e co n version from organi c nitrogen to <1mmoni a. may n o t be s ufficient for
, IS S(llllC uni t o pc l',lti ol1s or unit pl'occsscs In scco lllLlr v ur eve n prim ,lI'Y tr eatm ent signiftcant nitlltic a t iun. Bec au se of oxyge n ci e mand exer ted by amm o nia and
 HH; INEE REn SYSTH IS FO R WAST EWA T ER T REATM ENT AN D DI SPOSA L 297
296 WA TER

excess O H - io ns fo r pH adj u stm e n t A n a m o u n t equ iva le n t to t he a lk ali n ity p lus

bec a u se of o ther e n v ir o nment a l fac tor s. re m ova l o f a mm o ni a m a y be requi red . T he
J.5 mequ iv/ L is u sua ll y su ffic ie n t to brin g th e p H to app roxima tely I I. S.
m os t co mm o n p roces ses fo r rem ov in g a mmo ni a from was tewa ter a re (l ) s t ripp ing
On ce t he co n ve rs io ll to am m o ni a has been co m p leted . s trippin g, o r de-
with a ir and (2) bi o log ic a l nit r ifica ti o n-d en itri fica tio n
-.-- -
Air st ripping Air stripping o pera tion s co n sist o f co nve rt ing amm o n ium to th e
'
ga sificat io n . ca n p roce ed . T he m os t e ffic ien t reac to r h a s been fo u nd to be a co unt er-
cur re nt sp ray t owe r s imi la r to th e o ne show n in Fi g. 5-4 6. Lar ge quantiti es o f a ir
ar e req u ired. a nd a fan m u s t be·.inc lud ed to draw a ir thr o ug h th e tower. P a cki n g
ga seo us ph as e and th e n di sper sin g th e liquid in a ir , thu s a ll o win g tr ans fe r o f th e
is usua ll y pro vi d ed to mi n imi ze 111m res istan ce to gas t ra nsfer by co ntinu o usly
amm o nia fr o m th e was tewa ter to lh e a ir acco rdin g to th e pri nc ip les o ut lin ed in
Sec . 3-4. Th e ga seou s ph ase NH 3° and th e a qu eo us ph a se NH 4 + ex ist to ge th er' in form in g. sp lash ing. a nd refo rm in g d fOpS /
D esig n p a ram ete rs fo r amm o nia -.(r rippi ng reac to rs in clu d e a ir-t o -li q uid
equilibr ium as indi ca ted in Eq . Th e re la ti ve a bun da nce of t he p h a ses
ra t ios. to we r d e p th. and lo adi ng ra tes. C o mm o n d es ig n pra c tice is to use a ir-to -
de p e nd s u p o n bo th t he pH a nd th e ' te m pe ra tur e o f th e wa stewa ter. A s see n In J
was tewa te r ra tios ra n gi ng fr o m ab o ut 2000 to 6000 m o f a ir per c u bi c me te r o f
Fi g . 5-4 5, th e p H mu st be in exce ss of II fo r co m p lete co nve rs io n to N H 3° Slilc e
wa stewa ter. wit h m o re a ir be in g I-eq ui red a t low e r te m pe ra tur es. T o we r d e pt hs
thi s is well ab ove t he n o rm a l pH fo r wa stewate r, p H adju stm e nt is f) ec ess a r y p ri or
a re se ld o m less than 7.S 111. a nd hydr a ul ic load in g ra te s va ry fro m a bo u t 40 to 46
!o ai r eco nom ic rea so ns, lim e is th e most comm o n m ean s of rai sin g
th e pH . A n un avo id a ble co n sequ e nce o f lim e a dditi o n is th e so ft e nin g o f th e L/ min per sq u a re m e ter o f towe r. [ S- 14J
Air strippin g. is o ne o f th e IllOs t eco n o mi ca l m e an s o f nitr oge n re m ova l.
wa stewa te r. E no ugh lim e mu s t be a dd ed to pr ec ipit a te th e a lka linit y a nd t o a dd th e
pa nicu la rl y if li m e pr ec ip itat io n " f ph os ph a te is a lso req ui red . be ca use c hem ica l
c(l nui t io n in £ can be co nc urr en t. Th ere ::ne se ri o us limitati o ns to th e pr ocess .
100 o

l'l V
howeve r. A; 3 i r te mp era t LI re a pp rn ac hes freez i ng.. a d ra st ic red uc t io n 111 e ffic ie ncy
i, obse r ved . a nd p re hea t ing o f th e :Ii r is n()t pr ac tica l bec au se o f th e la rge vo lum e
90 10 requ ired . Funherill o re . tow er s c ann o t o pe ra te in s ub freez ing we a th er beca use o f

80
VI 20
icing. In co ld c lim a tes . a lt e rn a ti ve m eth o d s of n itr oge n re m ov a l illu st be p rovide d
durin g w illter.

/ /
Oth e r pr oh lem s a ssoc iat ed w ith str ip p ing inc lud e no ise and a ir
po llut io n a nd sca lin g o f th e pa c kin g med ia . N o ise a nd od o r pr o blems ca use d by

II JO
70 th e roa r o f t he fa n s a nd t he d is persio n o f a Illm OlllCl ga s c a n be III in illl ize cl by Idca t ing'
lhe fac il itv a way fro lll th e p o pul a ted a rea. Pr ec ipi tatio n o f ca lc iulll ca rb ona te sca le
V
.... 6. 0 . ... . . .... . . . .. "4 0'" .

II
'

I
40°C
"J:.r'I 5 0 50 '-J:
z
IH 20°C
z
il r! I"t

7:/ I
40 60

30 70 --
Wate r
J) "lrlQutlon
"y\lL'J1l

// / 00C
8o
inle l

20

10 /
Jj / 9 o
:::::==: F il l

6
.-/ ?
7 8 9 10 i 1
100
Fi gur e' 5--l 6 DIagram of counlc.:r-
pH
current towt:r for amm OIlI<-J
Figure 5· 45 EfTcCIS o rp H a lld on ci islnbuli oll o f amm on ia and am moni um ion III \.\'a lc:f. Slnrping . ( Frolll E[' .·I [5-431 .1
(From FPA [5-43].)
 29ll WATER ENG I NEERED SYSTEM S FOR W ASTEWA TER TREATME NT A ND D ISPOSAL 299

o n th e pa c k mg m edia as a re sult o f w as tew a te r so ft e nin g ca :l be min im ize d by th e requir ed . Th e m os t co mm o nl y used external carb o n s ource is meth a n o L CH ) OH.
use o f s m oo th- s urf ace p o lyv in yl c hl m id e (PV C ) pi pe a s pa ck in g ma te ri a l, t ho ug h Wh en m eth ano l is a dd ed , th e de nitrifi ca ti o n rea ction is
occas io nal clea nin g o f th e pa ckin g m edi a is still req uir ed .

Nitrification-denitr ' 'on Amm o nia nit roge n ca n be co n verted to gaseo us
Ilit roge n. N 2 • b y bi o log ical pr o cesses. In thi s fo rm . nitr ogen is essent ia ll y inert
and d oes no t reac t w ith th e was tew ate r itse lf o r w ith o th e r cons t itue n ts o f th e
wa s tewaters . S ince N2 is th e pri nc ip a l co n st itu e nt o f a ir.. tr ea ted was tewa ter is
lik e ly to be a lrea d y satur a ted w ith m o lec ul a r nit roge n a nd the a d d iti o na l N2 is
si mpl y re leased to t he atm os ph e re.
Bi o log ica l co n ver s io n o f a mm o ni a to nitr oge n g a s is no t a direc t process but
co n s is ts o f t'.vo se p a rat e s tep s.Th e amm onia mu stflrs t be ox id ize d to nitr a te a nd
th en red u ced t o m olecular nItro ge n. The se rea cti o ns reqlllf e cldfe rent en Vlro n c
{ m ent a l co nd iti o ns and mu s t be ca rri ed o ut in se p a rate reac to rs.
Th e orga ni sm s respo n sibl e fo r n itr ifica ti o n a re t he autotrop h ic bac te ri a,
nit roS0 Il111naS a nd nitr o b ac ter. Equ at io ns (5-38) a nd (5-39) rep resen t ca tab o lic
reac t io ns t hat s up p ly en e rgy. An abo lic reac t io ns use ca rbo ll d iox ide a nd / o r
bica d,ona te as a carbo n so ur ce a nd may be re p rese n ted by th e fo llow ing eq uat io n.
[ 5- 32J
(5-40)
A lt ho u g h some a mm o ni a is co n ve rt ed to b iomass by thi s reac t io n. th e ca tab o li c
reac ti ons are t he prin cip a l a mm o ni a co n ve rs io n p rocesses.
Nil rifica ti o ll ca n be acc ompli s hed in b o th susp en d ed-c ultur e a nd a tt ac hed-
·cLifiLlre reiicio· rs.· Ulld er fa vo ra bl e c ircu ll1sta n ces. nit ri fica ti o ;) ca n be a ccom plis hed
a lo n g w ith ca r bo na ceo us !iDD re m ova l In seco nd ary tr ea tm ent sys tem s... In
o th e r cases it is mo re e fficient to sepa ra te th e pro cesses a nd fo llow c arb o naceo us
BOD re m ova l w ith ' a se p a ra te reac tor fo r nitrifi ca ti o n p a rame ters
o f imp o rt a nce inc lud e pH , DO , ae ra ti o n pe ri o d s. me an ce ll; res idc n ce time, a nd
The o reti call y. eac h milli gram per liter o f nitr a te sho uld requir e 1.9 mg/ L of
meth a nol. Und e r tr eatment plant co ndition s, ho wever , about 3.0 mg / L of met hanoi
is requir ed for ea ch milligram per liter o f nitr a te . ma k in g this proce ss an expensive
one. Th e int e res ted rea d e r is refer red to M et ca lf & Eddy , Inc . [ 5-36 J a nd EPA
litera tur e [ 5-43J fo r des ign criteria .
Phosphorus Removal
Ph os ph o ru s is a u b iquit o us con stituent o f muni c ipa l was tewa ter. a ve ra g in g ar o und
10 mg/ L in mo st c ases. The principal fo rm s ar e w ganicall y l2.ound p h os ph o ru s.
pol yph os ph a tes . a n d o rth o ph os ph a tes . Organically o rigiiiares
fro m 5 0dy an d foo d was te and . up o n bi o lo ica l d ec ompo sitio o f is
as o rth o ph ospha tes 7{tes in
det ergent s and lip to o ri e-h a lf the pho sph o ru s 111' was tew a ter.
can be hydr o lyzed to o rth o pho sph a tes. Thu s th e prin c ip a l fo rm.
of ph os ph o ru s 111 wastewa ter is ass um ed to be o rth o pho sph a tes. alth o u g h the "-
other tw o fo rm s m ay co exi s t.
Q!:ili0 pl1osph a tes co ns ist of the ne gativ e radi cals P0 4 ) -. HPO / -, and
H Z P0 4 - and m ay fo rm ch emical co mbin a ti o n s with cations or POS ItIve ra Oicals.
Tn mos t cases th e co mp o und s are quit e so lubl e, a nd pho sphate rem ova l in co n-
venti o na l prim a ry tr ea tment is neg lig ible . Becau se pho sphoru s is a co mp o nent
of micr o bi a l ce lls, so me ph os phat e ma y be rem o ved in th e biom ass in seco ndar y
treatment process es. Ho\vever. microorganisms need relative"ly 'littte·p·nospncfrbs·· ····· _....
as co mpared w ith car b o n a nd nitr og en . a nd less th a n 3 mg/ L of ph os ph o ru s is
usu ally rem ove d in co nventi o nal seco nd a ry tre a tment. When effluent requirement
necessitat es gr ea ter rem ov al dfici encie s, additional treatment mu st be pro vided .
The princip a l mean s of pho sphorus remo va f is chemical precipitati o n. At
....slig!ltl y o rt ho ph os ph a tes co mbin e with tri valent aluminum o r iron

.
car bo n -to- ni troge n ra ti os. T empq;t t1:lre is an over rid ing var ia bl e th a t a ffec ts
cati ons to fo rm a prec Ipitate . . .
o ptimu m ranges o f all t he ab ove va riab les. Co m b in ed ca rbo n ox idati o n an d nit r i- .
_I. ('
fi ea ti o n ope ra t io ns are p oss ibl e a t wa r me r te m pe ra tu res. whil e co lcl e r was tewa ters riA.
lRU.()'J r . AI J + (H " P0 4 y .l-n) - ( 5-42)
will requ ire se p ara te tr eatm ent sys te m s in m os t cases .
Fe3 + + ( H" P0 4 y.l - n) - (5 -4 3)
In t he de nit l'ifica ti o n pr ocess. nitr a te is reduced to
fac ult m;:;e. bac teri a in vo lved in--.th e oxid at io n o f ca r bo n aceo us Beca use d o mes tic was tewa te r usu a ll Y co nt a in s o nl y trac e a mo unt s o f iro n and
m a1.eriaL F or· red ue t io n to OCC lll . t he cI isso lved oxyge n leve l mu st be at or near aluminu m. th e addi tio n o f the se i's nec ess ar y. Salt s o f th ese meta ls. such
zero . and a car bon s u p pl y'm tist be ava ibb le to the bac tel·ia. Because a low carbo n as th ose d iscussed in Sec. 4-6. can be add ed fo r thi s purp os e.
con te n t is req u ired for th e p rev io us n itr ifica tion step ,s arbo n mus t be adclecL.WG-re At h igher pH valu es. c a lcium fo rm s an inso luble com ple x With ph os ph a te.
t:.:.lJJ-J.lwccecl . A smal l amou n t o r primary efilu ent. Th e add it io n of lilll e can pr ov ide bo th the ca lcium a nd th e pH a dju stm e nt neces -
seco.Di@0 · :lIlci ni tri fica ti o n reac tors . c a ll be usccL ) H UlVcver. sary.
th e co mp o un cis in this wa ter wi ll he u nafTectcd by the d cnitrihc a tion 5Ca( OH )2 + 3( H " Po).,)"' - nl -
process \\'i ll appear in th e e fll ue nt. W he n esse nti a lly complete lI itl'ogen re-
lll11y.ri is reqUir ed . an ex terna l so ur ce of calbon containing no nilmgen will be
C a ,(O H )(P0 4 M + I1 H 2 0 + (9 - I/)O H - (:'-44)
300 WATER
ENG INEE RED SYSTEMS FOR WAS TE WATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 301

This re'action require s a pH o f at least 9.0 for significant ph os phoru s removaL syste m is often th e pr ocess o f cho ice. while hig h pH precipitati o n b y lime in a
Higher pH values generally increa se removal efficiencie s. H owever. recarbonation te rtiar y unit is req uir ed to o bt a in very low leve ls o f effluent pho sph o ru s. Wh ere
may be necessary to lower the pH after .the . precipitation pr oc ess . has removed the nitr oge n rem ova l b y ammonia stripping is also pr act ice d. terti ary lim e precipita-
phosphorus. tio n at a pH of 11 .5 serves in both pr ocesses.
Chemical requirements for pho sphate precipitation exceed the stoichiometric
requirements indicated in Eqs. (5-42) through (5-44). Aluminum and iron sa lts
react with alkalinity in the wastewater to produce me ta llic hydroxide Aoes 5-21 SOLIDS REMOVAL
[Al(OHh and Fe(OHhJ and may increase the required d osages by up to a fac tor
of 3. Fortunately. this increase is not totally wa sted. as th e m eta llic hydroxides . Remova l .s f..,suspended ::9 lids. di sso lved be ne cessa ry
assist in the flocculati on and removal of the metalli c-ph os phat e precipitate. along ill advanced was temter- tr ea tm cnt sys tem s. Th e so lid s rem ova l processe s em-
with other su spended and colloidal so lid s in the wa stewater. a nd a re thu s useful Ploye d in ad van ced was tewa te r tr ea tm e nt esse nti a lly th e same a s tho se used
in the treatment proce ss. At high pH values calcium rea c ts co mpl e te ly w ith wa ste- in the treatment o f potah le w::lte r. a lth o ugh application is mad e m o re difficu lt b y
water alkalinity to form ca lcium carbona te . Lime addit ions equivalent to the th e overa ll poorer quality o f th e was tewa ter.
alkalinity plus that required for phosphate precipit a tio n a nd pH adju stment are
required.
Suspended Solids Removal
Phosphoru s removal can be incorporated into primary or seco ndary treat-
ment or may be added as a tertiary process. Selection of th e point of application As an advanced Ueatm ent proc ess . suspend ed -so lid s rem o val impli es the remov a l
depends on efficiency requirement s. wastewater characteri st ics . and t·he type of o f partic les and fl ocs tCio small 0 [' too li ghtwe ig ht to be remov ed in gravity settling
secondary treatment employed . The advantages and di sa dvantages of each ope rat ions. Th ese so lid s ma y be carried over fr o m th e sec ondar y c Ia rin e r or fro m
system are summarized in Table 5-17. Where effluent ph os ph o ru s concentrat io ns terti a ry sys tem s In ivhlch so lid s were pr ec ipitat ed .
of up to 1.0 mg j L are accep tabl e. the use of iron or alum inum salts in t he secondary Severa l met hods ::Ire ::Ivailable for re m ov ing ['esidual suspend ed so lid s fr o m
\\·astewater. Re mova l hy ce ntrifu gat io n. air !l o ta ti o n. mech ani ca l microscreening.
anel granula r-m ed ia filt ra tio n have a ll been used s uccess fully. In c urrent practi ce.
Table 5-17 Comparison of point of application for phosphoru s removal systems
l!ranul a r- media filtration is th e most com m o n Iv used pr ocess. Bas ica ll y. th e same
Primary Secondar y T e rtiar y th a t a ppl y to liltr a tlon of particle s' fro m pot a ble wa ter appl y to th e
remova l of residua l so lids in wa stewa ter The se prin c iple s we re di sc usse d in Sec.
Advantages
4-8, and that di sc ll'ssi'clIi iib"tb e repeate"dhere . Ditrerencesinoperat·ional mode s·
Applicable to all plants
for application o f the se prin ciples to wa stewat e r fil tration vs. potable water
Low es t capital Lowes t ph os ph o rus in effiuent
iiltration may ran ge fr o m s li ghi to drastic. however . and the most commonl y
Incr eased BOD and Lowe r chemical dosage than M ost e ffic ie nt me tal use used wastewater filtrati o n tech r1lque s are discu sse d be low.
suspended solids removal primary Sand filter s ha ve bee n used to poli sh effluents fr o m se ptic ta nk s. lmh off tank s.
Lowest degree of m eta l Im prgved stabilIt y of activated Lime recovery po ss ibk and other anaerobic tr ea tm ent unit s for de ca d es. Bec a use the y are alterna tely
leakage slud ge dosed a nd allowed to dry. th e ter m il11erlllifll.'l1lsa nd .fillers has been applied to
Poly me r not required Separatio n of o rganic and this type of unit. The pr ocess is essen tiall y th e s low sa nd filter described in Sec.
inor ga nie slud ge
4-8. More recen t Iy. thi s type o f filte r has bee n appli ed to the effluent fro m oxidation
Disadvantages po nds with cl) ns iderab le success. Effluent co ncentrat ions o f less than 10 mg j L
of BOD and suspe nd ed su lids ha ve been reported a t filtering ra tes of 0.37 to 0. 56
Leas t etficient utili zation of Ca re ful pH control to ge t H ig hest capita l cost m 3 i m 2 . d. Filt er run s in excess of I month are pos sible. [5-26J
me tal ph osp ho ru s < I mg! L Use of intermitt ent sand filtet's in ta ndem with co nventional seco ndar y tr ea t-
Polymer re quired for O ve rd ose o f mctalmay cau se Hi g hes t met al Jc:l kage ment has not bee n .I'erv success ful. [5-141 Th e natur e of th e so lid s from the se
Aocculation low pH tox icity
processes res ult s in rar id plu gg ll1g at th'e necess it a tin g frequent
Sludge more ditfi cu lt to Can no t use lim e bec:lUse of clean ing a III I thu s high maint enanc e cos ts. Th e lise of inl ermitl enlfi lte rs for te rti ary
dewattr than primar y excess i ve pH
trca tmcnt IS usua ll y res t ricted ttl plants with sma ll fl ows.
sludge
Gra nul ar-media flltrat[un is us ually th e prncc ss of choice in I3rger seconda ry
Source: Adapt ed fr om Ku gel ma n . ( 5-28] systems. Du al or tll ultltn elk t hed s preve nt sur fa ce plugging problem s and allow
302 WATER
fo r lo nger filter runs . Loa din g rate s depend o n both the co ncen trati o n and nature
o f so lids in the wastewa ter. Filtering ra te s ran g ing from 12 to 30 m 3 / m 2 dav have
been used w ith filter run s o f up to I d. M o re det a iled info rm ation o n the d e; ign o f
hi g h-rate filt e rs for a dvan ced was tewat e r sys tems can be fo und in C ul p e t a l.
[ 5-14J and M etca lf & Eddy. [5-36J
Othe r recen t inn ova ti o ns in filtrati on practi ces h o ld promi se fo r advanced
wastewa ter tr ea tm ent. iI/l oving hed ji/lers have been devel oped which are con-
tinuou s ly cleaned , and t he ra te o f clea nin g ca n be adju sted to match th e so lid s
lo ading ra te. Anoth er m od ifica ti o n ca lleel th e l'u/s{'d-hed ji/ler. uses compressed
air to pe ri odicall y bre a k up th e s urfa ce mat d ep os it ed o n a thin bed of fine filter
media . Onl y a fter a thi c k s uspe ns io n o f so lid s ha s accumulated o n th e bed, re-
quiring frequen t pul s ing, is the filter backwa s hed .
Both th e m ov ing bed and the pul sed-bed filters ha ve t he capabi lity o f filter in g
ra w wa s tewater . A mu c h h ig her percentage o f so lid s C,tn be I-e moved by fi ltr a ti o n
than can be removed in pr imary se ttlin g_ Thc fil te r et-flue nt. co nt a inin g lowe r
leve ls o f mos tly di sso lved o rga ni cs. res pond s very we ll to co n ve ntiona l seco ndar y
treatme nt. The filtere d so lids ca n be thi cke ned and tr ea ted by ana ero bic di ges ti o n.
Wit h a res ultant increase in overa ll meth ane pr o duc ti o n, a poss ible so urce of energy
for use wi thin th e plant.
Dissolved Solids Removal
Bo t h se co ndar y tr ea t ment (Secs. 5-9 to 5- 12) a nd nuui e n t remova l (Sec. 5- 19)
d ec rease the di sso lved- o rgilili c-so li d s co nt ent o f was tewater . Ne ither p rocess.
howe\er.- co mp le tel y re m o \'es all disso lved organic con s tit uents, and neither
process rem oves s ig nifi ca nt amo unt s o f in o rganic di ss o lved so lid s. Furth er t reat-
men t ,v iii be required _whe l-e. su bs tanli a l. reducti oDs. in. the .tota l. di sso lved .so lid s or.
mu s t be made .
Io n exc han ge. mi croporolls membrane filtr a tion. adsorpti o n. and che mi ca l
ux idatit>n ca n be lI se d to decrea se th e di sso lved so lid s co nt e nt of wa ter . Th ese
de scr ibed in Chap. 4 (Sec. 4-10), we re dcvel o peel to prepare po table '
wa ter fr o m a p oo r-qualit y raw wa ter. Their use ca n be adopted to adva nced
was tewa ter tr eatm e nt ir a hig h leve l of pr etr eatment is pr ovide d . Th e remova l of
s uspe nded so lid s is ne cessa ry prior to a ny o f t hc pr ocesses d escr ibed in Sec. 4- 10.
Remo\al of the d isso lved o rgani c material (b y ac ti v;:lt ed carbon a d so rpti o n) is
nece ss arv prior to mi croporo lls m embra ne filtratiun to pr eve nt the larger o rga nic
molecules rrom pl ugg ing the micr o pore s.
Advanced wa stewater trea tm e nt for disso lved so lid s remova l is complica ted
:J nL! Treatment o f municipa l wastewa ter by th ese pr ocesses ca n be
justified o nly when reu se o f th e wa stewa ter is anticipa tcd.
Wastewater Disposal and Reuse
II1s ig nilicant volum e u rth e inll uent wastewa te l- aCC(l ll1pani es s ludg es and o th er
.'\11
materia ls d isposed of \\'aste\\atcr- tr e:ltrnent l'r l1ccsscs. Til e hulk o f the
ENG IN EERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 303
wastewater re main s to be disposed o f a fte r the treatment proce sses h ave been
comp leted. Ult imate receptors o f tre a ted wastewaters include surface water and
gro undwat e r bodie s, land surfac es, a nd , in some in stances, th e atmo sphere. Recog -
niti o n o f th e va lu e o f was tewa ter as a water re so urc e has re sult ed in an increase in
the reuse of tre a ted e ffluent s. parti cul a rl y in water -scarce regi o n s. Portions of th e
reused was tewater may appear as effluent for di sposal after reuse.
Di sp osa l s ite s o r reuse facil iti es mu st be fou nd w ithin a dist a nce
of th e wastewater-trea tm ent plant becau se o f th e cos t of tran s p o rting th e effluent
over long di sta nces. Beca use o f th e p ossibi lit y .th a t was te wa ter m ay contain a few
viab le p a th oge n s eve n after ex tensive t reatment. both disposal a nd reuse mu st be
acco mpli s hed w ith d u e ca ution .
5-22 W ASTEW ATER DISPOSAL
Th e mo st co mm o n m eth o d o f wa stewate r d isp osa l is by dilution in surface water s .
The resp o nse of rece iving stre a m s to wastewa ter was discussed in
Chap. 3. a nd th e effec ts a re re lated to th e dilution factor and to th e quality of the
effluen t. In mo s t cases, seco nd ary treat ment is sufficient to prevent pr o blem s .
Howeve r. w he re ade quate dilution is n o t availab le. or where discharge is to· a
delica te eco sys te m . adva nc ed wa stew a te r trea tm en t may be requi red. Advanced
trea tment pri o r to di sposa l in s urfa ce wa ter s m os t often in vo lves the removal of
nutrient s. In a few Instanc es. a d va nc ed tre atme nt may b e nece ssa ry to rem ove
co ll o idal so lid s.
In climate s whe re evaporatio n fro m wa ter surfaces exceed s precipitation.
it may be poss ib le to dispo se of wa stewater by clisc h a rge to th e a tm osp here in
-.. va por' form. ' Evap o rat ·ton ·system s. a re essen ti a ll y ox id a tion ponel s. wi th surf ace
areas being designed 1'01' to ta l influ en t eva p o ration. Except for ar id a rea s where
the net evaporat io n is significant. la rge surface areas ar e required, thu s limitin g _
evapo rati o n sys tems to small fl ows in rur a l se tting s.
Fo r c itie s in coas ta l areas. ocean d isp osa l o ffers an economically attracti ve
form o f di sp osa l. The e ffluent is tran sp o rt ed o ut to sea by pipeline s a long the ocea n
noo r and discharged at multiple point s through a manifold. The leng th of the pipe-
line wi ll depen d primarily o n ocea n currents and th e quantity of waste in vo lved.
Alth o ug h raw wastewa ter has been di sposed o f in this fashi o n without cau s ing
app reciab le pr o b lem s. it is de sira ble to e limin ate fl oa ting debris , o ils a nd greases,
recognizab le objec ts from the wastewater pri o r to di spos a l. It is essential to
remove lar ge objec ts which cou ld plug the pip eline o r the m a nifold orifices.
·La nd app lica ti o n o f wastewater may. co ns idered a disposa l techn iqu e, a
form o f waStewa ter reuse . or both. The m o'st common fo rm s of land a pplicati o n
are irrigati o n' a nd rap id·infiltr a ti o n·. Wastew a ter m ay be u sed to su ppl y both th e
Water and nutrient needs of plant s. Use for thi s purpose may be pr o mpted by
eco no mics re lat in g t o ei th er th e agr ic ultural as pect s o r to th e was tewa ter disposa l
aspects. l n case. direct disc harg e to s urfa ce str eams is avo ided. R a pid
infiltr a t ion res ult s ill the d isc harge of the was tewa ters to gro undwater b od ies
304 WATER
rather than to surface wat ers. In addition to wastewa ter di spos al. o bjectives ma y
include gro undwat e r rechar ge as describ ed in a later sec ti o n of thi s cha pt er. -
Irrigation
Wastewater may be a pplied to la nd surfaces to pr ov ide bo th water a nd nutrient s
to enhance plant growth. Ait hough so me of the effluent may be los t t o eva porati o n
or to perc o lation beyond the reach of plant ro ots, mos t of the wa ter is inco rp o ra ted
into plant- tissue o r is tran spir ed to th e atm ospher e.·Wastewa ter effluents have heen
used successfully in both ar gicultur e and sil viculture a nd have been lIsed to
maintain vegetati o n in park s, o n golf co urses, and alo ng freeways and a irport run -
(a )
Comple tely flooded
(r)
Figurf 5-47 Irri ga tio ll usi llg muni cip al was tewaler ' (II) srrillklillg: (h)
,"HJ-I"urrow· tcc hn iq ucs . (From POI/lids ond Criles [5-4/ ]. )
ENG IN EERED FO R W ASTEW AT ER TREATME NT AND D ISPOS AL 305
ways. Land app lica tio n has beco me com monpl ace in semia rid areas where irriga -
tio n IS necessa ry to sustain desira ble vegeta tio n.
La nd applic ati o n of wastewa ter can be by sprinkling, fl oo ding, o r ridge-and-
furrow techniqu es, as show n in Fig. 5-47. Spr inkl e irrigation is th e mos t co mm o n
method, wi th a ppli ca tion ra tes vary ing fro m 2.5 to 10 em per week , depend ing o n
climat e, so il c hara cteristics. and th e wa ter and nutri ent requir ement of th e plant s.
T he deg ree of pretreatm ent prior to land appli cation va ries with th e nature
of the crop to be grown. Crops grown for a nim al co nsumpti on o r fo r seed pro du ctio n
ca n genera ll y acce pt lowe r-qual ity eftluent than cr o ps grown for human co nsump-
tio n. In most cases, seco ndar y tn:atm cnt is requ ired. Wastewa ter should not be
used to irri ga te vegetabl es tha t are eat en raw.
Wastewa ter irr iga tio n systems may be ow ned by the mincipality, o r co n-
tractu al arr angements can be made with loca l farm ers for effluent utili zati o n. In
either case, it is often possible to I'eco ver part of th e cost of pretreatm ent of th e
wastewa ter from th e cas h cro p or fro m sa le of the effluent. When was tewat er is
reused for la nd scap e irriga tion of pu blic property, sav ings of potable wa ter suppli es
may be a sig nifica nt ad va nt age.
T he l'e are , ho weve r. seve ra I d isad va n tages tII t he use of wastewa ter effluen t
fo r irriga tion pur poses. Th e seaso na l na tur e of irri.gation wa ter needs may result
Ii1 la rge sto rage req ui rement s. If th e syste m is to be o perated by th e muni cipalit y,
land and equipm ent mu st be purcha sed at con siderable expense, Wh ere large,
high-press ure sprinkl ers ar e used, aeroso ls can be formed which may transp ort
viral path oge ns, Large -sca le irrigati on systems mu st be loca ted away from hea vily
populated areas, and the cos t of co nveyance systems to the site is often significant.
Distributi o n systems for irriga tion of pa rk s, greenbelt s, a'nd oth er publicl y owned
areas ca n be expensive if suc h a reas are widely di spersed a nd if th e tran spo rt
system must be co nst ru cted thr o ugh deve lo ped a reas.
Rapid Infiltration
Thc ra pid Iflfiltrati oll pr ocess in\'olvcs spr eadlfl g wastewat er in shallow, unlin ed
earth en baSin s a nd allowing the liqui d to pass th e po ro us bot to m and
percola te towa rd the gro und wat er, show n in Fi g. 5-48. Wastewat er is a pplied
at the max imum rate a t which the soi l ca n ca rr y It away. Int ermitt ent " resting"
periods mu st be pr ov ided In which th e soil is all owed to dr y and 'rees tabl is h
aerobic co nci it io ns. A pplica tio n cycles 01' I() to 20 d with 1- to 2-week rest ing periods
are commo n. Th e bo tt om surface may be rak ed o r di sked prio r,to eac h ap plica tio n
cycle to d isperse so lids a nd prevent im permea ble layer from fo rm ing.
Ma ny of th e ra pid infiltr a ti o n systems in curr ent use were des igned pI'imarily
to dispose of un wa nt ed was tewat e r. Mo re recc ntl y th e process has been used as a
means of aquifer rec ha rgc or as an alh 'anced was tewat er treatm ent. wit h the'
percola te being collec ted fOI' reu,e Co llection may be by ho rizo nt al Ao\\' to
n'h"lillg. (e) ridge,
surrace strea ms, or by we lls or tilcs IIlstalled for this purp ose. T he so il acts
essentia lly as a filter rllr tertiary treatmen t
306 WATER ENG tNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TR EATME NT AND DISPOSAL 307

o !, ,"'"'"'"
Applied reused for several purposes, which includ e creation or enhancement of recreational
was tew3 ter facilitie s. industrial water sup p lies. g roundwa ter recharge . a nd direct reu se in
potable s uppli es.

f
Recreational Facilities
Water-qu a lity requirement s for recrea tio nal uses are quite strin gent. and some
form o f advanced wastewater-treatment techniq ue s will a lm os t invari a bl y be
required prior to wastewater reuse for th is purpo se . Inde ed. where body-conta c t
(a)
activitie s suc h as and wa ter skiin g are included. th e qu a lit y of th e water
reso ur ce mu st approac h that o f d rinkin g wa ter w ith resp ec t to most parameter s.
Flooding basins
Recrea tio nal wa ter shou ld be aes th e tica lly pl easi ng and essentially free o f toxi-
ca nts a nd pa th oge nic o rga ni s ms. Recrea tiona l wa ter s compos ed chiefly o r
entire ly of was tewa ter effluent s are possible. pr ovi ded a suffici e nt degree o f treat-
ment is provided.
T wo examp les o f wastewa ter re use in recre a tion a l faciliti es o ften c ited in th e
(unsaturated zone)
ittera tur e are th e San tee pr ojec t a nd the In dian C reek Reservo ir. bo th in Ca lifornia .
. BOlh fa ci litie s p rovi de a high quality o f recrea ·tiona l water. but by different treat-
men t pr ocesses.
(h)
At th e San tee faci lity seco nd a ry efflue nt is first polished in a ter ti ary ox id a ti o n
pond and th en pumped int o a ca nyo n and a llowed to fl ow hor izo nt a ll y th ro u g h
t approx im ate ly 1000 m o f sa nd a nd gra vel m a te ria l before bei ng recove red. The
recove red wa ter is then routed thr o ugh a series o f three lakes su rr o unded by a
t public park. Fi shing a nd boat ing a re a llowed on the firs t two lakes. Th e third
wa.ter
lake is ch lo rin a ted and used as a sw imming fac ility. Th e rec la imed wa ter is o f
We lls
sufficient qua lit y to me et Ca lifo rni a standards fo r body -c o nt ac t recreati o n.
[5- 14J .. .. .. . . .. . . ... . ........ . .... ..' . . . . . . .

- -
Pe r co lation
(unsa t urated zone)
Ind ian C ree k Reser vo ir rece ives tr ea tment e ffluent from th e So uth Tah oe
Public Utilities Di str ict advanced wastewa ter -treatme nt pl a nt The firs t
advanced wastewa te r-t rea tm ent plant to be built in the' United State s. the T a hoe
facility inclu·des nutrient rem ov al. fil tr a ti o n. and activated ca rb o n adsorption.
Th e reservoir co ntains about 27 x 10 6 m 3 o f wa ter. esse nti a lly a ll tre a ted effluent .
and pr ovides ,i varie ty o f wa te r-b a sed ac t ivi ties, includin g sw imm in g and wa ter
skiing . Th e impoundment a lso supp o rts exce llent tr o ut fis hin g. [ 5-13J
Fi gure 5-48 Rapid infiltration o f wa s tewater. (a) Pe rcolatIon 10 gro und""" er: (b) recover y by under·
drain tiles: (e) recovery by wells. (From US. EPA [5·4:'].)
Surplus wa ters fro m both the Santee and Tahoe faci liti es are used for irrigation
purposes. Inspired by the success o f th ese two projec ts. other municipalitie s are
plan nin g rec rea ti ona l use as one step in the reu se o f was tew ater. The city ofOenve r
5-23 W ASTEW ATER REUSE has an ambit io us p lan fo r was tewa ter recycling. a porti o n of whic h include s
recrea ti o na l f'ac ilit ies. [ 5-24 J The Fairfax Cou nt y Water Author it y ha s included an
Re u se o f treated was teW:lte r may be dictated by any lIf seve ra l circ um stan ces .. inter media te rese rv o ir hetween its advanced was tewa ter-t rea t ment plant a nd the
In water-scarce a rea s. was tewater ma y co nstitut e a maj or portion uf the availab le Occoq uan Rese r·voir. which form s a part of the W as hingt on, D.C.. water suppl y.
reso urce. Where de licate ecosys tems nec essitate etnuent t·equirements. Rt:crcationa l activities :1I"e include d as a heneficia l use . [ 5-1 3J
r'euse of th e was tewa te r ma y help to offset the of alhan cc d wastewa te r tr ea t- Advanced t rt:at ment of wastewater so le lv for the purp ose of crea tin g a recrea-
ment. or a reu se th a t wi ll a lower 01" tr eattllen t may o bviate the need tio na l reso ur ce cuu ld se ld o m be jus tified 01;a n eco n om ic ba s is. H oweve r. w hen
I"o r· the expense o f te rtiar y tr eatment pri or tll dr sch:.lrgc W;ls tew;lte r ha s been adva nced w;ts tewat e r trea tm e nt is req uir ed for ot her rea so ns . int ermed ia te use o f
308 WATER ENGINEERED SYST EM S FO R WASTEWATER T REATMENT AND D ISPOSAL 309

reclaimed water for recre a tion ca n pro ve to be a viable sc hem e and ma y improve In coas ta l a reas , sa lt wa ter from t he ocea n ma y wedge undern ea th th e fresh-
public acceptance of waStewater reuse in genera l. wa ter aq uifer because of its great er density. Drawdown fro m wells exacerbates the
prob lem a nd ca n res ult in sa lt wate r co nt a minati o n at th e well. Inj ect ion o f was te-
Industrial Water Supply water between th e pumpin g we ll and th e so ur ce of th e sa lt water may serve to
crea te a hydrostatic barrier th a t wi ll pu s h th e sa lt water bac kward. This pr ocess is
In terms of total volume , industrial water use o utranks all o th e r wa ter-u se categories
show n in Fig. 5-49.
in the United States. Additionally, industrial wa ter requir e ment s are growing
more rapidly than are municipal or agricultural requirement s'. An increa se in th e Land surface
use of wastewater effluents for industrial water supplies pa ra lle ls thi s growth.
The quality of water required for various industrial pr ocesses va rie s gre atl y.
Cooling water generally has the low est quality constraints. while boiler wa ter
G roundwater table
has the highest. The degree of treatment given wastewaters wil l o bviou sly be
dictated by the intended industrial use. Cooling proces ses, which co nstitute the
largest water requirement in most industries, may be able to usc seco nd a ry
effluent directly , although additional solids removal is desirab le and additiona l Fresh water
treatment with biocides may be necessary to prevent biof o uling of surfaces.
Advanced wastewater treatment may be provided by the wastewater auth o rit y
prior to delivery to the industry , or industry m ay rec eive seco ndar y effluent a nd (a)
provide treatment processes designed to meet their particular need s.
A wide variety of industries make use of municipal effluents, the mo st common
being the power-generating industry and petrochemical plants. In Concord.
California, an industrial complex con sisting of Phillip s Pe tr o le um , Shel l Oil ,
Stauffer Chemical, Monsanto Chemical, and Pacific Gas a nd Electr ic receives
'0
effluent from the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District. The advanced was te-
water-treatment plant provides about 64.000 m 3 / d of high-quality effluent to th e
industries. In Odessa, Texas , a petrochemical indu str y receives secon dar y e ffluent
from the city's wastewater plant and pro vides additional treatm ent as necessary. Ocean
After use in the industry, the wastewater is reu sed fo r secon dar y recov ery oper-
ations in the oil fields. '[5-3J water
tb)

Groundwater Recharge Wa stewater

injcl"'ion
Wastew<\ter can become a part of groundwater as an inadvertent consequence of well
land applica!i6n for irrigation or from rapid in filtration systems d es ig ned fOl'
wastewater dispo sa l. As discuss ed in thi s section , ho weve r. gro und wat e r recharge
will be considered a plann ed activit y with well-defin ed o bjec ti ves. These o bjec ti ves
may i'nclude stabilizin g the groundwater table , creating hyd ros tatic ba rri ers to

-
prevent saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, and stor ing wa ter for futur e
use.
In areas where groundwater is used extensively for ag l'ic ultural. indu strial.
a nd municipal purpo ses. water maybe withdrawn from anaquif er Illor e rapi d ly
Fr esh
than it can be rep leni shed by natural me,!ns. In additi o n to. th e dep let ion o f the watf?r
resource , the drop in the water tabl e may res ult in s ub s id e nce o f th e area as the
pores in the drain ed part of th e aquifer collapse. Should thi S occur. thc sto rag e a nd (cl

hydraulic conductivity o f the acquifer may be altered. Thi s rr ocess call be s lulAcd. 5-49 I.'se oil rCd led W;)qCW;) lCf l<l bll)ck ,,11111:1In jrllr)),j(lil . ((/) Nd Iura I C<lllt! jlion, (/1) S:I Ii w:Hcr
stop ped , or even rcvcrsed by rec harg c wit h reclaimed was tewa ter. ,'5-4 J llllllt;-'\· .Hl fr\ill1 (j) v..astC\\"alc! n;lrriL'1
 310 WATER ENG INEERED SYST EMS FOR W ASTEW ATER T REAT MENT AND DISP OSAL 311

S to rage of was tewa te r in th e aq uife r is inc id en ta l to bo th of th e above pro- was tewa ter-tre a tm ent sys tem is piped directly t o the influent of the wa ter-treatment
cesses, but grou n dwa te r rec ha rge sys tems may also be des ig ned w ith wa ter plant. I ndir ecl reuse in vo lves st o r age o f tre ated effluent in natural.or artificial .
storage as t he ir pr ima ry fun c ti o n. T his sto r age may fu nct io n m uc h t he same as wa ter bo di es fo r a peri od o f tim e pri o r to withdr a w a l and Inc o rp o r a tIon mt.o th.e...
storage in su rface reservo irs, th e wa ter ta b le fa iling d u r in g pe r iods of h igh pu mpin g wate r suppl y. Indi rect re use is th e m o re accept a ble p ra cti ce at the pre sent time .
a nd r is in g d uri ng pe ri o d s of low w ith d ra wa l. When ;I LJuifer c ha racte r is tics a re Di re ct re u se o f w as tew a ter h as been practiced a t Windhoek , Southwest
favo rab le to st orage. thi s meth od has severa l adva nt ag es ove r surface storage Africa, s ince 1969. After second a ry treatment, wastew a ter is stored in m a turation
rese rvoi rs. E xtensive co nstru c t io n is avoided. surface use is not disturbed or (ho ld in g) p o nd s a nd th e n tre a ted as shown in Fig . !his system is
res t r ic ted. eva p ora ti o n losses are m in imi zed, and t hc wa ter is iso la ted from most at hig h-u se peri o d s o f the year and d uring drou g ht co ndItIOns a nd .h a s constItuted
sources o f con tam ina nt s. as m u ch as 50 per ce nt o f the p o ta bl e suppl y. [5- 54]
L iab iliti es assoc ia ted w iih i he use of rec laimed was tewa ter for gro u ndwa ter
rec ha rge re la te m os tl y to wa ter qu a lit y. Lik e surface wa te r b odi es, ac qu ifers have
se lf-c lea nin g m ec h a ni sm s. H oweve r. th ese m echanisms may wo rk ve ry s low ly, Sru d ge diges ti on
a n d di sposa l
a nd ce rt a in co nt a min a nt s ma y rem a in in t he groundwate r for yea rs. Because lit t le
can he do ne to speed th e se lf-pur ifi ca t io n process. ex t reme care mu st be exe rcised
to avoid aq u ife r co nt am in a ti o n . Wh e re part of an aqui fer is use d for drinki n g-water
supp lies. t he rec h a rge wa ter mu st be o f essen ti a ll y potab le LJuali ty.
Mu ni ci pa l
M eth od s o f aq uife r rechar ge inc lud e land s p rea d ing a nd sub se qu ent perco la- wHslewater
tiQn (esse ntiall y t he same pr o cess as rapi d intiitratiu ll dcsc ri be d ear li er ) a nd di rec t
inject io n Di rec t inj ec ti c n is t he reverse o f w idtiidrawa l by a we ll and pum p
syste m . as sh ow n in Fig. 5-49c. Land s p reading is the p referred met hod
s ince ad d itio na l a erob ic tr eatm e nt is p rov id ed in t he so il ahove t he aq uifer.
S usp end ed so lids a re re mo ved ncar tli e s urfa ce \vhere th e p lugge d area ca n be
res tore d mu c h m o re ea s ily than a plu gge d a q u ikl ' With th e exce pti o n of
Algae scum
la nd acq uisi t Io n. t he ca pit a l cos ts o f la nd spr ead Ing systems are lower than t hose of
to disposal
injec ti o n we lls . a nd ope ra tin g cos ts arc a lso lower. r5-45] D irec t injec ti on may be
necess iated b y im permea ble st ra ta be twee n the surface and th e aquife r, or may
. p rQ.v:i.d e.ID.Q (C a CCUI.a te. placeJnellLiLLh e recl a im ed .wa·ter· is Hsed· fo r· bani ers ·aga inst
sa lt wat e r intru s io ll . A hi g he r qu a lit y o f wa ter. p a rt ic ularl y \y ith res pec t to s us pend ed
so li ds. is re quir ed fo r dir ec t inj ect io n.
Collapsed
foam to
Reu se in Potabl e Water System s disposal
In co r por ati o n o f was tew ater info po ta ble water supp lies has a lways hee n a n
in adve rt e nt co nseq ue nce o f e mu ent di sc ha rge Int ll \V a te rco u rscs. Most m aj o r
st reams co n ta in a s ign ific ant pe l'Centage () f that was p re\' io us ly use d an d
d iscarded to be d ilu ted w ith th e na tur a l fl uw "tIlel 1;ltcr wi thd rawn raw wa ter
for a second or thi rd use. As wa ter dema nd s II1crcasc. t hc re use fac tN alsu increases.
Goreanga b
This sys te m has bee n co ns id ered sa t isfac tory in coun trics where ade q uate wa te r- rese rvoir ---'---1
t reatme nt fac iliti es a re avail a ble. a lth o ug h in recent years th e a pp ea ran ce of w a te r
c he m ica l s u bs ta nces tha t a re d ifficu lt to id e nt ify allL! d il lic ult to remove has ca used
c'onside rab le concern to t he water.i nd us tr y.
T he int en tiona l LIse o f \\'as tewater as a of the potahle sLIpp ly is a more
Munic ip a l wate r su pp ty
recen t occurrence. This reuse i..,> us ua ll y hy s lHl rt age uf
wa ter Re use may be direc t o r ind irect. /)/r('o rCllse is LIsu;I1 ly I·crerred to as closeJ Figure 5-5 0 Schemalic or waslewaler.lreatme nl pla tH inco rpo raling di rect reuse. (From Clay/Oil and
ilJup or pipe-Io-pipe r ('crci ill g. w hich ind icates t hat t li e t rea ted d ilu e nt fr u m th e Proll.\" [5-11].)
 f jJ j
312 WATER
I }j' ! i
'/ J

Indirect reuse separates the wastewater-treatment plant from the water- t'I I"
. II'
purification plant by a carefully controlled natural link. The most common
approach is by storage in surface reservoirs or in aquifers for varying period s
of time. In surface reservoirs , the wastewater is subjected to sunlight, aeration,
biological action, and other processes that reduce the chance of transmission of
pathogens. [5-13J Dilution by runoff water mayor may not be desirable, depend-
ing on its quality. Water stored in aquifers is subjected to filtration through the
soil material, biological action , and adsorption and ion-exch a nge processe s.
Wastewater stored in aquifers is less likely to become recontaminated than is
surface water.
>-
Indirect reuse of wastewater is -practiced at several places in the United
States. An example is the Occoquan system near Washington, D.C. An advanced
wastewater-treatment plant has replaced several smaller secondary systems and
'rl
provides treatment as shown in Fig. 5-51. The terminal reservoir provides a I
safety factor against perturbation s in effluent quality. From the treatment plant, I
the treated wastewater flows through Bull Run Creek for abou t 12 km to the I
__ ...J
Occoquan Reservoir. This surface reservoir is a source of raw water for a water-
purification plant providing potable water to the surrounding area.
The benefits and liabilitie s of using groundwater reservoirs as the natural
link between wastewater and potable water are not so well defined. Although
limited use of wa stewater for aquifer recharge is practiced throughout the world. r-
no large-scale use of this reclaimed water for potable supplies'is currently practiced.
In southern California . where wastewater is used extensively for groundwater
j I
I
recharge, future reuse in potable supplies is planned, provided current research t:
.2 I
confirms the absence of health problems . [5-4J
-"v I
--
'-'
0.0- -

-
v.
0

::J '-'
no
(/)-
'D C>:I
Planning for Wastewater Reuse
L__
Many areas of the world are pre sent ly experiencing water shortages or expect to I
experience them in the foreseeable future. In the se areas, wastewaters must be 1
considered a valuable resource and integrated into the available water supply. I t---:- .
The principal concerns involving the reu se of wastewater are public health L __ -1
and public acceptance. It is known that pathogen s are present in wastewaters, I

and the total remov a l by even advanced wastewater treatment cannot be assured i
at all times. Additionally . some fraction of refract ory organics remains in waste-
c
water, regardless of the extent of treatment. There may be chemical compounds g ;::
present in wastewater that have not been discovered and for which there is pre sent ly E c
co
no method of measurement. Thus. human contact with wastewater. .even in non - 2
c:'"
potable uses. carries a risk factor \vl]ich is largely unknown . It is hoped th at :; if
!;:J la ,,
research currently in progr'ess will help to' quantif y tho se risks.
'iHi r· I!: : I

!
Public acceptance is a nece ssa ry factor in w'astewater reuse. Experience at I '

I Ii I

"1,1
the Santee project in California indicates that public acceptance is greatly en- I
J
, ,, " I
hanced by informing and involvin g the public at all stages of planning ane! imple-
:
, Ii
I
mentation of wastewater reuse. Following thi s lead . the City of Denver has
313
 314 WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 315

launched a ma ss ive drive for public acceptance of wastewater recyclin g. [5-24J Industr y
tndu str y
Nonpotable reuse of effluent from a 'p'lpnl]t;d. wit,h exten s ive 0 n· lim' o ff-lin e
research on health and toxicological s tudie s h e ing performed . Co ncurr e ntly . a
public edu ca ti o n pr og ram ha s been designed to g ain public accept a nce o f eventual Flo w, m ' / d t X,750 13,275
BOD " mg / L 300 215
reuse in the pot a ble sys tem , should the health s tu clie s sllo 'w thi s to be practical.
SS, mg/ L 420 240
The se program s are to con tinue fo r 10 t o 15 yea rs if s uc cess ful. will result
Ammonia. mg / L 64 t5
in the construction of a full-scale plant fr om which re use will include dir ec t recycle Ch lo ride , m g/ L 29 41
t o th e potable sys tem . The City of San Die go. C a lifornia , is pr ese ntl y embarking o n Alkalinity , mg/ L 57 t25
a s imilar pr oje c t. [5-2J .
Other projects have ch ose n to limit the utilization of rec laim eu was tewat er
t o n o npotable u ses fo r the present tim e . In Ca lifo rni a. Lo s Ang e les and Oran ge 5-5 What is an effiuent- limited stream ? A water -quality-limited stream?
counties conducted ar: exten s ive : and . identifi ed a lo n g- term 5-6 Differentiate between unit operations and unit processe s.
n o npotable reu s e potential of d S:i 0 ol 1 jb J(d
oC: l(ea ted ;' wa s tewater. The se u ses 5-7 Define and describe the co mp onents of (a) primary treatment. (b) secondary treatment, and
in clude irri ga tion of public and groundwater . (e) tertiary treatment.
re charge. The u ses require varyi n g levelS ': <i:{ tre::j:tme nt , 'and thu s var yi n g co sts 5-8 What are the co mmon engin ee red method s of removing so lids from wastewater? Describe
depending upon the water quality to ea ch u ser. At tli e proJ ec t 's initia- and define eac h o f these method s.
ti on, a combination of use rs th a t optimized t he cos t or treatm en t ami deli ve ry o f th e 5-9 What are the mai or types and S9 urces of grit in municipal wastewaters ? Describe treat-
wastewater was selected. [5-27J Thi s type of ha s cu n s id e rable merit ment meth ods used to remove gr it.
when the dem a nd for tre a ted wastewater exceeds th e s uppl y. 5-10 A channel-type grit chamber luis a flow-thr ough velocity of 0.29 m/s. a depth of 0.8 m,
As demand for water increa ses. m o re co n s ideration will nece ssa ril y be g ive n and a length of to m. For inorgani c particles with specific gravity of2.5, determine the large st-
to fitting the qualit y of ,to; t1h e,lij],el). a ll water di s tri - rliameter particle that can be rem ove d with 100 percent efficiency. ,:
buted thr ough pu bhc . '+ IOf' :qual!ty , alt h 6 ugh less th a n o ne- 5-11 A channel-type grit chamber is to be installed in a wastewater-treatment plant processing
half the water di s tribut ed : throu, gb tllc SC;!::sys te ms :i's ' in a mann e r nece s- 8550 m 3 /d. The How- thr ough velocity is to be controlled at 0.33 m/s by a downs tream pro-
s itatin g p o table water for :' ihe o f water o f weir. Determin e th e chann el dimension s for a depth to width ratio of I : 1.5.
less -than-potable qualIty tS ·a bup {faii.t, a))c! j" re c lallned cou ld con- Determine the appropriate dimensions for an aerated gri t chamber processing 23.500
ceivably be u se d in man y instance s where potable wa te r is n o w b e ing used. Such m' /d of municip a l wastewater. Also calc ulate the total air fl ow. " .. .. ... .. .............. .. ........ ..
us e would be in keeping with the 1958 rec o mmendation of the U.N. Economic 5-13 What flov.;s· in it wastewater -trea tment
and Social Council [5-39J: "No higher qua lit y water, unle ss th ere is a s urplu s o f it, plant ?
should be u sed f o r a purpose that can to lerate a lower gra de ." C ur re ntl y. thi s 5-14 Descr ibe unit o pera ti ons used in primary sedimentation.
3
phil osophy is o ften quoted , ye t se ld o m applied. . 5-15 A municip a t wastewater-trea tm en t plant proce sses an average flow of 14,000 m j d.
Tbe peak fl ow is 1.75 times the average . The wastewater contains 190 mg/ L BODs and 2IO
mg/L suspended so lids at avera ge flow and 225 mg/ L BOD s and 365 mg/L suspend ed so lIds
at peak flow. Determin e the follow ing for a primary clarifier with a 20-m diameter.
DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS (u) Surface overflow rate and the approximate rem ova l efficiency for BOD s and sus-
pended solids at average flow
(h) Surt'ace overHow rate a nd the approximate remov a l efficiency for BOD s and sus-
5-1 Name and characterize ihe three most significa nt c()mponent s of Illunicipal wastewater . pended solids at peak now
5-2 A mun icipa l wastewa ter treatment plant receives an ave rage fl ow of 11 .500 rn 3: d . Estimate (e) Mass of so lids (k ilog ram s per day) that is rem oved as sludge for average and peak flow
the quantitie s (kil og ram s per day) of BOD and suspend ed so lids in the influ cnt if the waste, conditions.
3
water is cons idered to be (a) str ong. (b) medium . and (c) weak . 5-16 A wastewater:treatmcnt plant must proce ss an average fl ow of 24.500 m /d , with peak
5-3 A co mmunit y produces an average wastewa ter fl ow of (,550 mJ;U Estim atc the nitrog en Rows of up to 40.000 m 3 /d. Design criteria for surface overflow rates have been se t by the sta te
and pho spho rus loa ding to th e treatm ent plant if the wastcwatcr is tvpiC<l'lIy (0) weak. (h ) strong, regUlatory agency at a ma ximum of 40 mid for average conditions and 100 mid fo r maximum
and (c) medium. . conditi ons. Determine the d imensio ns of the primar y clarifi er if it is a
5-4 A muni cipal wastewa ter-tr ea tment plant receives a seasonal discharg e fr olll a fruit- (a) Circu lar basin
pr ocess ing pla nt. Influ en t fl ows and strengths of the when the industry is bo th on- (h) Long-rectan gu lar basin (1. = 3 W)
and ofT-line are show n below . Determin e the co ntribllli ()11 o f each cons tituent hy the indu stry. te) Squar e cross-flow tank
 316 WATER ENG IN FERI, f) SYSTE MS FO R WAS TEW ATER TR EAH IENT AND DI SPOSAL 317

If the influent suspended solids is 200 mg/L at average flow and 230 mg/ L at peak flow. de- at a con centrati on of 3000 mg/ L MLSS, and the secondary c larifi er is designed to thicken
termine the mass of solids (kilograms per day) removed by the primary clarifier. the sludge to 12.000 mg/ L. For a mean cell-res idence .t ime of R d. determine
plant proce sses 200.000 m 3 j d of municipal wastewater. (0) Th e vo lum e of th e reac to r
The design overflow rate is 50 mid. and four un·its in parallel a re to be constructed . Con crete (h) Th e ma ss of the so lids and the wet vo lum e o f sludge was ted each da y
tanks are to be used and the cost of pouring circular sidewall s is 1.2 times the co st of pouring (c ) Th e sludge recycle rati o
straight sidewalls . Determine the percent savings in construction costs in each instance if '2.. 5-28 ;\ compl etely mixed activat ed-s ludge planl is to treat 10',000 m.l/d of indu strial waste·
(a) long-rectangular tanks (L = 4 W) or (h) square cross-flow tank s are used (with common ./ waler. Th e wa stewater ha s a BOD , 01 1200 mg/ L that must be reduced to 200 mg/ L prl o l to
walls) instead of circular tanks . . . dischar ge to a muni cipa l sewe r. Pilot-plant an a lysis indicates that a mean cell-re sidence time
5-18 Determine the weir-loading rates in Prob . 5·.16 if a simpl e weir is used at the periphery of of 5d maintainin g M LSS co ncentr a tion of 5000 mg/ L produ ces th e desired res ult s. The
the circular tank. at the 'end of the long-rect a ngular tank . and 'along one side of the square Y to be 0.7 kg/kg and the va lue of kJ is fo und to be 0.03 d - '. Determine
tank. (a ) Th e vo lum e of the rC;lct,,, (5) -;0 1 Y;; :-;".,
5-19 Define: (a) biomass. (b) lag phase. (e) log-growth phas'e; (d) stationary pha se. (f) endo· (h) Th e ma ss ancl vo lullle of solids wasted each da y ( -
genous phase, (f) suspended cultures. (II) attached cultures. and (h) flocs. (c) Th e sludge recirculati o n r;Jtio
5-29 Th e ac ti vat ed-slud ge system shown in the skelch belln" 15 o perating at equrlibrium.
5-20 Name, define, and de scribe the most common metilod of quantifying bioma ss.
Determ ine the vo lume of sludge thai mUSI he w;J sted each day if "' ;J Slage is acco mpli shed fr om
5-21 What external factor s ma y alTectthe rate of bioma ss pr oducti on and food utili za tion')
(a ) POlnt ;\ an d (b) POlnt B.
5-22 Explain the basic concept of the «ui vated -s ludge proce ss and indi cate tile advanta ges ::lI1d
disadvantages of the two major kinds of activated- sludge react o rs.
5-23 A tapered aeration syst; m similar 10 that sho wn in Fig. 5. 17h is used to treat 12.500 m'/d B
of municipal wastewater. The wastewater has rece ived primary treatment and has a 1300, A er at o r

of 140 mg j L and a suspend ed solids of 125 mg /L. The system is to be o perated in the follo wing
way.
Soluble BOD 5 in eltluent $ 5 mg: L 8 e = lOci
Q = 12,000 mi d Second ary
Average solids concentration in the react o r = 2000 mg/ L ,· =4 .000 Jll )
clarifl er
Mean cell-retention time = 10 d X = mg/ L
The'biological constants have been determin ed by pilot-plant analy sis and are :
I
kg biomas s
} = 0.55 --- :.: _-- .. -_ .. - .. t . .... .1.
kg BOD utili zed I .
ko = 0.05 d 1 , X, = I (J.OOO mg!1- JI
'" .-L------------:-
' ,

/'" '"
(a) Determine the length of the reaClor if it is 5 m wide and 5 m deep.
(h) Assume an effluent suspended-s o lids co ncentrati on o r 30 mg/ L: the BOD ; of the Qk'
. solids is 0.65 mg BOD / LO mg 55. Determin e the' total BOo' in' the effluent.
Determine the average biomass co ncemra!ion in .a co nventional acti vated -sludge
V reactor similar to shown in Fig. th.e fo llowing co nditions. 5-30 Wh y ; 11T ;J cr;lIion devices a' 11 ; 11 pMt pf hioln glcal rea ctor s" Nam e and desc ribe Ihe two
Flow = 18.300 m 3 fd major " er"ti o n tcchnlC)ues. imliuling the kind s ,)f biological reacto rs in which th ey a re 1I10st
Influent BQD = 160 mg/ L often used.
Eltluent BOD = 5 mg! L 5-31 Wha t other suspenckd-cultur e bi o logica l systems ar e av a ilahl e for trea tin g was tewa ter
kg bioma ss besid es the ;Ictiva ted-slu dge proccsses"
Cell yield coefficient Y = - .-- ---- -- .. -
kg BOD utiliz ed 5-32 An ox itia tlo n-ciitch svSlem rece ives 7500 m "'d o f Ill unicipal ,,"aste-
water. Th e BO D in th e waSlcw"l", is 21() Ill'gi l a nd no pr'im;1r1 t reatment is p rovided . The
Endogeneous decay coefficient = 0.04 d J
oxidalio n dit ch is 3 llllie ep. 7 III \\' id e. ami 400 111 I,)ng. The reacto r is .o peral ed at .1 800 mg/ L
Tank volume ='6100 m J
MLSS and tlie bio log ical conslant s ar c )' = 0.5 kg/ kg and k" = 0.06 d - ' . D etermin e the
M\!an cell-residence time = 9 d . .
lIlean cell-resid ence time for 90 percenl ROI) rClllov;I1 .
- Determine the volumetric loading rat e ,' f the sys tem desc ri bed ill Prob. 5-21
A W;lStcwatc r !low of SOO() 111 ',\1 lS trea led in; l fac ulta li' e oxid; lt lon pL1 nd that is 2.0 m
s"ur1)etermine the food-ma ss ratio of the systcm desc ribed in P ro h. 5-24. J decp wi: h a sur face ;Hca of 20 lia. T he \\,aSIC\\·"tc r h;JS a so luble BOD ; of I SO Illg 'l a nci a reac-
\ 5- A wastewater flow having the c1wract cristics of that in Pr o b. 5-24 is to be tre,lted in a lion r;ll<: coellicie nl olI U () d ' . I)etl'rmin c Ih e sll lu bic BOD ,' f tllC ctlluent. (t\ss ume a cum·
·· completely mixed activated- s ludge system slnJii:l r tLI t ha t of Fig . S-16i1. The reactor is to operate pletel\" mi \e d reac tor \\ lll)(lut s,did s lCL"lCie)
 31H WATER ENGtNEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 319

5-34 Rework h ob. 5-33 with the 20-ha surface area being equally divided betwee n thr ee 5-49 A settling analy sis is run on the contents of an activated-sludge reactor with the following
po nd s. results:
5-35 !\ wa stewa ter' How o f 3550 m "d is to be trea ted in a facu ltat r\ e Iwml system . Th e re:Jction
rate coe llicrent at the aver ag e operating temperature is 0.35 rJ I Th e pond is ex pecte d to
Co nce rllratloll, mg / L 1200 2200 3800 6 t 00 8200 11,00 0
operate at a di spersio n fa ctor of 0,5. Deter-mine the surfac e are;1 required fo r X5 perce nt re-
moval of so lubl e BOD for a pond depth o f 2 m \V ith (a) a single-cell pond and (h) a four -cell 0.4 0 ,09
Veloci ty, m /h 5,8 3.2 1. 6 0.6
sys tem .
-1 5-36 Waste\Vater from a poullr y- processing piant averages IODO rn J/d wi th ;1 $ll luhle UOD s
--r- of 1000 mgj L. This waste is to be treated In :1 thr ee-ce ll fac ultatl\ 'c rond sys tem in which the Gi ven the following informat ion. determine the concentration of so lids and the flow rate of the
20"C rc'actlOfJ rate co nstilnt k ha, been found ,t u he D.5 d ' I The co ld es t month ly :Iverage secondar y clarifier underfl ow. .
temp erature IS expec ted to be Iwe For a celdliciellt .uf IU S. deter m ine the (a) Flow from the rea ctor is 9500 m 3/d with a so lids con tent of 3000 mg/L.
surfa ce area require d to meet an e.(fluent sta nd a rd of 50 mg/ L solu ble !lOD . (h) The secondar y clarifier has a d ia meter of 17 m.
b 5-37 Rewo rk Prob. 5- 35h with surface :Jerato r, beIng placed in the prrrnar y rond , Determine 5-50 '\ settlinganal ysis is run o n sludge from a n extended aera tion activated-sludge reactor
the power requirement for the aerators if the oxyge n t ran sfer rate is 0.9 kg O ,/ kW . h. with the fo llow ing resu lts:
Rework Prob. 5-36 with surfa ce aerators bein g pl aced in the primary p()nd Deter mine the
power requirement for the aerator s if thc oxyge n tran sfer rat e is I.OS kg 0 2/kW h.
5-39 What auvant: lges uo bi o-IO\\CrS have over classrc:Jltrickling filter," C":!ce ntralr o,, , mg / L tOOO 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
3
5-40 A municipal wastewater with a fl ow of 17,55D m / u and :1 UOD , of 150 IIlg/ L IS to be 04 0,2 0. 1 0.06
Sl'lIli llg vcloctly. m/h 2.S 14
treated in a bi o- tower wit h plastrc mod ular medium . l' i1ut'p l:lIlt :J1l;Jiysis h:" est;lhli shed a
treatabilit v co nstant o f (l.OS min r for th e sys tcm at 20 C. The maximum tClllperature
expec ted is 23 'c. and the minimum tcmpe ra tur e is 13"C. 1'0 1' a recycle ra tio :lI1d a Under equ ilibrium conditions. flow to the secondary clarifier is 4200 m 3/d with so lids content of
7,0-m depth . determine the area of the to\\'er requir ed to produ ce a 20 Illg -L HOD , dlluent. 2000 mg/ L. For a preselected so lids flux rate of 2,5 kg/ m 2 . h. determine the required diameter
5-4 1 Assullle that th e minimum fl elW is 0.6 times the average and th;lt the maximum flow is of the clarifier.
2 tim es the From the data given in Proh . SAO. cietermine the cllicic ncy for 5-51 A secondary clarifier processes a lotal flow of 10,000 m 3 /d from a conventional activated-
minimum and maxim um fl ow ra te with the h)dra ulic fl o\\ Q heJd con stant h) adjus ting the slu dge reac tor. The concentration o f so lids in the flow from the reactor is 2600 mg/ L. The
recycle ratil' Q,. results of a settling anal ysis o n th e sludge is given below.
5-42 Repeat Prob. 5-4 1. bUl maintain the 2 : I recyc le ratio of I'r oh. 5·"lbn d a 11 0\\ the hyd raulic
.. llo\(' r:iic·Q·()\ ;,iry'ac co raingli .. ·.... ' .. , ........ , , . " .' .. .... .
5-43 DeSCribe a ro tat ing bi ological co ntactOf' reactor. What a rc the adIClIlt;lges and dis- Concc lllr:!l io n. mg/ L 1490 2600 3940 5425 6930 9 100' 12,000
advanta ges of such a reac tor"
SCllling velDcilY . m / h 5.5ll 3.23 1.95 1.010 ,550.260, 14
5-44 A wastewater with the charact eristics gl\c n in Pr ob . 5--10 is to he tl e,lIcel uSI ng a rllia ting
biolo giciJi C\"lta Ctllr sys tem Ass ume that the informati o n in Figs. 5· 2<) a nd 5- , I) app lies to the
se lec ted medium . The mediulll is' mallufactur ed in X-m shaft lengths, WIth 1';lc h sh;d't con taining Fur equilibrium conditions and a so lid flux rate of 6 kg/ ril 2 . b, determine the underflow rate,
1.2 x 10" In l of surface area , Determine th e Ilumber of modules fu r Cllll lpietl' nllrilicatioll of
the underflow so lids conc entration. and the overllow rate . .
I he was(ew,-Ifer.
5-52 When is disinfection o f wa stewater effluents required? Why has the wisdom of using
5-45 1\ \\,;rstewater with the c hara cter istIcs Ill' thai gllen III Proh. :'-2.1 " tll he treated hyall ch lorine for disinfecti on of wastewate r co me under question?
RBC system . .'\ ssu me a minimum tempe ratu re of 10 C and the RBC ' cir;rrae'tclrstics of Pwb.
5-53 What is the organic co ntent of primary and secondary sludge ?
5.44. I)ctermine the numb er llf requir ed ull it s for <)1)" " BOD rClllll\ ;d.
5-54 Name and describe t he mos t co mm on method s available ror volume reduction of sludge,
5-46 <Ire t he two objec ti vcs that shou ld bl.' met b), seconda l )' ca rdicrs fo r act i\ ;Itcd sludge')
5-55 i\ wastewa ter-tr e:ltmcnt plant con sists of primar y tre a tment fo llowe d by an aet iva ted-
5-47 USlllg th e Infnrm:ltio n ill Tabl e 5- 10. dc termin e the 'Ill' "I' a "ccIli!d;lr) l ' J;1I ifi,1 to r" lIow a SlUdge secondary sysle m, Sl ud ges fro m the primary clarifier and was te-a ctivated sludge rrom
J
celnventillll ili <Il'ti\'<Ited·slud)!e rcactn f'. Th e influe nt flo\\ " Ill d :1I1d the rccvck ratiO the underflow are mixed a nd thickened in a grav ity thickenerc The primary sludge contams
\2,/ Q is 05. Th e'so lids co ncentrati oll ill the erllu cnt from thl' rl'al'lor IS 25()() Ill g L. 1250 kg of dry so lids per d ay with a .. percent so lids conte nt. The waste-activated sludge
S-4S :\ scco lld:u!, c l,lrIfier is to be designed tel rem()\ 'c the hJ(llll;ISS Irlllll ;1 e',)fllpicICiv mixed COntains 525 kg of dry so lids per day and has a solids co nten t of 1,2 percent. After thlckenll1g .
ac ti\a ted -silldgc re;lct o r', Average ilow co nditi o ll s (iniluellt pillS rl.'c)clc) IS Ill J d. the the mi xtur e has a so lids co nt ent or 3.0 percent.
1l1inllllUm l1 e)\\' is \) ne-halfthis amount. a lld the peak Ilo\\ i, 2 I tlllle, thl' ;J\ e ra!!l'. l ts ing Tab le Calcu late (0) the volum e of sludge th at must be proce ssed after thi cken ing and (h) the
deSl!l1l a sccnllciarv c larifier tIl mcct these celllditiun s percent vo lume reciuctio n in th e thi ckener.
 320 WATER ENG INEERED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 321

3
5-56 A high-rate aeration system produces 1140 m 3 /d of waste sludge. The sludge is wasted Determine (a) the required reactor volume. (b) the volatile solids loading rate (kg / m . d).
directly from the aerator and has a solids content of 3300 mg/ L. This sludge is thickened by a and (e) the gas production (m 3/day).
dissolved air flotation unit to 3.0 percent solids. Determine the volume of the thickened sludge. 5-60 Rewo rk Prob. 5c58 for a high-rate two-stage system employing a mixed, heated first
5-57 What is sludge digestion? What are the two ba sic types of sludge digestion units? stage with a digestion period of 10 d and a second stage with a thickening period of 4 d.
5-58 A wastewater-treatment plant consists of primary tr eatment followed by a completely 5-61 A wastewater-treatment plant consists of primary treatment plus secondary treatment in
mixed activated-sludge secondary system. The primary and seco ndary sludges are mixed. a bio-tower. The underflow frolll the secon dary clarifier is returned to the influent of the primary
thickened. and treated by anaerobic digestion. The system is shown schematicallv in the clarifier where it assists in removing the raw solids by adsorption and settl ing. The waste -
accompanying figure. The wastewater. plant.- and sludge characteristics of
intere st water flow is 22.500 m 3 /d with 250 mg/ Lof suspended solids. The secondary underflow con -
are given below. tains 1180 kg/d of biological solids. Virtually all of the secondary so lid s plus 60 percent of the
raw so lids is remo ved. The und erflow from the pl'imary clarifier has a so lid s content of 5
percellt. These solids a re to be furth er treated in a high-rate anaerobic digester. The first
stage is heated and mixed and requires 15 d for complete digestion. Th e sludge is dewatered
Wastewater to 35 percent so lids by a filter press before final disposal. Assuming an organic content of 70
Treatment plant Sludges
percent and digestion of 50 percent of the organics, determine the vo lume of the reactor and
Influent SS = 240 mg / L Dia. of primary Primary the volume of the dewaterecl so lids.
Influent BOD = 210 mg; L clarifier = 25 m sludge = solids 5-62 Name and descrihe the mos t common methods of sludge disposal.
Effluent BOD = 10 mgj L Aeration basin Waste secondary
5-63 Name anel describe the most cornman methods for I'emoval of nutrients dur ing tertiary
Flow = 14.350 m' ld volume = 3600 m' sludge = O. solids
MLSS ill Thickened treatment of municipal wastewater
aerallon = 2800 mg /L sludge = 2.6"" solids 5-64 Draw a tlow diagram in schematic of a wastewater-treatment plant that includes
priinary (including treatment. secondary treatment by conventional activated
sludge. and nitrogen removal by air stripping. Sludge treatment is by two-stage anaerobic
digestion. Identlfy each unit In the system and brietly state ilS purpose, State the destination of
all materia ls leaVing the plant Identify all points of chemical addition and name the chemical.
5-65 Repeat Prob. 5,64 for the followi ng treatment system:
Influent Effluent (a) Primary treatment (including prel imin ary)
(1)) Seconda ry treatment by rotating hiological contactors
(1') Nitrogen removal bv nitrification-denitrification
5-66 Name and describe the primary methods of removing suspended and dissolved solids
I I I during tertiary·treatment of municipal wastewater.
L __ , __ --L _____ .-J 5-67 Repeat Prob. 5-64 for the following treatment system
(a) Primary (including preliminary)

__ l (b) Com pletely mixed acti va ted-sludge secondary

(J') Nitrogen and phosphorus remoVJI
I
/ '"\ ,(d) Advanced solids removal by granular-medium filtr:ttlon
.. -------; Thickener \-- - - To sludge digestion k) Refractory orga nic removal by acti\ated carbon
\ J 5-68 Name and describe the comJllon methods of di spo si ng of wastewater effluent from treat-
"'----/ mcnt plants.
5-69 i\ municipa l wastewater is to be treated and dischargecilntn a stream that empties into a
pristine mounta'in lake t ha t is used for recreational purposes. Draw il schematic now diagram
Determine (0). the solids Joading to the '(kg /d and m 3/d). (h) the percent volume of a treatment plant to prep;lre the w;lStewater fo r discharge.
requction in the, thickener , and (el the vo lum e of supernatan t returned from the thickener 5-70 Treat ed Illunicip;ll waste\\";lter is to be injected into an aquifer to form a hydrostati c
to the primary clarifier. . barrier ;Igainst ,;tltwater intrusion. Withdrawal uf the Inje):ted wat er for domestic use is not
5-59 The thickened sludge in Prob. 5-56 is processed in a standard-rate anaerobic digester anticipated. Dr;l\i· a schematic of a trea tment plant to pl'epare the wastewate r for
this purpose. "
The digestion period is 30 d and t he sludge must be stored for 3 mo between final disposal even ts.
Organic content of th e slud ge is 75 percent and 55 percent of the organics is converted to 5-71 Disc li ss the advantage.'; :.Illd disad\antagcs nf\\,aste",;tter-treatl11ent facilit ies d eS igned to
gaseous or liquid end products. The solids content of th e digested slud ge is 6 percent. tllrn waste discharllcs into potahle water
322 WATER ENGINEE RED SYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 323

REFERENCES 5-29 Lawr ence , A . W ., and McCarty, P. L. : "Unified Basis for Biological Treatment De sign and
Operation ," J Still Eng Dit ', A5(,E. 96(SA 3): 757 1970.
5-30 Lin sley, R . K., and Franzini, J . B.: Waler Resol/r ces Engineering, 3d ed" McGraw-HilL New
5-1 American Society of Civi l Engineer s and Water Polluti o n Control Federati o n : Wastel"oter Treat-
ment Plant Design •.ASCE. New York , 197.7. Yurk . 197Q.
5-3 1 McCarty, P. L. : "Anaerobic Waste Treatment Fundamenta ls." Puhlic Works , 95: 107 (Septem-
5-2 American Wat e r Works Association : .. Recycl e and San Diego:' Municip lIl WIIHell'OIer Reuse
Nelvs. A WWA Research F ound ation , Denver. Augu st 19RO. ber 1964) .
5-3 American Water Works Association: "Reuse of Municipal Wastewater In Indu stry," Mlilliclj)(J1 5-32 .__ : " Bio logica l Proce%cs for Nitrogen Rem oyal: Th eo r y and Appli ca ti o n s," Proc Tlreljih
S{Jnilary En!Jineerin!J Co nfer ence, University of Illi nois. Urbana, 1970.
Wast elt'ater Reuse News, A WWA Research Foundati on. Denver , November 1980.
5-33 McKinney, R. E.: Microbiology for S anil ary Engine ers, McGraw-Hili, New York. 1962 .
5-4 Asano, T .. and K . L. Wassermann : "Groundwater Recha rge in Cali fornia,"'! A WWA.
5-34 Mara, D . D. : Sewage Trealmelll in Hot C/imales, Wiley , New York. 1976 .
. 72(7): 380 (July 1980) .
5-35 Marais , G. V. R .: "Faeca l Bacteria l Kinetics in Stabilization Pond s," J Em' Eng Dir. ASCE.
5-5 Banerji. S. K .• and J . T . O'Conn or' .. Designing M o re Energy EfficieTit Wa stew ater Treatment
Plant s." Cit· Eng. 47( 7):76 (September 1977) . 100 : 119 ( 1974) .
5.36 Metcalf & Ecldy, Inc .. Waslell'aler Ellgineering: Trealmenl, Disposal, Rel/se. 2d cd., McGra,, :- Hili .
5-6 !:lenefield, L. D., and C. W. Randall : Biological Proce ss Desiqllfor Wa.\NII-ater Tre(l{mcnl. Pr entice-
H all. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980. New York, 1979 .
5-37 Monod, J .: "The Growth of Ba cterial Cultu r es," Ann ReI' Microhiol ogy, voL 3, 1949.
5-7 Besselievre, E . B.' The Trealmenl of Induslrial WasIl's. McGraw-Hili. New York. 1969 .
5-38 Neme ro, N. L. , Liquid WaSles oI Induslry. Theories, Praclices, {Jnd Trealmelll. Addison-Wesley.
)·8 Bo uwer. Herman ' "Renovating Municipal Wastewater by H igh-Ra te In fil tr.,t i;)n fo r Gr o und-
water Re charge," J AWWA, 66( 3): 159 (March 1974) . ·Readi ng. Ma ss., 197 1.
5-39 Okun. D . /\ . "Planning for Water Reu se. " J;I WIVA, 65(10):6 17 (October 1973).
5-9 -- - . R. C. Ric e , J. C. Lance , and R. G. Gilbert .. Rapid InfiltratI o n Resea rch at Flushing
5-40 Parker, H . W .· Waslelmter Systems Engineering, Pr e ntice-Hall, Englewood C liffs, N .J ., 1975.
Meadows Project. Arizona," J WPCF, 52(10):24 57 (Octo be r 1980)
5-4 1 Pounds, C. E ., and R. W. Cr it es: WaSI",.-aler Trealmenl {Jnd Reu se hy Land Applicalion. U.S.
5-10 Cla rk , J . W., W arren Viessman, Jr., aTid M. J. H ammer Willa SUfiply IIl1d Poilu I IOn CO/llrol,
3d cd ., H arper & Row. New York , 1977 EPA. Cincinnati. Ohio, 1973 .
5-1 1 Clayton. A . .I ., aTid P. J . P ybus: "Windhoek Re claiming Sewage for Drrnkln g Water , " Cit· EII!J,
5-42 Process Design lvlanllal for Land Treatment of Municiplli W{JSlell'aler, u.s. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Technology Transfer. October 1977.
42 ' 103 (Septem ber 1972).
5-43 Process Design r\lalllwifor Nilroqen Cvnlrol . U.S . Environmental Pr oteciion Agency. T echno logy
5- 12 Cal', H : S., and G . H . Clevenger ." Determining Thi c ken er Un it ,\r oa,," hllllS AIME, 55( 3).35 6
Transfer. Oct l, ber 19 77 .
(1916)
.\- 44 Process Design Manual jiJr Swpended Solids Remoral , U.S. Environmental Prot ection Agency.
5-13 Cu lp. G. L. , R . L. C ulp. and C. L. H amann:" Wat er Re so ur ce Preser va t ion hv Planned Rec ycling
o f Treated Wa s tewa ter," J AWW A, 65(10) :6 41 (October Inl) Technology Transfer, Januar y 1975.
5-45 Roberts, P . V.: " Water Reu se for Recharge: An Overview." J AWWA, 72(7):375 (Ju ly 1980) .
5- 14 -- . We s ner , G . M ., and G . L. Culp: Hand book oj Adnll1ced lVII.\I('Irol('Y Trcolnrenl , Van
5-46 Sawyer. C. N .. and McCarty. P. L. ' ChenriSlry./or Enrironme nral En"in ee rin.'!. McGraw-Hili.
Nostrand Reinho ld, New York , 19 78 .
New York, 1978.
5- 15 Dick. R. l. "Role of Activated Sludge Final Settirn g Tank s." J SIII1 Enq Oie. A .'iC E , 96 : 423
5-47 Schroede r, E. D . : Walei' and WaSl el""le r Treatmenl , McGraw-Hill. New York , 1977.
( 1970).
. .5.-48. Simo n,.A. ·L,·:-Pru<'li('al H ydruuli CJ;2d ed: ,·Wiley; New· York; 19-7<>.··· ·· .. · .. .... .......... .
5·16 ---- and B. B. Ewing ... Evaluati on "I' Activat ed Sludge Thickenin g The o ric s." j SOli Elly
5-49 Steel, E. W . · Wal'" Supply and ,",ell'era9(', McGraw-Hili, New York , 1960.
Di, . ASCE, 93(SA4):9 (196 7).
5.50 __ and J . J . McGhee' Waler Supply and Sell'era.lJe. 5th ed .. McGraw-Hili . New York. 1979.
5-17 - . .- ancl K . W . Young. "Analy sis o f Thick ening Perronnanec Dr hnal SettlIng Tank s, "
5-5 1 Stover, E. L., a nd D . F. Kinc ann on: "One-Step N it rificat ion and Carbon Removal." Wale I' and
Pro c 27lh Ind . WasIl' Conference. P urdue Universit y. 1972. p. 33..
Se wage Wnrk s, 66 . J une 1975 .
5-18 Eckcnfelder. W . W .. Jr. : In duSlrial WilIer PO//lllion COlllrol. McGra,,-Hili. New Yu rR. 1966. 5.52 Sunderstron , D . W .. and H . E. Klei : W{JSlelValel' Trealment , Prentice-Hall. Englewood C lilTs,
5· 19 .-.- -- . Principle s oj Waler Quali ly l'vIanagemelll, C BI Publi sh ing, Boston, Ino . ·
N.J. , 1979.
5-20 "Trickling Filter Design and Performanc e," J. Sim Elly Di/:. ASCE . 87 (SA6).X7 ( 196 1). 5-53 Thirumurthi, D .: " Design Pri'n cip les of Waste Stabiliza ti o n Pon d s." J San Eng DiI... ASCE.
5-2 1 Finer. S. E... Tire Life lIlId l1mes of Edwin Chlldwick , Methuen. London; 1')52 . 95 311 (1969).
5-22 Gaudy , A. F ., and E. T. Gaudy : lvlicrobiology for t;lIc-irollmentlll Snenli Sls lIlId Engilleers, 5-54 van Vuur e n , L. R . J .. A. J . Clayton, and D . C. van der Post: "Curren t Status o f Wat e r R eclama-
McGraw-Hili. New York, 1980. tion at Windhoek ,".1 WPCF , 52(4) : 661 (April 1980).
5-23 GermaJn. J . E. ' .. Economical Treatment of Dome s tie Wa s te by Pla stIc-Media Trr c kling Filter s." 5-55 VesiJind. P . A. : Treatmenl alld Disposal of WaSI('lml er Sludges, 2d cd .. An n A rb o r Science ,
J WPCF. 38(2) 192 (1966). Woburn, Ma ss .. 1979.
5· 24 Had eed . S. J .' .. Potable Water from Wa s tewater - D envers Program. " J IVI'CF , 49 (X) 1757 5-56 Yoshioka, N .. et 31. ' "Contin uous T hickening of H omoge neous Flocculated S lurri es" (Eng li s h
(Augus t 1977). abstrac t), Cheln En.'!. 21, T o ky o. 1957.
5-25 Ha mmCl, M . J . W{Jler lind WaSlell'IllCr Tcchnolo[!l' , Wil ey, New York. 1975 5· 57 Wong.Ch ong. G . M .. and R . C. Loehr: " Th e Kinetics o f Microbial Nitritication ... ·. fVIIII.'Y
5-2 6 H am s. S. E. J . H . R ey nolds, D . W . Hill , D. S. Filip . and [ J. Middlehro oks: " Intermittent Researc h. 9 : 1099 (1975).
Sancl FiltratIon fur Upgrading Wa ste Stabili,atJon Po nd Fmu en ts. '.1 W/'CF . 4'1( I ) K3 (January
1977 ).
5-27 H nrnc. F . W. , R. L. Anderton. and F . ,\ . Grant · .. Water R e use' Ma r ket s and Cos ts,"
.J;I WW;I. 73(2) . 66 (Feb r uar y 1981).
s-n Kugelman. I. J .: "Sta tus of Advanced Wa ste Tr eatment." ill H . W . (ichllJ and .I . I. Bregman
(ell:::,.). /-lane/ho ok nJ I,Vofer R esour ces and Po/luriotl COfllrul. Van No slrand . New Y o rk. 197() ,
 ,
!"
ENGINHR ING HYD RAU LI CS DES IGN 325

Total e nergy
CHAPTER
SIX
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
HYDRAULICS DESIGN
(a)

T otal. ene rgy

(6)

Issues related to water and wastewater quality and treatment h av e been examined T o ta l energy

in Chaps 2 through 5. It is the purp os e of thi s chapter to intr oduc e the reader to
the physical facilities needed to meet water- supply and waste wa ter-mana gement
objectives. To do this the' chapter is o rgani zed int o fo ur maj o r section s dealin g
with water distribution systems. wast ewater collection system s. pump s and pump -
ing stations , and treatment plant hydraulic s: .......... · . . .. .. .. .... ... .......... .. .. .. . .. .. ....... .

. Water Distribution Systems

To deliver water to con s um e rs with app ro pri a te qualit y: qu a ntit y.

- '. and pressure in a community setting requir es an ex ten sive sys te m of pipe s, sto rag e
reservoirs , pumps, a nd related appurten a nce s. The term d istributi on sys t em is (c)
used to describe co llectively th e facilit ies used to suppl y wat er fro m its so urce to
Figure 6-1 T yp ica l di str ihu tion sys te ms ' ( a) gr a vil),. (hi pump ed. a nd (t ) co mbin ed .
the point of usage . .

Gravity S upply
6-1 METHODS OF DISTRIBUTING WATER
Where the so ur ce of suppl y is a t' a 's llfTicie ni elcva t ion th e co ns umer so th at
Dependin g on the t0 p.0graphic rela t io ns hip betwee n th e so ur ce o f s uppl y a nd the
the desired pr ess ure can be ma int a ined , a grav ity s uppl y ca n be usee! . In grav ity
consumer, wa ter can be tran sport ed by ca nal s. f1umes. tunn els, a nd pip eline s.
syste ms, it is ofte n poss ible to suppl y wate r to o ne o r m o re sto rage rese rvoi rs
Gra vity . pumpin g. o r a co mbinati o n of b o th may be used to suppl y wat e r to th e
wil hin th e system. Wh ere a grav ity sup ply ca n be used. it has pr ove n to be quit e
consumer s (see Fi g. 6-1) with adequ a te pr ess ur e.
econo mica l.
324
326 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 327

Pumped Supply Total energy delivered by pump

In a pump ed s upp ly, pump s are used t o develop the necessary head (pressure) hit ..·..... Elevated
t o distribute wa ter to th e co n sume r a nd sto ra ge reservoirs. storage reservoir hfl

Pumped-Storage Supply
In a pumped-storage suppl y sys tem , storage reservoirs Me used to main ta in ad- _Q3
e quate pressure d urin g p erio d s o f h igh co n su m er demand and under emergency Pump
co nditi o ns s uch as fires o r power failure s. During periods of low wa ter co n sump-
tion, excess water is pumped a nd s tored in th e sto ra ge rese r vo irs. B eca u se the
s t o ra ge reservoirs are us ed to provide wa ter during periods of hi gh or peak de-
mand . t he pumps can be ope ra ted at th eir rated capaci ty.

2. Define the three conditions of flow that can exist.

6-2 DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Resenllir s a re used in distribution sys tems to e qu a li ze till : rate of fl ow. to maintain
pressurt.:. and for emergencies. To ortimize the ir intended use. reservoirs sho uld be
loca ted as c fose to th e ce nt er o f d e mand as p o ss ibl e. In large c iti es. di s tr ibuti o n
reservoirs ma y be u se d at se vera l loca ti o n s within th e sys tem. Re gar dl ess of the
location. t he wa ter leve l in th e reservo ir must be a t a elevat iDn to permit
grav ity tl ow at an adequate pre ss ur e. Storage reservo irs are a lso used to reduce
pressure varia ti ons within th e distribution sy s tem. The a nal ys is reqlllred to de-
le rrnill e th e orera ti o h of an elevated reservoir is illu s trat e d III Exa mple 0-1.
Ii. When lhe municipal demand is low, the disc harge from the pump will supply the
mUtllclpal demand ; the excess pump discharge will be diverted to the storage
reservo ir.
b. When th e municipal demand is high. disc harge from both the pump and the storage
reservoir will be used to meet the dem and.
c. At so me point of operation. the pump discharge will just equal the municipal
demand and there will be no fl ow from the elevated stor age reservoir.
3. Write equations that can be used to solve the three flow conditions defined in step 2.
Q. Low demand: ' .

h. High demand:
Examp le 6-1; the operation of an ele"ated rescrYoir I )erlVe eq uation s Ihat ca n
he used to ddine the hyd rau lic operation of an etevated reservoir such as show n Q, +Q)=Qo
in hg. 6-11>.
"' + Ep = z, + E) + hf )

Z3 = Z2. + £3 + hJ4

c. No flow from stora ge

a definition sketch for the ana lysis of the reservoir Such a sketch
Q, = Qo
is shown be low. The lerms in the sketch are delined as fo llo ws

\2, = pump disch;lrge. rn 3 ;"s

\2,(Q.,1 discllilrge to (from) reser vuir. rn' i s
COMMEN T To sol ve the equations developed in step 3 for a high-demand situation, a trial
\2/! = rnunicipal discharge (demand) . ·Ill-'; s of E3 is ass um ed and the computed values of d ischarge are compar ed to the demand.
r,. f, = energy ';1
load cent er variou s cPlldiIIOIlS'"I' "pcralion (inc ilicles I he computation is repeated ulltil the equation of co ntinuity (Qt + Q) = Qo) is sa tisfied.
pn:ssure and \'c tocity head). m In the approac h describe d above. it was assumed that z) remains conSlant. In actu al
prac tice. ") will vary with time. To so lve the problem with a var ying value of z) it is
II ,,' h,: . etc . = head loss due to fr iction. m necessary to develop a relationship between th e sto ra ge volume and the water surface
etevat ion.
:, . : .. elevati o ns ahlll 'e a refcrence datuill. 111
 ENG INEERING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 329

Types of Reservoirs
Dependin g on the top og raph y and local envi ronme nta l conditions. storage rese r-
voirs may be located above. on. o r below the ground su rface. Unde rground
reservo irs are usua ll y const ructed of reinforced concrete. Smal l ground-leve l
reservo irs are usua lly earth- lined with gunite. or some synth et ic membrane.
Large surface reservoirs arc concre te-lined. Mos t large surface rese rvo irs a l-e
cove red to prevent contamination by birds. animals. and humans. Open distri -
bution reservoirs should be fenced to keep out trespassers.
To ob t-ain the necessiHY' hec1d within the distribution system, wa ter towe rs
and elevated reservoirs arc often used. Wate r t(lwers, loca ted at ground leve l.
(a) (b) can be cons tructed of prestres sed concret(l 01- steel. Elevated water-storage reser-
vo irs are usuall y constructed of steel. Commo11 sha pes for eleva ted storage tanr s
are illustrated in Fig. 6-2.

Capacity of S tora ge Re se rvoirs

The capaci ty of StOl'age rcser\"()lrs be determined an,t!ytically or g ra phi ra ll y.
In either case a mass balance th e ba;;is of the analysis. Both methods of analysis
are illustrated in Examp le 6-2.

Example 0-2: reservo ir storage capacity Determine the capacity ora storage
6
reservoir reqtmed 10 malnlaln a conSlant ,LIppi,. ldr"ft) or 2 x 10 m' /m given
Ihe following monlh " mean-runotr "alues:

Run off Rune,fr

(e) QR 10" Ill' QR Ill" Ill'

YO III
II (t ,
IO.R
-I C I:: ()'l

c.8 I., t I
I 2 1-1
I I I'
ll.') If, t D.
U5 I'
') {J.(,

-------

SOLI ; t 10"

I. SCI up :, wbk 1',11' Ihe compU lall on, I'c'r 111.: f!raphical and numerical Solu lion or Ihe
prohkm. Th e requIred compllialirll'> :tre sho\\1l In Ihe accompal.1\"tng The eiliries
in the. c"lumns arc as fc,lIll\\',
(e) (j)
C/. Thc monlh and Ihe rllllntT are cnlcred III cc)IUllllb I ,md 2. rcspec·
Figure 6-2 Typical shape!> Dr elevated waler-storage tanks. (Photo or SI. Joseph, M I Slorage tank. Il\c ly.
COl/i'lL'S.\' CUI/sol'r T()\\'I]Jl'lIc1 .-Js.wl'itlfl'S. 11Il'.) h. The cumulall'c rlllwil "cOlllfH1Ic'd :tnd cntelCcl In cllllllllll :;
The \\':lIer slIpp lv drafl I, cnlered In colllilln .j
J2X
330 WATER ENVJ!WNMENTAL ENGINEER ING HYDRAU

d. The deficit (run off - water supply dr aft) is compu ted and ente red in co lu mn 5. A Computation of required storage
minus sign means that the water supply draft exceeds th c runofTand a deficit exis ts.
Cum ulative
e. The cumulat ive deficit is comp ut ed a nd en tered in column 6. Th e numbers in
Water Deticit deficil ,
parentheses repre sen t th e cumu lative surplus. The maximum c umul ati ve deficit
Run olT, Cumulati ve suppl y, (QR - Q,) L(QR - Q,)
re p resent s the required reservoir capacity. 10. m J
Mo nt h QR 10· m J runolT Q, 10. m J 10· m J
2 Prepare a gra ph ica l analysis of the problem . The required graphica l solution is shown
111 the figure below . Key points in the constru ction o f the graphica l so lution are
9.0 9.0 2.0 7.0 0.0(7.0)
as follows 10.8 19.8 2.0 8.8 bO(ls.S)
iI . first. th e c umulative run o ll data fro ll1 co lum n 3 in the table are used to plot the 4.2 2411 2.2 O.O(lS.O)
2.0
run o fr curve. 4 2.8 26 .8 2.0 0.8 OO( 18.8)*
h. Next. a line is drawn fr o m th e o rig in at a slope equa l to the monthly water supp ly 1.2 2R .il 2.0 - 0.8 -0 .8
d ra ft 6 I I 29.1 2.0 - 0.9 - 1.7
t T o determine th e req uired capacity of the storage rese rvoi r a line is drawn parallel 7 0.9 30.0 2.0 - I I - 2.8
to the water s upply draft line , but sta rtin g at the point o f tan gency at the beginning 8 0.5 30.5 2.0 -1.5 - 4.3
9 0.6 31 I 2.0 - 14 - 5.7
o f thc d ry period. Th e maximum distance betwee n the draft line from the point of
10 0.4 31.5 2.0 - 1.6 -7.3
tangency and cumula t ive run o ff repre se nt s th e required capacity o f the storage
II 0.5 32.0 2.0 - 1.5 - 3.8
rese rvoir. As show n In the figure, th e ca pa ci ty valuc is IO.S x 10' II1J . which is the 12 - 1.1 - 9.9
0.9 32.9 2.0
sam e as thc valu e give n in .he tabl e. 13 I I 340 2.0 - 0.9 - 10g t
14 2.0 36 .0 2.0 00 - 10.8
Th e graphical meth od I'or reservo'ir sizin g illu strated in th e figure wa s de - 15 5.5 41 .5 2.0 3.5 - 7.3
velop ed by W. Rippl e som e tim e bc f'ol<-: 1883 when he publi s hed th e me thod . [n- 12] 16 10.5 52.0 20 8.5 OO(
17 3.5 2.0 1.5 0.0(27)
70r----- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ---------- ---- ---. 18 2.5 58.0 2.0 0.5 0.0(32)
Period dUring whIch
• Reservoir is full at beginning of dry period .
reservoir IS no t full Repleni shment
or slora ge t Maximum deficit at or nea r Ihe end or the d r y pcriod. Th e cumu lalive maximum
60 deficit represents the requi red rese rvoi r storage capacity.
DepletIon
of -------- -4 ____ t Rese rvoir is retilled during Ihe 161h month .
st o rage

50 Required capacity
E of st o rage reservoir ,
a Vs = 10.RX 106 Ill ) 6-3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
o f tangen c y ;..It
'" Curve drawn parall el 'tart 01' elry
()l 40
to re quir e d wat e r. period mu st
The ser ies of interc onnected pipe s used to su pp-J-y- wa ter to the co nsu ,_
'-'1
supply curve Inter se ct flillUfr ·as.a dislriblllion network. Severa l network configura tions have b .
'3c ClH"Ve if reservoir of these is describe d below.
Sl art o r
;: is to fiJI
ury period
<U ]0
:0 at point 0 1
End or elry
'" tan ge ncy Branching System
::J PL'fio d
E point 01
C 20 curve tang e n c y The branch ing type of water distributi o n network is shown in Fig.· -
the stru ctur e of such a sYstem is similar to a tr ee. The trunk line is tl,
CUlllulativ t.: or water suppl y. main s are co nnected to th e trunk line, aru·
required lVater supply connected to the service main s. In lu rn, building (;onnect iol1s
10 Q s. : X 106 mJ/ Jllo nlh
service to ind ividual residences and buildings are con nected to the /
Curve fr u m po in! o f L..lll gen cy (It e nd 0 1' dr y per io d mu st int ef secl
Alth ough such a svstem is simpl e to design and build , it is not [-
rLlnotl c urv e jf res t.:rvo ir is to be f u ll :Jt " t;ln u f dry peri o d
ern waterwor ks pract for the fo llow ing reaso ns: (I) bacterial gr
5 10 15 mentation may occu r in the branch ends due to stag nati on : (2) .
Monlh maintain" ch lor ine residual al the dead ends of th e pipe: (3) whet.,_ .!,Q
 ENV IRO NMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 333
332 WATER

tion of wa ter. Loops are usua lly added to serve business districts and o ther high-
Main supply line
risk areas. The lo ops may be constructed with separate pipes or by enlarging some
of the pipe s in the existing grid. The main advantage of the du a l-main system
(F ig. 6-3(1) is that brea k s in main s do no t limit the u se fulness of fire hydrants.
To he lp protect against freezing , pipes are usually placed on the north and east
side s of stre ets in th e northern hemisphere. In the so uthern hemisphere water
pipes are normally placed on the so uth and east 'side s of the streets. In all cases,
pipes should be buried below the frost line.

6-4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

(a) (b) The prin c ipal components of the distribution network are pipes, valves. fire
hydrant s, and se r vice (building) connections. Storage rese rvoi rs and pumps are
conside red separately T yp icall y, the req uir emen ts for sizes a nd placement are
specified by loc al code. Repre se ntative values and data are reported in Table 6-1.

Pipes

I A variety of matertals has been lIsed for th e pipes in water distribution networks.
The mo st common materials are steel. cast iron. and reinforced concrete. The type
-
I
Table 6-1 Representative data of distribution system
components

Ilem Valu e
(e) (d)
Figure 6-3 Water distr;but{on ';"i;h 'e'{1'ci;;' (;.) pa;tcrn
with loops ; (d) grid pattern with dual main s. Smallc:-.1 In grid 150 111m (6 in)
Smallest brallchlng pipes (dead cnd :-) 200 mm (1< In)
Llrgl::';\ :-'IX1Clllg ur 150- Jl1m ((l-ln) gl'ld
[2110.111111 (X-Ill) pire used be yon d Ihis \'aluc] I gO m (600 I't)
,?e.ma.de to an individual line. service connections beyond the point of repair will
Smallest pipes In high-value district 200 mill i8 In)
be without water until the repairs are made; and (4) the pressure at the end of the
SII"Lalks l on principal stree ts III
line may become undesirably low as additional extensions are made. The latter :;00 IllI1l (t 2 in)
problem is common in many less-developed countries. Larg.est spa cin g of sup ply l)f fceders 600 III t2000 1'1 )

V"llcs
In singh.> dua\·rn' lll1 sy::;lclll:-' Til n.::e a t crosse s.
Grid System \\.1,.\) al Ices
long hranches 250m 1'1)
The distinguishing feature of the grid system is that all of the pipes are intercon- l.(lrgC :-' l Oil
Lu"ge:-.t spacing in high -va lue distnl"\ 150 (500 11)
nected and there are no dead ends (see Fig. 6-3b). In such a system. water can reach
a given point of from several directions. The grid system overcomes Fire
Area" prot(::(tcd b) hy"dranb See -r"bk 6·2
all of the difficulties of the branching system discussed previou sly. One disadvan-
Lirge sl spacing whcn lire tl o" excecds JO() L',
tage is that the determination of the pipe sizes is somewhat more complicated. 6tl 111 tclll) 1'1)
(5000 ga1nninl
Several variations of the grid s"stem are also in use . Two of the most common l ;lrgL':-:.1 \\ hell lire no\\' IS :1 :-' lo\\' as 6U L s
are the grid pattern with loops (see Fig. 6-3c) and the grid pattern with dual mains t \(1110 gal Illln) 'it) III It)

(see Fig. 6-3d). In the former. additional loops are added to improve the distribu-

L .. ____________________ _
 334 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 335

o f pip e m a te mli is imp o rt a nt as it will a ffec t th e an c illar y equipm e nt needed fo r these valves is to isolate subsect ions of the system for repairs and m aintenance .
its ins tall a ti on a nd m a int e nan ce. Drain va lves shou ld be provided at low points in the system. To remove air from
pipelin es, air-relief or release valves are placed a t high spots. in the pipeline .
Valves Che ck valves are used to limit the fl o w of water to a sin gle direction .

The typ es o f val ves use d m os t co mm o n ly a re gat e val ves, val ves, a nd Fire Hydrants
c heck va lves. As no ted .in Tabl e 6-1 a nd s how n in F ig. 6-4 thr ee ga te val ves a re
used at a ll c ross es a nd two ga te val ves ar e used a t a ll tees. Th e prin c ip a l fun cti o n of
Fire hydrants are placed o n mains to pro vide locations fire and pumper
truck s ca n be connected to the water so.urce needed for fire fighting. Three types
. -
of hyd rants are used : flush. wa ll. and pos t. As the name implies: flush hydrants
ifo1 I 1'-1 , it-L a re placed in a chamber that is even with the surface of the street or . sidewalk .
8" Wall hydrants project from the walls of buildings and are used ex tensive ly in

}
commercia l di s tricts. Po st hydrant s extend from the main to about I m above the

[
N

'" t '"
street o r sidewa lk.
Pos t hydrant s are usually placed on a co ncrete block to elimi nate sett lin g
and are braced to resi st the latera l force s of th e flowing water. T yp ically , hydrants
are pro vided with one o r more 60-mm (2t- in) hose outlet s a nd a IOO-mm (4-in)
8" pumper-truck connection. In co ld clim ate s. th e. opera tin g valve is loca ted below

] J
Key ground level so that the barrel contain s no wa ter except when in use. A drain
i\LI ins --- valve o pen s 'automat ica ll y when the hydrant valve is closed, to permit the escape
G ale -+--- of water after use and to avoid dam age by freezing. In warm climates. t he h yd ra nt
Hyd ra nl s -----L
Servi ce hC<ld ers barrel m'ay co nt a in water a t a ll times. and a n ind ividu al valve is provided for each
out let.
8"
-, 1 t 1 I I
(a) .':.-crvice (Building) Connections
The service (building) connection is that portion of a wa ter suppl y sys tem th a t
l ±I .....1.± .'
11· 1 I
1± lies between the wa ter suppl y main in the str eet and the take offs for th e various
L plumbing fixtllres at the point of usage .
f------
8"
::l

} r
:l
I N I
I I 6-5 CAPACITY AND PRESSURE REQUIREMENtS
I,
1'0 T
I I
The capac it y ora water distribution system must be suffic ien t to',meet tl; e require -
' lo Is. ment s for fire fighting in co njunction with d o mes tic, co mmercia l. and indu stri a l
____ demand s and for o th er sys tem uses and loss es. It is important to note th at capac it y
-:. :1 ----

I
1

I
I I a nd pr ess ure must be co ns idered s imult a neou sly. For examp le. water must rise
I I to the upper stories of low-rise buildings in sufficient quantity and pressure. es-
,
I I
I
pecia lly when fire fighting is consid ered . It sho uld be noted th,!t a pumped supp ly
I is used in most modern high-rise building s. Also. th e capacity and pressu re ava il-
I]
a ble a t hydrant s must be sufficient fo r fire-fighting purpo ses.
-, -l------ .-
,;
II I I I
(h) Capacity

FiJ,.!lIrr 6- 4 SL'l'tI(lll l)f gfld di:-.l l lhll l lClIl ::, Ysl('m (a) sJn!,lIt;.rn a i n sys t em a nd (h, d ll, d - Ill;lln .... y:-.t(,·I1l. With th e except io n of that needed for fire fighting , the capac ity of th e dis tributi o n
(/ :r(Jm rU/I i ' I!l1 I f l __"" ) -
sys tem mu st be sufficient to meet th e pe:1k de m a nd ba sed o n d o mest ic, commercia L
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 337
336 WATER

industrial, a nd other miscell a neou s uses and system losses. The ultim ate peak Table 6-2" Duration of required fire
demand would be the combin a tion of the peak fire-fighting and peak co nventi onal- flows based on flow*
consumer demand. In practice , howeve r. mos t distribution sys tel11sa ren o t s ized Fif e tlow
to provide the ultimate peak dem and . The reaso ns for thi s are (I) the pr oba bilit y Dura tion.
that the pe ak fire and consumer dema nd will occ ur simultan eous ly is low a nd (2) ga l/ min mJ / d h
most di stribution systems a re sized for th e future so excess capacity is availab le.
?OOO or less 10.900
In general, mos t distribution syste ms are sized to meet the fire demand and
3.000 .t6.400
a consumer demand of ISOt o 200 L/capita . d (40 to 50 gal /cap ita · d) in excess of 21.XOO 4
-l.000
the yearly average value. Alternatively, the co nsumer demand ma y be taken as the 5.000 27.300
maximum d a ily demand (150 percent of th e average daily demand). In the Un ited 6.000 32.700 6
States. the general fire-fightin g requ irements are based o n the recom mend ations 7.000 3.8.200
of the Insurance Services Office , New Yo rk. The required fire flow is estimated 41.600 S
9.000 49.100 9
using the follQwing equation. 10.000 and greater 54.500 10
F = 320C,jA (6-1)
Adapted f[()ln Guide j t)r D('(ermiflG/ion
:0-

where F = required fire flow. ml /d F hn\". 2d cd .. I nsuranct:

Hnllf llT d Fi f t
C = . coefficient related to type of co nstructi o n SCC\lCC Ulliee. New York. 1'174.

A = the total floor area (includin g all stor ies, but excludin g basements)
in the buildin g under considera tion, m 2 For fire-resistive bu ildings
the six largest successive floor areas are used if the vertica l ope nin gs
are unprotected ; if the vertical opening s are pr otected pr operl y, o nly
the three large st succe ssive floor a reas a re considered.
Values for the coefficient Care 1.5 for wood frame construction, 1.0 for ord inar y
construction. 0.8 for nonc o mbu stible co nstr uction , a nd 0.6 fo r fire resistive co n-
struction. Interpolation between these va lues is used for constructi on th at does
not fall into one of the four categories. The co mpilted value is then adjusted lip or
down for (I) occ up a ncy. (2) sprink ler protection , and (3) expos ur e. Th e maximum
fire flow det ermined using Eq. 6-1 shall not exceed 43,600 m 3/d for wood
frame construction and for or din a ry and heavy timb er constructio;l, and 32.700
for no ncombu stibl e construction and for fire resistive construction for anv o ne
location. The required fire flow ra te must be avai lab le in add ition to tl;e co-
incident maximum daily flow rate. The duration during which th e required fire
flow should be available varies from 2 to 10 h as su mmari zed in Tab le 6-2. Beca use
a city will be pena Iized in its fire insur a nce rates if the needed flows cannot be met
for the specified duration s, most cities provide sto rage reservoirs to. meet fire
demands.
Pressure
For typical residential rates of demand. a sta tic pr essure of275 kPa . gage (40 Ibiin z
gage) is considered to be normal. The minimum recommended pressure is ,ibo ut
140 kPa. gage (20 Ib/ in 2 . gage). In busine ss dis t ricts, pressure va lues in the I'an gc .
of 350 to 550 kPa. gage (50 to 80 Ib 'in 2 gage) are COllllllon. For high-rise buildin g,
(greater than thre e stor ies) water is pumped to storage tanks located o n intermed-
iate floo rs. o n the roo f. o r in tOIlers.
With the adve nt of the modern fire-fighting eq uipm ent. the pressure th a t
must be main tained at a fire hydrant rarel y needs to be grea ter than 350 to 400 kP a,
gage (SO to 60 Ib/ in 2 • gage). Th e exception is in sma ll towns where full-tim e fire
departme nts with new eq uipm ent cannot be afforded. When pumper truck s are
used. the pre ssure at the fire hydrant sho uld not be allowed to dr o p below about
70 k Pa. gage ( 10 Ib/ in 2 gage). Thi s low pressure sho uld be ma intain ed to pr event
untreated wa ter rro m cnt eri ng the wate r distribution system by seepage o r pipe
failure caused by vacuum co lla pse.
6-6 DESIGN OF DlSTRlBUTION SYSTEMS
The ciesign of a water d istributi o n system for a new area ca n be o utlin ed as follows.
(The ana lys is of e:.tisting systems is con sidered in th e following section.)
I. Obtain a detai led map of th e area to be sen 'ed on which topog raphi c contours
(or co ntr o lling eleva tio ns) and the locat io ns of present and futur e st reet s and
lots are identified.
2. Based on the topography, select poss ible loca tions for distribution reservoirs.
If the a rea to be serve d is large. it may be dilided into severa l subareas to be
served with separa te distributi on svstem s.
Est imate the average and peak use for the area or each subarea. allowing
I'or 11re lightin g and futur e growt h.
4 Est imate pipe sizes on the basis of water dema nd and loca l co de req uirem ent s.
5. Lay' ou t a ske leton syste m of supp ly mains leading from the distribution
I'csel'voir o r other so urce of supp ly.
() i\na lyze. using one of the SClera l methods discusse d III the follow ing sectio n.
the 1100\s ;tnd press ures in the supp ly netIl'L)I'k k)1 fire !lOll' s . ;\ separa te analysis
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN
338 WATER

should be performed for each subarea. Also several configurations should be
examined for each area under various conditions of withdrawal.
7. Adjust pipe sizes to reduce pressure irregularities in the basic grid.
8. Add distribution mains to the grid system. Distribution mains that serve fire
hydrants should be at least 150 mm (6 in) in diameter in residential areas and
200 or 250 mm (8 or 10 in) in diameter in commercial and high-risk illdustrial
areas.
9. Reanalyze the hydraulic capacity of the system.
10. Add street mains for domestic service. These mains usually vary in size from
50 to 100mm(1 t04 in) in diameter.
II. Locate the necessary .valves and fire hydrants.
12. Prepare final design drawings and quantity takeoffs.
6-7 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF DISTRIBUTION
The purpose of a hydraulic analysis of a distrIbution system is to assess tlows
(including direction) and the associated pressure distribution that develops
within the system under various conditions of withdrawal. Several methods are
available. These include (1) sectioning, (2) the circle method. (3) relaxation, (4)
pipe equivalence. (5) digital computer analysis. and (6) electrical analogy. The
characteristics of each of these methods are summarized in Table 6-3. The method
of sections and the use of digital computer analysis are considered further below.
Table 6-3 Methods of analysis for water distribution systems
Method of Sections
The method of sections was developed by Allen Hazen [6-2] as a quick method
for checking the correctness of network pipe sizes. A similar procedure was pro-
posed by Pardoe. [6-10] Although the method is approximate, it is extremely
useful in analyzing pipe networks if its limitations are appreciated. The principal
steps involved in the application of this method are as follows.
I. Cut the network with a series of lines selected with due regard to varying pipe
sizes and district characteristics. The lines need not be straight or regularly
spaced. Typically the first series of lines will cut across the network at right angles
to the direction of flow. Additional cut lines may be oriented in other important
directions. For more than one source of supply, a curved cut line should be'
used to intercept the flow from each source of supply (see Fig. 6-5).
SYSTEMS 2. Estimate the amollnt of water that must be supplied to the areas beyond
each cut line (i.e., downstream). The water demand is composed of the fire
demand and the normal coincident draft due to domestic, commercial, industrial
and other uses. In most networks. the coincident draft will decrease from section
to section. The fire demand will remain high until high-demand or high-valve
areas are left behind.
3. Estimate the capacity of the distribution network at each cut line or section.
This can be done as follows:
a. Count ane! tabulate the number of pipes of each size that were cut. Only
those pipes that provide water in the direction of flow should be counted.

Meth o d Description ...................... . ......... . ......... 0" •••••••••••

------
Supply main
Method of sections Water-distribution-system grid is cut with a scric:-. or section s.
capacity or the cut pipes is compared to the downstream demand.
and the
- ---:- --- a
a- - t- - a' /'
The pipes In a distribution system trihutary to a ccntrallire hycir,lllt or /'
Clfcle methnd .
. of hydrants are cut \.vith a circle, anc! the capacity of· the pipes I - r--
to meet the nre demand IS assessed
b- I-- - - t- - - - - +- b' I /
v- -b'

I 1/ -- -
..- v"'-
Relaxation A trial-and-error procedure in which systematic correci.ions are l- c'
applied tn (I) an initial set nf assumed nows or (2) an illltial set lOr I I
assumed heads until {he flow network is balanced hydraulically.
C_I--_ - r- - -- - I--c' I I I
Pipe equivalence The pipes ill a complex di stnbuti on system are replaccd with ;1 single
\ I \

Digital computer analvsis

pipe of equivalent capacity.

. Algorithms are "f1uen til solve Fqs. 6-2, 6-:;. and (.-4 sirnuluneoLisly
throughout the The algorithms arc solved using modern
\
\
\ V "-
high-speed digital computer", . NUl1lcrnu:.. cOll1rlll'ricd programs art:
d- I-- - - I- - - - -'- I-- <I:
\- "--..:
available for the solutioll of now problems. "-
'b
"c
Electrical analogy The.distribution system is rnolkkJ \A.oith ekLtrically equivalent \
components. F(H ex ample, nonilliear resistors are used to
pip e friction. If the current Illpuh and :IfC prnrortiollal
to the water 110v,.:, thell the hcad ..., \\ill be proportlOIl:d III (II) (b)
measun.:J drops
Figu". 6-5 Dennitlon ,ketch for the application of the meThod of sections.
 340 WATER ENV I RO N MF.N TAL EN GINEERING HYDRAULlCS :l!J.l«CN 341

P=4t 5 kPa
b. Determine the average availab le hydraulic gradient. Thi s w ill d epend on
sys tem pres s ure s a nd a llowa ble flow ve loc itie s. F or exa mple. if a flat grid
is 10,000 m wide in the direction of fl ow, if the pre ss ur e ava ilab le a t th e trans- b
mi ss ion pipe connection is 41 Sk P a, gage (60 Ib/ in 2 . gage), a nd if the minimum 30 0
ISO" 150 200
allowable pressure is 140 kP a, gage (20 Ib/ in 2 , gage) th e average hydra uli c
gradient is 0.00 28 [(41 5 - 140)/ 10,000]. H ydrau lic gradie nt s an d ve loc ities o
on o
between 0.001 m/ m and 0.003m / m and 0.6 to 125 m/ s (2 to 4 ft / s), respec - V)

ti ve ly, are common.

cOO 200
4. For the calculated h yd ra ulic gra dient. determ ine the ca pa ci ty of th e ex istin g
cut pipes and total capacity.
5. Determine the difference betw ee n th e req uir ed an d th e existing capac it y. o

6. If the existing capacity is in a dequat e, selec t pipe sizes a nd paths that will offse t
300 150 150
any deficiencies at the required hyd ra uli c grad ient. The capac it y o f th e system
o
can be incre ase d by replacing sma ll pipes w ith larger pipes or addi n g pipes to o
the grid . Experience with the sys tem so metime s help s in se lec tin g the pipe sizes,
but such experience is not nec essa ry. If excess ca pa city is found , p ipe s izes may
CI

150
o
o
c"
-- --
150
- b

be reduced using the same procedure s.

7. D e tefmine the size orthe equivalent pipe fo r th e re inforced sys tem a nd es ti ma te o
o
,-.,
the fl ow velocity. High ve loci ties s hould be limited to avoid wa ter- hammer - c
p ro bl em s by redu ci n g the hydra uli c grad ient.
150 150
8. Check the pressure requirement s against th e reinforced sys te m.
0 ;

Application of the method of sec tions is illu str a ted in Example 6-3. 0
Of>

200 ---!. 50
o

150
--- -r-
150
d

Example 6-3: Applying the method of sections Using th e meth od of sec ti ons analyz e the -_ oV", i
... 'wa"rer-oist"rib\iii o'n:pipe' g i id slio\"n in' ilie'acc6ril 'p,iliYlrig ·flgU"rc.
'0
'r,
0
'" o
,r,
-- -00c, ----- - e
loca tio n of any modifications yo u thi nk shou ld be made in the pipe g rid and reanal yze it
with these m o difi cations. A ss ume t he following conditions apply. 150 150 150 150
Pip e <ii;lmclt'r S III millimeter s

1. Fi re flow demands for th e downtown business di s trict a re es tim a ted lIsi ng th e fol lowing CD Re pl ace with 400 mm
equation G).Q) RcpIJCC with 200 mm

Q= 65, ' p(t - OO t vp)

I Iv]pdif\ the I)<lrcy· Wci shach cquatl(ln to obtain s lope ;mel ciiamctcr form:
where Q = flow rate , Li s l. I ' ]
p = popUlation in thou sand s II = I J 2!J
No te: The above eq uat io n was commonly used by the Nat ional Board o f Fire Und.er·
writers for es tim ati ng fire flows until it was replaced w it h Eq . (6- 1). II I t· 2
::::- .'1 =
2. Co incid ent resi dent ial d emand o f 150 perc e nt of average daily " 'ater dcmdnd. " "21J
3. Ave rage dai ly wat er demand is 500 L icapita d. I () '
4. Calculate Aows and head los ses \\ith Darcy - Weisbach equati on using an Ivalue of .'i :.:= iy .'l f. d
0.02 0.
5. U se on ly pipe sizes of 150. 200 , 400. and (,00 mm when modd 'ying the dis tribution
sys tem grid.

-- .
342 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 343

where Q = fl ow rate . m ) /s . . (15)(500 L/ capita· day)(16 ,500 people)

d = pipe diameter. m Q. COinCident demand = . 3 3
... .... 10 L/ m
s = s lope. m / m
= 12.38 x 10) m 3 / d
y = acceleration due t o gravity. 9.81 mi s'
b. The fire demand for the downtown business district is based on a population of
Sub stitute values fo r y and f and so lve.
28,000.
Q= S. Determine the available hydraulic gradient the distribution system.

= 24.60d " '5 ' /'

P,
3 3
h". co n venien ce. exp ress Q in units uf 10 m /d. s ·=---
" Y
L
where P, = pre ss ure in supply main at head end of distribution system
= 415 x 10 3 Pa (given)

Rew ritin g the above eq uation in term s o f sa nd d yields P, = minimum pres sure requir ed at farthest end of distribution system

= 140 x 10 3 Pa (20 Ib/ in')

s = (2215 x 10- 7) Q5'
d L = length of main supply pip e across system

d = (4607 x 10 ') (Q
') II' = 902 5 m

415 - 140 N/m'

x 10 3
2. Cut the distribution -sys tem pipe grid with a series o f sect ion line s drawn approxi- ------n l 0 N / m )--- -
mately perpendicular to the large wat er main (see th e ligurc). = = 0.0031 m/ m
9025 m
J Es t ima te popubtion d ow nstrea m o f each c ut sec tion . Th e values for t he sect ions s hown
in the figure are: 6. Co unt and tabulat e the number of pipe s of each size cut by each section.

For example. for section bb: - 0.6-m diameter

I - 0.3-m

<1<1 2X.OOO 2 - 0.2-m

bb 2l.fJOO 4 - 0.15-m
Cl' 16.500
dd 'J.OOO 7. Calculate the' capacity of each pipe c ut by sectiori bli .using the Darcy - Weisbach
ee }. 750 eqllation and the available hydraulic gradient. For example, for the 0.6-m-diameter
pipe:

4. Es timat e w;lIer demand down stream o f each cut section. The requir ed values are: Q= 2125d S12 s ' 2

= 2125(0.6)5/2(0.0031)'"
(see step I)
= 32.99 x 10
3 3
m /d
-'
---- - - - ---- - ---
The cap acitie s of the pipe s cut by sec tio n bb are:

SCUtl ) 1l Popu lati on roincicicnl Fir e Total

32.99 10 3 m 3d
I - 0.6 X

aa 2X.OOO 2100 2H 14 49 .14 I - 0.3 5.83

bb 2 1 .lJOO 172', 28 . 1-1 4')9 2 - 0.2 4.23
cc 16.) 1)0 12.3k 2X 1-1 40. 52 4 - 0.15 4.12
dd '.i.DOI) 7.8X 2X. I-I }-I X')
l'c 'U SO :'.81 5.45* 8.27

Ba...;cJ 011 re : -. idcll!ial fire- dl:rnarld of 63 L is (IOOU Hth e SUIll is greater th an the demand there is sufficient capacity acro ss this section.
gal / mIn I 3
For sec tion bb th e suppl y is grea te r than the demand (45.39 X !O3 m /d).
1.:1 ;
344 WATER
[ '! .

8. Calculate the diameter o f a sin g le equivalent pip e using th e d iame ter form of the
Da rcy - Wei s bac h eq ua tion (see step I).

. .j . '.' (4 7. 172)1/ 5 .
d = (4.667 x 10- 2) = 0.692 m
0.003 1

9. Ca lcul a te the actual hydra ulic g radient when th e capaci ty at th e sec ti o n line eq ua ls
the demand using the slope fo rm of the Darcy - Weisbach equa tions (see s tep i).

". ". .,. 2? .... .,.

M
45.39' r' 0-
co
.... oC 0 oC

s = (2215 x 10 - 7) 0.6925 = 0.00288 - <:0 0 C> 0 0 c

10. Using th e actual hydra uli c grad ient , recalc ula te th e ca pacity a t th e sec tio n line: It
'" ....
rl 0' -

-= r, x
'" .,.eX> or, CC 00 ...r-: r .....: 0:

i.,.
CO
sho uld equal the demand. For exam ple . a t sec tion bb: <YO
-= "" or,
7- 0-
'"
'"::; \ .,. r ....., C

.,.
e- r", "'" -or r'
r' -
0 N -

3
- 0.6 31.80 x 10 m'/d
I - 0.3 5.62
2 - 0.2 4.08
4 - 0.15 3.89

45.48 x 10' rn ' / d

11. Check fo r exce ss velocities in the pipes using the ac tual pipe ca paciti es fro m ste p 10.
\
v,
10' m' h d ....o
--_. (10 ') --- 'tl
Q d 3600 s 24 h o
v 2 of.,
A Ld
4 .,E
of
....
o
= (1.474 x
",
where Q= flow ra te. 10' rn ' id
I ....
" = pipe diameter.

v=
m

fluid ve loci ty. mls ,I I

0: ,
"": r": r'! "'"
coo c
-:

For example . for th e 0.6-m-diameter pipe

Ii _ - ('-I 01 ("'I ("" -
__ ('I

_, 3 1.80
. V = (1.474 x 10 -) --"-'- = 1.30 rn /s
-g -.-:;
0.6' .... ,...
,...,
r·, C' c ·,
<: x.
,', or

If the calculated veloc iti es are too hig h. modificati o ns to the distribution- sys tem Q -
.,..,. or, .,.
0 ;!.

gr id m ay be nec essa ry.

12. Co mplet e the necessa ry computa ti ons fo r the remaining sec tions . The required " ]
comp ut at io ns for th e distribution sys tem show n in the figure are su mmarized III the - :g
acco mp a nying tab le. Bas ed o n the calcu la tio ns in the tab le. sec ti ons tid and ee have'
"2
v: i u
'0
-,; "" - ""
in sufficient capacity. Alth o ugh many modifications tl\ th e di stribution sysICm grid
are possib le. thr ee th a t wi ll co rrect th e insufficie nt capacit y prob lems are s hu wn in
the figure . Sections dd and ee were recalculated a nd th e new resu lt s are shown in the
ta ble as sec tions dd and ce (rc\ ised).
 346 WA T ER ENV IRONMEN T AL ENG INE ERI NG HYDRA U LI C S DESIGN 347
....)

Digital Computer Analysis 6-9 CONSTRUCTION OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ....)

M os t di stributi o n netw o rk s a re n o w anal yzed usin g di g it a l co mputer p rog ra ms.
In writin g a co mputer pr og ram to so lve netwo rk fl ow pr o bl ems, the fo llow ing Th e ba sic requirem ent s o f pipes fo r water di stribution
....)
equ a ti o ns mu st be sati sfi ed simultan eo us ly thr o ug ho ut th e ne two rk . stren gth and m a ximum corr os IOn steel reinforced
At eac h jun cti o n : steel. pl as tic, a nd asbes tos II1 . In cold climates , pipes should
concrete ar e m o re co mpetItI ve II1 the Idfg er sIzes. . . For even the coldest --.J
f en o u h bel o w gro und to prevent free z1l1g II1 wmter.
(6-2) be ar g . d h f 15m (5 ft) is generally more than adequate. .....)
F or eac h co mpl ete ci rc uit : parts of the Ul1lted hStates, a b: bu 'ried o nly suffici e ntly deep to avoid damage .
In warm clIm a tes, t e pIp es nee . t ipe are
'LH = 0 fro m traffic loa d s. Ser vice co nne c tion s t.o ca st-Iron -..J
(6-3)
made b y tappin g th e distributIOn m a lI1 WIth the
F o r ea c h p ipe: tion coc k is th en installed WIth a fleXIble goos enec settlement between the
H = k Q" (6-4)
·
pIpe.
The go ose nec k prevent s damage If th e re IS unequa.
.
.
. ' 1 d ' f m the ma1l1 to the con s umer are
--- I

main and the ser vice pip e. Ser vIce pIp es ea mg/ 0 . I -family dwelling s ,20- to -..J
In t he m o re so phi s ti ca ted o f t he ne t wor k co mput er p rog ra m s, Eq s. 6-2, 6-3. a nd 6:4 usua lly o f copper tubing or sizes ma y be needed for
a re so lved si mult a neo us ly us in g o ne o f severa l m a tri x in ve rs io n tec hni q ues. 30-mm G- to It -in) pIpe IS co mm o n. ut a rger .
Severa l so luti o n tec hniqu es are pr ese n te d a nd a na lyzed in J e pp son [6-4J apa rtm ent ho uses o r bu sine ss es tablI shment s. -..J
P erh a ps th e gr eate st ad va nt age o ffe red by th e use o f co mput e rs is that m a ny
m o re so luti ons ca n be deve lo ped a t a re aso nab le cos t to assess th e res ponse of
-.J
the sys te m to var y ing input s. Al so. rea l-tim e ana lys is can be used to stu dy th e Filling A New System .
effec ts o f va ryi n g pump oper a tio n p la ns. At th e pr ese nt tim e a lmos t a ll co ns ult ing d ra nt s a nd valve s are opened so that aIr can -..J
When a new pipe is first filled , all hy 'd ' re several day s for large systems.
firm s a nd m os t indu s tri es have in-ho use co m p ut e r p rog rams o r have access to .. . d I IV'1l1 ma y requI
esca pe free ly. FIIIlI1g IS o ne so w , < . ' . not rop edy taken out of the system .
s uc h pr og ra m s o ffered by seve ra l o f th e nati o na l co mputin g se rvices . Th e key
Excessive pre ss ur es can devel o p If the .alr IS a h ydrant, it is closed. The pro-
--.J
iss ue is no t in wr itin g s uc h a pr ogram . b ut in un de rs ta nd ing wh a t p rob lems shou ld
be so lved . When a stead y, unlI1terrupt ed str ea m Iss uesI e ' Iosed and the system is full
cedure is continu ed until all valve s and h ye rant s ar c ....)
.Df wateL. ...
.....)
6-8 CROSS-CONNECTIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Leakage . J
A cro ss-co n nec tion oc cur s whe n th e drinkin g-wa ter su pp ly is con nec ted to so me . . . s stem s will vary with the care exerC Ised
T he am o unt o f lea ka ge fr o m di strIbutI o n y fit m Leakage values from 5
so ur ce o f po llution . For exampl e, if a co mmunit y ha s a d ua I' wat er di stributi o n · . d h d co ndItI o n 0 t 1e sys e . ..)
111 con struct IO n an t e age a n I' f ' diam . mi . d) are common
sys tem , o ne fo r fi re fi g ht ing a nd the o th er fo r domes tic co ns umpti o n. th e two m ay
to 25 L/ mm o rpip e di a m · km · d (SO to 250 ga / lI1 O PlelPnegth of pipe between valves
be int erc o nne c ted so that d o me stic wa te r ma y be used to s upplem e nt th e o th er . ade bv cios mg 0 ff a . \
for new syste ms . Th e te st IS m ,. . . t oduced through a speCial V
sys tem in case o f fire. S uc h an a rr angeme nt is d a nge ro us, fo r co nt a min ate d wa ter . . the pIpe Water IS m r .
and a ll se r vIce co nnectIOn S to . '. . d f t least 12 h while leakage IS
from the fi re-fig htin g s uppl y may ge t int o th e drinkin g- wat e r sys tem eve n th o ugh · I k' . , Ire IS malI1t a 1l1e or a
the two sys te ms a re nor mall l' sepa ra ted by c losed va lves. Th e p re ferr ed me tho d
mlet, and norma wor mg pI eSSl
.
II
t · th e to ta oss IS es
. tl'nla ted from the difference --.J
meas ured. In an o per a tm g sys e m d d deliveries to the customers. ,
for int erc.onn ec tin g dual sys tems is th e a ir bre a k , a lth o ugh d o ubl e c heck val ves . th s V 3tem a n meter e
a re some tIme s used . between me as ur e d mput to e J . 'fic leak Patented leak J
'bl I d o r 10ca tlBg a specI .
There a re' several pOSSI e met 10 s d 'f . g water or the disturb-
Cross-co nn ec ti o ns may occur In priva te resid en ces, a pa rtm ent ho uses, and '. ' . k th e so un 0 escapm
detecto rs use a ud lo,ph o ne s to pIC up d nd near the leak. Similar
co mm ercia l b uil d ings . es pe c iall y wi th o ld- sty le plumbin g fixture s If th e wa ter . . I' fi Id ' d by S'r!urate gr o u .J
an ce in an e lect rIca e c<luse . .' If'r h act loc a tion is unknown. If
inl e t o f a plu mb ing fix tur e is be low th e ove rflow d rai n o r r im, a redu ced p ress ur e . d I t tl e p Ipe Itse I t e ex
deVIces ma y be use to o ca e 1 . I I f 'pe from which there are no
in th e wa te r sys te m m ay cau se bac k s iph o na ge. Ot he r so ur ces o f Cross-co nn ec t io ns .
press ure gages ar e m sta e a
II d lo ng a gIven en g t 1 0 pI
, . d ' t n be ta ken as an indIcatIOn
. . .J
a ro un d a ho use ho ld includ e ba thtu bs, fis h pond s, sw immin g poo ls with un de rr im . f I h drauh c g ra len ca
tak eo ffs. a cha nge III slo pe 0 t le y .' . elr or unu suall y lu sh veget a tion
inl e ts, a nd law n spr inkle rs th a t become s ub me rge d whe n used . of a lea k. In so me in sta nces th e esca plll g water ItS J

J
 348 WATER ENG INEE RI NG HYDR AULICS DES IGN 349
,j
may be used to spot the loca tio n of a lea k. The loca tio n of all pip es. va lves, and design of sewe l·s. t he ma terials 0 I' co nstruct .Io n. an d th e constru ction a nd ma in-
appurtenance s sho uld be enter ed o n maps . This infor ma tion is III case tena nce of sewers.
repairs are ever required.

Disinfection of New Sys tems 6-11 TYPES OF CO LLEC TI ON S YSTE IVIS

Wh ile pipe is being handl ed and placed. th ere are man y opportunit ies for poll utio n. The thr ee genera l types of collection systems commo nly used in the United States
Hence, it is necessary to dis infect a new sys tem or an ex isting sys tem after re pa irs are sa nitary. sto rmwat er. a nd combined. The charac terl slics of each of th ese type s
or add itions '. Disinfect ion is usua lly acco mp lished by intr odu cing chlo ri ne, of sewers a re d isc ussecl below.
calc ium hypoch lo rite. or ch lo rin a ted lime in a mo unt s sufficient to give an immed-
ia te chlorine res idue of 50 mg/ L. Th e che mica l is introduced slow ly a nd permitt ed
to rem a in in the system fo r a t leas t 12 a nd preferab ly 24 h before it is flushed o ut. Sa nit a ry Se wers
T he fl ushing may be accomp lished by o penin g severa l fire hydrants.
Oft en idcnt ified as se parate sewe rs. sa nitar y sewe rs were developed to rem ove
domeslic wastes from . '.
resldenlia . I areas. 0 Il" gln,
. 'I lly. the fl ow III sa nitar y sewers
M aint enan ce of Di stributi on Sys tems lVas by l(ral'it y. Mure rece ntl y. both pre sslll e a n d v acuum sewers ha ve . been used
. ,
to .serve- areas l.vhere
.. grav it. y sewers wou . lei b e Cf'ffic
I ult ,'ll1d cos tly to Install a nd
T he hydra ulic efficiency of pipe s will dimini sh with tim e because of tuh ercu lation,
lllaintall1.
enc rusta tion . and sed iment depo s it s. F lushing II ill dislodge so me of the fo reign
ma tter. but to clea n a pip e effecti vel} a sc rap er must be run thr o ugh it. The scra per
may be forced t hro ugh by wate r pre ssur e o r pu lled thr o ugh with a ca ble. Clea ni ng.
S torm wa ter Se wers
eve n t ho ugh cos tly, may payoff with Illcreased hyd rauli c efficiency and increased
pre ssure s thr o ugh o ut the sys tem . Th e eflects of cleaning may last only a short Sewers Intend ed so lely for the collection of sto rmwater are kn own as stormwa ,ter
,
sewers. Usuallv ·· sewe l'S .'separate
large r tha n sa nltalY .' '.stor mwa ter . sewet S ,Ire
time. and in ma ny cases pipe s are lined with ceme nt mo rtar after clea n ing to
obt a in more per mane nt resu Its. - . . . bl
CllnstruCled to e·ltmln a te poll ution pro ems, . ' 'lssocta ted .with th
' e dIscharge
. . of Ull-
"
treated wastewater fr om eumblne( . I sewers .Into II'aterco urses a.nd reCelVll10 e
wa tels.
More recentl y. the treatment 0 f sto rmwater Ilas .' developed IlltO. a separat .e and
6-10 P UMPI N G REQ U IR ED F OR WAT ER SU PP LY S YSTE MS specialized field. Fo r this reaso n the desig n o f stormwa ter sewers IS no t conSidered
.'Infurmat .lo n o n sto lm
in this sec tio n. Detailed ., ter sewers mav
w.l. ' -' be fo und 111 Refs.
In some cases. grav ity can be lI sed as th e dril 'ing fo rce to bring wa ter fro m its [6-5.6-7 .6- 14. a nd 6- 16].
so urce to the consumer. In mos t Cases. howe\"er. so me form of pumping wil l be
required. Pllmp s required to delile r water from we lls and where necessary to
lift wa ter to distribu tion reservoirs an d eleva ted tank s. Often boos ter pump s Combined Se wers
mu st be installed o n the main s to incr case th e pressure. Pump s and pump station s , co Ile'cted toge ther in co mbined
Do mestic II'asteW<lter and sto rmlYa ter are .. sewers.
.
are considered in greater deta il la ter in thi s chapt er. . '. . . .' of the olde r Cllies 111 th e
\ f\lth oulLh th e use of comb ined sewe rs persi sts In mdny . .
Un it ed State s. tltey arc seldom con strllctecI to eI',I),. TI1c JV are stdl used
III part s (If the wor ld. however.
Was tewa ter Co llec ti on

Onc e used for its intended purp oses. t he wa ter suppl y of a co mmunit y j s co nsidered 6-12 T YPES OF SE\VE RS
to be wastewa ter. The indi vidual pip es lIsed tn co llect ,;nd transport \vastewa ter
are ca lled sel \"t'r s. and the network of sewers lIsed to co llect was tewa ter from a .I-he types and sizes
. of sewers lised WI'11 VJI)
., 11'1·· tl1 sir C of the collect
.
inn system
'
and
commu nity is known as a co /l t'Cl iofl s r Sl e lli. th\: - of tlte I'aCI'1"Illes. Th e prin. clp<l
_ l types of sewe
. rs
The purp ose of this secti o n is to de fine the types of collec tion sys tems tha t are . n systems are (IeSCtl·' b ecI b y fl Il1ctio n In 1 able 6-4 and IlIus-
found III ll10s t cn llectlo
used . the appurtenances lI sed in conjunc ti on with sewers. the tlnw in sewers. tlie trat ed graphica lly In Fig. 6-6.
 ."
jO' $: r ...; --l '-'
:; :5 c.:;i ::::'
";:; :l " ':i'
- . "-.....
f.;
"'"c.
to '<
'0
",
0'
n-
@ "o
-
:;
'"9' :3 ;
(\; .., "3. i r, "" ;:0- <:
c- ::l "? ::r C "
nc
0\ >
-!
OJ
\] rl':'
(JO
:0
.h. m

:0
--l '"
CIl '<
r "0 .",
OJ $: c
"
3:
c 3 v c c :l
.a '"
'J>

" "c5 "

r.
'Tl'"
- , OJ - () :l
::

" c
(t)
Q
e ....,
o
"" (J<
'
:r
0
:: n ::;
(1) V> o _ ::.> ::: 3
0'> -
"'0
t/, :::
'"3' " (t) :: .., '< VI ::)
" ,..,
'":;
I '" " :l g 3 - < .:z
..,,..,
:::: lro
2 "
v "
(1)
:l v,
o :; r. .... './1
:ro-
" "
S '"
<
'<
'0 =
;i 3'
-
!"t
C
'"5'
:;
o
Q.

8· .., -
o '"
:r()Q
"
"
V>
0;

'/. " " n " '0

:::. 0
-
'<
r. :l '"
.",
;n' :E 'TO ::; ;:;'
3. §. f
'7
- "
:r '0
C "
v. "
v OJ
< '"
...; " Vl

'" n
c,
c:.
:r
'" o
;;-
3
'.n
;?::
r. r..! , '" 2-
V>

r, "'" ; n '"
g.
2- o
;;;- r.
"
- "
0. " :::l
!2 (5 r;
:; - c 2' '"
'<
/ r;
5.
a.
r.
g 3 '";:;
oc-<
" 3
n
3
v, \ ......
....
o- , Q
::J
....
.....
n:
n
<:
:.; "
3
r; r. r..
9..g c,
[ ;: '"
'"' :::I Vl
-.- (\; ..... <
:;: :;
"0 -'
o r::r
.:;:
rt
.., ....
0
:3 '"
V>
r.
!:; :n 3 " ::
-
'"
0
-
:: .
OJ
3." ..,
c..c:
o ::; rn
o n :J :;
" ,\

Spigo t end VC
200'mm minimum
r B MH frame and cover Adjust to require.:; ::: ',;de
wi th a minimum of two
cou rses of brick masonry
pipe ",ith premo ld ed or reinf o rced-conc r e te
Jomls \ grading rings
A A

L l:lt3 J
Rubb er gasket
o r sealan t
T ypica l 3,OO-mm VC p ipe
st ub required a t ail
connec tions to manhole
200 -mm minimum Precast rei nfo rced-
T y pical VC stub wi th concrete MH bar rel
stopper fo r future' Class B conc rete
crad le support 6
co nnection
minimum t,gc_--
',-o .. E.
c:
Secti o nal plali C-C Form groove in baSe
conc re te wit h steel
.Q
'"c
N

(;
'.
ring to receive :.0
ton gue of barrel
U
E\6
o 0
l2 S-mm
minimum

VC pipe stub

r
with stopp er

c
tc
Base to be co nstruct ed on
: Class B co ncr e te
cradle suppor t
Brick masonry o r
cl,ass A co ncrete I Cla ss A co ncr ete
undisturbed mat e rial o r l 2 5-mm : (ty p ica l) Brick masonry Con crete masonry
co mpa cted sc ree ned grave l minimum invert inve rt
w
V>
Se ctio n A - A Section B-B
Figure 6-7 T yp ical manh ole used ror reinro rced-concr e le sewer p ipe, (From MeTcalf & £ddv, Inc, [6-8].)
 See note 3
Precast MH barrel HY IJRALJLlCS DESIGN 353
and sea l with non shrink
mortar (typical)
See note 3 6-13 COLLECTION SYSTEM APPURTENANCES
Reverse VC 150
mm The principal app urt enances of sa nitar y sewers are manho les, drop inl ets to man-
ho les_ buildin g connec ti o ns, a nd jun c ti o n cha mber s. D e pendin g. on loca l topo-
150
graphy, sp ec ial stru ct ur es ma y be req utr ed.
mm
Manholes
Ma nhol es are used to int e rco nn ect I\VO or more sew ers (see Fig. 6-6) a nd to p rovide
entry for scwe r c leanin g. Fo r sewe rs that are 1200 mm (4:::; in ) and sma \ler, man-
hol es shou ld be loca ted at changes in s ize. s lo pe. or direction . In larg e r sewe rs
cut curves to be th ese change s ca n be made without us ing a manho le. :\ typ ica l manhole fo r
cut and fitted to reinforced-concrete pipe is shown in Fi g. 6-7.
suit conditions Class B concre te plac ed
at each manhole against undisturbed
(refer to note 2) material or sheeting Drop Inlets to Manholes

Shallow dro p __
typi cal
+
I

r__ Dee p drop

typi ca l
Wh ere th e difference in e leva tion between the incoming a nd ou tgo ing sewer ex-
ceeds 0.5 m (1.5 ft), flow from incoming sewer ca n be dropped to th e eleva ti on of
(a) th e o utg o in g sewe r wi th :1 drop inlet s lIch as s how n in Fig. 6-8.

Notes : I .

I. Drop pipe to be same diameter as sewer discharging into manhole for up 10 and including
including 300-mm size.
stree t C'rb 1----"'" '-___ --1 M inilnunl depth ... ' Building
, foundation
2. Deeper drop may be constru cted with stra ight pipe betw ee n wye bran ch and curve cove r from top.. ':
of pipe 900 mm
..•.:,.
3. Extend encasement to first joint beyond excavation for drop con nection.
t building . .• F oo ting
4. Dimensions and cons truction of drop manh o le to be simi lar 10 typi cal manhole Building
except as shown. . .
I
200- X 150-mm
Scn.::cncd gravel
10 to cO mJ1J
F lex ibl e
wastewater
sys tem
Pip e size tab le .... I.m -..
Aluminum splash
plate Pip e sizes, mm
Inl et Drop Ckaltou t
sewer, pipe , plug
Dj D2
Payment limits 6-x50-mm
for drop inlets aluminulJl strap 300 250 pip"
allchors spaced 250 200
600mm O.c. 200 200-
No te: I SO-min pipe nJily be
150 150
Vc. AC. DI . or PVC
125 125 Main sewer size v;]ries
200- mm VC shown
S t31flless-sleel bands.
with takeup screws

Notes:
J. Refer to table above for sizes
of drop pipes to be used with
inlet sewers.
Inv ert detail
Invert d e t ail at sid e drops 2. Dimensions and construction of
at main run drops 2 drop manhole to be simila r 10
typical manhole excep t as shown. plas ti c body
(b)
Figure 6-8 Typical drop inlet s for vitrified clay pipe used in co llect io n sys tems: (0) o ut side drop, DeLlil i\ - Flexible coupling:
Ita scale
ih) inside drop for sewer 600 mm and smaller. (From M el<'l1li i:"dd... Ill c. ["-81.)

352
354 WAT ER ENVIRONI>1ENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 355

Building Connections where V = velo c it y, m/ s

11 = fric tion factor
The sewers leading from individual hou ses or building s to the municip a l collcction
sys tem are known as building co nnecti o ns. A typical h o use co nnection is s ho wn R = hydraulic radius
in Fig. 6-9 . cr o ss-sectional area of Aow, m 2
wetted perimeter , m

Junction Chambers S = slope of energy grade line , m / m

As the diameter of intersecting sewer s (e.g. ,. main and trunk sewer s) continu es to The recommended n value for the de s ign of new and existing well-constructed
increase as wa stewater from more of the service area is collected , preca st manh o les sewer s is 0.013. An 11 value of 0.0 ISis recommended for the analysis of older sewers.
can no lo nger be used. Wh e n thi s situation occur s, special juncti o n chamb ers a re The graphs presented in Figs. 6-10 and 6-11 have been prepared to simplify the
constructed to connect the inter secting sewers. use of the Manning equation in the design of sewers. Also because many sewers
do not Aow full, the relationship between hydraulic elements for flow at full depth
and at other depths in circular sewers is illustrated in Fig .. 6-12. Developed using
6-14 BASIC CONSIDERA nONS IN THE DESIGN OF SEWERS the Manning equation , Fig. 6-12 is used to obtain the·values of V. Q, A, R. and n
at a given depth ratio based on the corresponding values of VJ , QJ' A J' R J'
In planning and de s igning sanitar y sewers the following fa cto rs mu st be co nsid ered and nJ when the pipe is flowing full.
separately fo r ea ch install a tion:
Sewer Pipe Materials and Sizes
I. Estimation o·f wa stewater de s ign Aow rate s The principal materials used in the manufacture of sewer pipe are asbestos cement,
2. Selection of design parameters ductile iron, reinforced concrete , prestressed concrete, polyvinyl chloride, and
G . H ydraulic design equation vitrified clay. Information on the sizes of pipes made with these materials is pre-
b. Alternative sewer pipe materials sented in Table 6-5.
c. Minimum size s Minimum sewer sizes are usually specified in local building codes. The
d. Minimum and maximum velocitie s smallest sewer used should be larger than the building sewer connections so that
3. Selection of appropriate sewer appurtenances ... .thrQ.l,Ighth.e building sewer will not clog the municipal sewer.
4. Evaluation ·ofalternatlve · aiigI1nient s ············ Building sewer connections vary in size from 100 to I SO mm (4 to 6 in). The
S. Evaluation of the use of c urv ed sewer s minimum size recommended for gravity sewers is 200 mm (8 in), although ISO-mm
(6-in) co nnections have been used in some communities.

Design Flow Rates Minimum and Maximum Velocities

The total wa stewater flow in sanitar y sewers is made up o f three co mp o nent s :
(I) re s idential, commercial, and instituti o nal wa stewater , (2) indu strial wa stew a ter.
and (3) infiltration . SanitilfY sewers are designed for the following fl ows (Ref.
[6-8J)
I. Peak flow s from residential. co mm ercial , ins tituti o nal, and indu strial so urce s
for the entire service area
2. Peak infiltration allowance for th e entire ser vice ar ea
Hydraulic design equation Curr e ntly, th e Mannin g equati o n is used mos t co m-
monly for th e d es ign o f sanitar y sc wer s. Th e M a nnin g equati o n is
V = R2 tJS I / 1 (6-5)
11
When the velo city of flow in a sewer is low, there is a tendency for the solids present
in wastewater to settle out. Because the deposited solids may accumulate and
ultimately block the flow. sufficient velocity should be developed on a regular
basis to flush out any deposited solids. Based on past experience, current practice
is to de sign sa nitar y sewer s with appropriate slopes to maintain a minimum flow
velocit y of 0.6 m / s (-2.0 ft/ s) when the sewer is Aowing full or half full. To prevent
tbe deposit Ion of sand and gravel a· velocity of 0.75 m /s (2.5 ft/ s) is recommended.
To a void damaging sewers it is recommended that the maximum flow velocities
be limited to v;t!ue s equal"to or less than 30 m / s (10 ft/ s).
Minimum Slopes
Minimum s lopes are o ften used to a vo id extensive excavation where the slope of
the gr o und surface is Aat. In gen eral. minimum s lopes based on Manning's equation
 "
2'
'"
o
' f)

C
<:>

.c
0.

""
o
E
o
V)
.2.
V)
0 0 0 0 00
a a o 'r. 'n
0 0
o
0 0 0 0 00
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 o 0 0 0 0
0 0
lli / IU ' ,dO IS
tlJ / tU ';)dOIS

356 357
 358 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 359

n Table 6-5 Ayailable size ranges and descriptions of commonly used pipe for grayity-
Values of-
nruu flow st'wers
1.1 1.2 1.3 14 Avaitabte
size range,
Typ e of pip e mm (in) De scr iption
--- fI constan t \'\,
Asbeslos cement (A C) 100-9 00 Weigh s less than other commonly rigid pipes. May be
I 1
--- Ind ependent of 1/
0.8 (4-36) su sce plible to acid corrosion and hydrogen sulfide
I , atlack, but if properly cur ed with steam at high

//
/ A-. Hydraulic
pressure (autoclave proce ss), may be used even in
env ironments with moderately aggressive waters or
soi ls with high- sulfate content.
/ / radius R
Ductile iron (0 1) 100-t350 Often used for river crossings and where Ihe pipe must

.c
Cl.
v
.",
04
,/' (4-54) sup port unusua ·lly high loads , where an unusually
lea kproof sewe r is required, or where unusual root
problems are likely to .develop. Ductite-iron pipes
are susceptible to acid corrosion and hydrogen sulfide
, /
0
.9 ,
//
,//
a!lack, and therefore should not be used where the
groundwater is brackish, unless suitabte protective
,/ measures are taken.

0.2 v Reinforced concrele IRC) 300-3600 Readit y available in most localities. Susceptible to
(t2 - t44) co rr os ion of interior if th e atmosphere over waste-
wate r contains hydrogen sutfide, or from outside if
buried in an acid of high-sulfate environment.

Preslressed conc re te ( PC) 400- 3600 Espec ially suited to tong transmission mains without
( 16- 144) building connections and where precautions against
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
lea kag e are required. Susceptibility to corrosion (the
s;tme as reinforced concrete).
H ydrau li c elements V Q'. A R
V fuU QfulJ R'ulJ P,)lyvinyl chloride (PYC) 100-375 A plastic pipe used for sewers as an alternative to
(4- t5) .. asbestos-=ent·aMd 'lfitf>liecl-day pipe, Lightweight ............ .
Figure 6-12 H yd rauli c elements fnr circular sewers. but slrong. Highly resistant to corrosion.

Yilrified c lay (VC) 100- 900 For many years the most widety used pipe for gravity
(4 - 36) sewe rs; st ill widely used in small and medium sizes.
have proved to be adequate for sma ll-diameter sewers. As the pipe sizes increa se Res istant to corro sio n by both acids and alkalies.
beyond 600 mm (24 in) the minimum practicable slop.e for construction is about Not susce ptible to damage from hydrogen sulfide,
0.0008 Ill / m. but is britlle and susceptibte to breakage.

In wa rm areas. hydrogen sulfid e will often develop as wastewater is tran sported

• .)Olirce: From Metcalf & Eddy, Inc . [6·8J
In sewers laid at minimum slop es. The de velopment o f hydr ogen su lfide can (I)
cause odor problems, (2) lead to the deterioration of materials co ntaining cement.
and (3) result in the precipitation . as sulfides. of trace metals needed for proper Another reason for not installing curved sewers is that the lise of laser-type survey-
bacterial growth in biological trea tm ent systems. A mor e complete analysis of ing equipment for maintaining grade during construction is not feasible.
hydro gen-s lilfide problem s In sewers ma y be found in Ref. [6-8].

Usc of Cuned Sewers
Although not used in thc past , cu rvcd selVers have pl'ovcd to he satisf;lc tor y as
lon g as the curva tur e is nut severe. Before usin g curved sewers. the compa tibilit y
of I he clean ing eq uipm ent t\l be used for sewer ma intenan cc Illust be assessed.
Sewer Ventilation
Ventilation in sewers is needed to avoid (1) t he danger of asphyxiation of sewer
maintenance employees, (2) the buildup of odorous gases. and (3) the development
of explos ive mixtures of sewer gases, principally methane and oxygen. Design
ConSiderati ons for the ventilation of sewers are discussed in detail in Ref. [6-8].
 360 WATER
Sin gle- family hom es
A-I
6-15 DESIGN OF SANITARY SEWERS (200 hal
4th St.
The design of sanitary se\VersinvQlves fieldwork, the preparation of map s and pro-

r
files, and detailed design computations. Each of these topic s is considered briefly '">
<:
below. The detailed design of san itary sewe rs is illustrated in Example 6-4. c· _ I
o -_
E
E Mixed - - - - cO.O m
SthS.t.
Fieldwork hOUSing
Low-ri se A- S I

-
To·design sanitary sewers properly, accurate and detailed.maps should be available apartment ___ hal
for the areas to be served. The location of streets, alleys, highways, railroads,
.................\
........ .......
A-4
(100 hQ)
---
public buildings and parks, streams, drainage ditche s. and o ther features that may ......... 6th St
influence the design of the sewers should be identified. Accurate elevations are ;:===============-=1- 19.0 III

needed throughout the area to be served by the proposed sewer. Profiles are
needed for all existing or proposed streets, alleys, and potential rights-of-way I
where sewers may be placed. In addition, detailed information must be available
on the location of surface and subsurface utilitie s such as water and gas main s,
electrical conduits. drain lines, and other underground structures.
Single-
fa m il y
homes
A-6
--------- Single- - - - _
Ig Om
fallltly
In addition to the above information , soils data should also be available. (200 hal hom es
Soils borings should be made to a depth of at least 1.5 m (5 ft) below the bottom A-7 I
( 300 hal
of the sewer trench. (,
7th St

Commercia !
dis tri ct
Preparatio.n of Maps and Profiles A-8
(100 hal
While tlie fieldwork is going on, work on the preparation of maps and profiles 8 I
Sin gle-
should proceed simultaneously. Thus. if any information is found to be missing
it can be collected before the fieldwork is completed. Maps on a scale of 25 m' to '
10 mm (200 ft to 1 in) are acceptable for most purp oses. Where additional detail
is needed a scale of about 5 m or less to 10 mm (40 ft or less to 1 in) is often used.
family
.. "tlo"riles"
A-'i
(200 hal
"

1>Lxccl
-
--..;..,: "

residenti'l!"
SthS t.

---- --
.. ..

Smg!e- - - 17.0 m
In preparing design profiles , street centerline elevations are shown at least every 9th St hOUSing family
15 m (50 ft) and at all locations where the surface stope changes abruptly. A-IO homes
6 (IOOha) A
"- "-.................. 10 (25_0 hal
Design Computations for Sanitary Sewers " Industrial"-......... 7 II

The detailed design of. sanitary sewers involve s the se lection of appropriate pipe "- f"-- park
A-I: ....... ___ "'----
8
sizes and slopes to transport th e quantity of wastewater expected from the surroun- I . . . . . "- (cOO hd) ---
16.0 In
ding and upstream areas the next pipe in series, subject to t.he ap propriate design . "-

L ="-.. .
Trunk ::-ewer
constraints. The design procedure for sanitary sewers is illustrated in Example 6-4.
9 0- Used to indica!c
location or line
o 500 15.0 III to \',:hicll
Example 6-4: Designing a gravity-flow sewer 'De sign a gravity -flow trunk san i-
LJ I I I I To tltatment
from con t ributing
tary for the area shown in the accompanying ligur e ((II. The trunk sewer is to be Scale . m Jrea IS
laid along Peach Avenue starting at 4th Street and ending at I I th Street. Asslime that the plant

following design criteria have been developed based on an analy sis of local co ndition s \0)
and codes.
3tl l
 ENV IRONMENTAL ENG INE ERIN G HYDRAULICS DESIGN 363
362 WATER

b. F or commercia l, indu strial , and institutional areas, al so obtain the peak infiltra-
I. For design period use the saturat ion peri od (time required to reach sa turation po u-
latlon). p tio n va lues from the figur e (b). However, to take into account that the total length
o f sewe rs in' the se areas will generally be less than that in residential areas, use only
2. For population densities use the data gj\'en in the table.
50 percent o f the actua l a rea to co mpute the infiltration allowance,
7. for inflow allowance assume that the steady-flow inflow is accounted for in the
infiltration allowance.
Saturat ion 8. Peaking fac tors:.
populat ion Wastewater o. R es identia l- u se th e curve given in the accompanying figure (e) .
T ype or density. flow, b. Co mm erc ial - 1.8
Zoni ng development person! ha L/capi t" d c. Indu strial -2. l
d. In stituti ona l (school) - 4.0
Resident ial Single-family dwellings 40 380
Residential Duplexe s 60 300
Resident ial Low-ri se apartments 120 220
Residential Mixed ho usi ng 70 250
(; 4

00
c
3. For residential wastewater tlows use the data given in the table .
4. For commercial and industrial flow s (average):
"" 5 m3 /s, 2.0
0...
a. Co mm e rcial - 20 m 3 : ha d.
I
b, Indu s trial - 30 mJ / ha . d. 0.1 0.5 5
0.004 0.01 0.05
5. F o r inst ituti onal fl ows (ave rage):
Avecage wastewater flow (excl udin g infiltration l inflow) , m 3/s
College - 400 nl" / d (5330 stud ents x 7S L/student . d),(IOOO L /m J)
(c)
6. F o r infiltration a llowance:
(/. For residential a l·eas. o btain the peak infiltration va lues from the accompany ing
figure (b).
9. for th e hydraulic de s ign equatio n u se the Manning equation with a n n value-ofO.Ol3.
T o si mplif y the co mputation s, use Fig. 6-10.
100 10. Minimum pipe s ize:The loca l building code spec ifies 200 mm (8 in) as the smalle st pipe
pe rmi ssib le for this situation.
11. Minimum veloci ty: To prevent the depos iti on of so lids at low wastewater flow s, use
a minimum velocity of 0.75 m ls (2. 5 ft /s ) during the peak flow conditions.
'0 50
12. Minimum cove r (minimum depth of cover ove r th e to p of the sewer): As established
'" 40
by th e local community building code, the minimum depth of cover is 2.0 m.
E 30 Old sewe rs

20 SOLUTIO N

5,000 ha. 10 .0 mJ/ ha' d I. Layo ut the trunk sewe r. Draw a line to repre sent the proposed sewe r [ see figure (a)].
10 2. Locate and numb er th e manh o les . Loca te ma nhol es at (!l changes in direction. (2)
changes in slope, (3) pipe junctions. (4) upper ends o f sewe rs. and (5) int erva ls from
90 to 120 m o r less. Id entify eac h manhol e with a number [see figure (a)]. For the
purpose o f thi s example only th e manh o les at th e maj o r junctions hav e been numb ered.
5
sewers include existing sewers having pipe joint s In an actual de sign, intermediate manholes wo uld be loca ted and numbered.
sealed With com pressio n gaskets o f eiastomeric mat eria ls. 3. Pre par e a sewer des ign comp utati o n tab le. Based on the ex peri ence of numerous
engi neers. it has been found that the best approach for carrying out sewe r compu tati ons
5 ,000 ha. 3.3 mJ/ ha ' d
is to use a co mput a tion table. The necessary computations fo r the sani ta ry sewe r
J.....ILILLI:-:c---L_..L-L I --> s hown in figure (II) are presented in the accompanying ta ble. Although the table is,
500 1.000 5,000
for the mo st part. scl f-explanaw ry. the following comments arc presented to clarify it s
Servic,' area. ha
deve lopment.
(b )
...'"
0-

Sewer computation table

Loc at ion Resid ential fl ows

Lengt h Average Cumulative Cumulative

of : Population Populati on unit Flow average pea k flow.
sewer, Are a. increment, flow. increment, flow. Peakin g m 3jd
Line Fmni To m Subarea' ha : persons jha perso ns Ljca pita . d m' j d m' j d factor ( II x 12)

( I) , (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) :(7 ) (8) (9) ( 10) (II) (12) ( 13)

707 A-I 200 : 40 8.000 380 3040 3,040 2.9 8,8 16

707 A-2 3.040 2.9 8.8 16
A- 3 3,040 2.9 8.8 16
A-5 250 : 70 17.500 250 4375 7.415 2.7 20,021
4 1414 A-4 100 : 120 12.000 220 2640 10.055 2.6 26,143
A-7 300 40 12.000 3S0 4560 14.615 2.6 37,999
.j 5 707 A-6 200 ' 40 8.000 380 3040 17.655 2.5 44.13 8
5. (, 707 A-8 17.655 2.5 44.13 8
A-9 200 40 3S0 3040 20.695 2.5 51,738
6 (, 707 A-I O 100 70 7.000 250 1750 22,445 2.5 56.113
7 8 707 A-II 250 40 10.000 380 3800 3,800t 2.9 11.020
9 707 707 A-12 26,245 2.5 65,613

Sewer computation table (Conlinued)

Indu str ial 110ws
Locati on Commc:rci,1i

A \'Crage Cumulative Cumulative

;\ \'erage CUITlUlatl\C Cumulative
Lcng l h peak flow,
average peak Aow. unit average
of unit
Area. flow, flow, Peaking m 3 jd
Area. now. !low. Peaking m' id
. mJ jd factor (21 x 22)
m.\." ha d m.l 'd faclol (16 x 17) ha m' /ha d
L'lle Fr\.)!l1 To m Subarea' ha

(19) (20) (21 ) (22) (23)

( 5) ( 14) (15) (10) (17) ( 18)
(II 12) dl (4)

707 A-J
707 A-2
A- 3 50 20 1000 1.8 1800
A- 5 1000 1.0 ISOO
1000 1.8 1800
4
A-7 1000 1.8 1800
707 A-6 1000 1.8 1800
A-S 100 20 3000 1.8 5400
h 707
.'\-9 3000 1.8 5400
A-IO 3000 1.8 5400
6 i\ 707
70i A-II 2.1 12,600
1.8 5400 200 30 6000
9 707 A-12 3000

'J '
 '.-J

""'"

Sewer computation table (Col1linued)

Lnc( (ion
Institutional Aows Cumulat ive subtotal, Inti lna tion

Cumulative Cumulati ve
Length Cumulative Cumu lative
Cum ulative average peak Aow.
or average peak Aow. flow: m.\/d
Peak unit infiltration
sev.:cr, m'\ /d Cumulative Intiltrati on allowance,
tlo\v, Peaking m·1 /d
Lin t.: To ( II + 16 + (13+18+ Area. area,
Frll!l1 In Suharca* . m" ,<1 factor
allowance m' /d
(24 x ::'5) 21 + 24) 2:l + 26)
--_._--------------- ha ha m' /ha . u (30 x 31)
III (::'1 pI (5) ( ::'4 1 (::'5) (26}

200::: 200 R.O 1600

50t 250 7.5 1875
25+ 275 7.5 2063
4 14 14 250 525 7.0 3675
100 625 6.5 4063
4 4 707 300 92-5 5.5 5088
707 200 1125 5.0 5625
50::: 11 75 5.0 5875
11 707 200 1375 4.9 6738
X 707 100 1475t 4.8 7080
9 707 250 250t 8.0 2000
100::: 1825 4.0 7300

Sewer computation table (Conril1ued)

Loca tion Design flows: Sewer design Sewer layout

Ground surface Sewer pipe

elevation invert
Lengt h Cumulati ve Capacity Velocity elevation
of peak Aow, Cumulative Sewer when when At At
sewer, m' /d peak Mow,§ diameter, Slope, full, full, upper lower Upper Lower
Line From To m Subarea • (28 + 32) m' /s: mm m/m m 3 /s m/s manhole manhole end end

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (33) (34) : (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42)

I 707 A·I 10,416 0.121: 450 0.0018 0.121 0.75 20.00 19.00 17.50 16.23
2 2 707 A·2 12,291 0.142:
A·3 14,279 0.165:
A·5 27,096 0.314: 750 0.0009 0.330 0.75 19.00 18.33 15.93 15.29
4 1414 A·4 33,6'06 0.389:
A·7 46,487 0.538: 900 0 .0009 0.540 0.85 18.33 17.40 15.14 U.86
4 4 707 A·6 53,163 061) 1050 0.770 0 .87 17.40 17.00 13.71 13.14
6 707 A·8 57.013
A·q 65.476 0 758: 1050 0.770 0.87 17.00 16.50 13.14 12.58
6 6 707 A·IO 70.193 0.81Z 1050 0.0009 0.820 0 .95 16.50 16.00 12.58 11.94
8 7 707 A·II 13,020 0.151: 525 0.0014 0.165 0.75 16.20 16.00 12.46 13.46
9 707 A·12 92.513 1.071; 1200 1.100 0.98 16.00 15.00 11.79 11.22

• See figure (0).

t Line '/ receives flow from subarea A·ll only.
t 50 percent of area (see assumption 6b).
mJ /s = (m' /d) /(86.400 sid).
The minimum practical slope for construction is about 0.0008 m/m.
'.-J

"'".....

(
368 WATER ENV tRONMENTAL ENGINEERtNG HYDRAULICS DESIGN 369

O. Th e entrie s in column s I through 5 a re used to identif y the sewer lines under co n- For line I :
sideration a nd to suinmariz e the ba sic phy sical data from figure (a) .
b. The entries in co lumn s 6 thr ough 13 are used to obt ain the cumu la ti ve peak do- Lower
invcr! 17.50 III - (00018 mfm)(707 m) = 16.23 m
mesiic flow (column 13). Th e ar ea (co lumn 6) is obtaine d from figure (a). The pop u-
lati on density (column 7) and the unit fl ow da ta (co lumn 9) were given. Peaking elevation
faC!ors, obtai ned from figure (e), are en tered in co lumn 12.
[I' the depth or cover (rcmember to allow for th e pipe wa ll thicknes s above the
L The commerc.ial area , the co rres ponding unit fl ow. and the cumul a ti ve ave ra lle
crown) t'or any section ha s become toO shallo\\', repea t the proce ss 'with a lower
fl ows are·entered ·in co lumn s 14, 15; and 16. respecti ve ly. T he given peaking
initial in vert elevation ,lr a steepe r slope for th at sec ti on.
fo r the commercial area is en tere d in co lu mn 17. and the comp uted cumul ative
When a manhole IS loca ted at a sewer jun ction. the outl et sewe r elevation is
peak com mercial.flows·a re entered in.co lum n 18.
ftxcd by the lowes t inlet scwer. If rhe pI pe size increases, th e crowns of the two pipe s
d Th e en tr ies in col umn s 19 'thr o ugh 23 for the indu strial flows a rc the same as Illust be matched at t he manh ole. Thi s is done to avoid th e back ing up of wastewa ter
described for the commerc ial !low.s (co lumn s 14 thr ough 18) into the ,ma iler pi pe. An example of this si tu a tion is the increase in size from 450 to
e. Th e instituti o nal fl ows are e ntered in co lumn s 24 thro ugh 26. 750 I11Ill For th is case. the calc ulations are as follows:
I Th e cumul a tive a verage and peak tl ows are summari zed in co lu mn s 27 and 28,
res pectivel y .
Lowe r invert ciev;lIion of the 450-ml11 sewer is 16.23 m.
.If. Th e infiltrati on allowance (columns 29 "thr ough is dete rmin cd using th e curvc
Uppcr in\'crt cleva t ion fo r the 750-IllIll-sewe r (l ine 2) is 15.93 III (16.23 m + 0.45 III -
for new sewe rs in figure (b).
Ii. The total cum ulat ive peak desig n fl ow (col umn 33) is obtai ned by su mming col umn s 0.75 Ill)
Lower l\wer t for the 7S0-mlll sewer is III [ 15.93 m - (0.0009 m/ m) x
28 and 32.
i . Sewer i:lesig n informati o n is summarized in co lumn s 3S through 38. The required
(707 m)j.
Th ese procedures ;\re rcpc," ed until the elevation,> fo r the en tire sewe r are estab-
pipe sizes are estimat ed usi ng Manni .ng·s eq ua ti on with an IJ va lue of 0.0.13 (see
Fig. 6-10) . The capac it y of the selec ted pipe and the ve l,)('it\ when rull are tabulateci lished.
in columns 37 and 38. In a ll cases the velocity shou ld 0.75 m/s (2.5 ft/ s).
j. The necessa ry la yo ut data fo r the sewe r (co lumn s :W through 42) ar e ob tain ed as
A com putation :able. suc h as the o ne show n in thi s examp le. lIot only saves
follows: The gro und surfa ce eleva tio ns at the manhol e loca t ions en tere d in colu mns
time but also is usl!ful ror su mmarizing bot h the data and the com put ed resu lts in an
39 a nd 40 are ob tain ed by interp o latio n with the eiev;lIion dat a given in figure (a) .
orderlv sequence I'or ,ubscLJuenl usc. Th e specific col um ns in a given co mput a tion ta ble
Th e sewe r inve rt eleva tions shown in col umn s 4 1 and 42 are obtained by tria l and
depend on the factors that must be consi der ed In arriv in g at the peak deSIgn tlows. Most
erro r with a sewe r profile work shee t. Th e first step in preparing wor k sheet is to
sanItary and civil engineering con"Jillng firms have develuped tabulation forms of their
plot the gro und- surfa ce elevation s give n in co lum ns YJ and 40. working bac kwards
.. .. .()wfl·for ·seWCF ·dch>gn .w mpulaLions .. Alt.hQug,h .th.e in specific details
from a co nvenient point. After the gro und -surface' is 'Ct;';I',;,;): the ne'x'i 'ste'p"
and in t he order uf ion rrom thIs ta ble. t he same informa tion is 'lI'y presented .
is to begin sketching the in vcrt and crown (in side holtom <l nel inside to p o f the pipe.
Some cng inen illg firlll' have developed com put er program s ro r sewer des ign.
respec tive ly) of sewer section as the necessa ry devation are deve lo ped.
Th e me th od fo r estab lishing the in ve rt elevation s wi ll be illustrat ed by analyzing
selected sewer lines startin g with -line I..which connec ts manho les I and 2. The first
step is to loca te th e invert o f the upp er end of the pipe a t such an elevation th a t the
min imum cove r requir emen t is sa{isfied, ta king into accou nt bot h the Inside diameter 6-16 PREPARAT I ON OF CONTRACT DRAW I NGS AND
of the pipe a nel its wu llthi ckn ess. Th e upper invert ekva ti on of the 450-mm pipe is SPECI FICAT I ONS
set initi a lly a t elevation 17.5 m :
Once the sewer des ign computa tio ll s have been comp lcted. a lterna tive a li gnments
ground surface - depth of cover - pipe wall Ih ickncss - pir e """neler
20.00 m 2.00 m 0.05111 0.45 m
have been examined. and the mos t cos t- and energy-effecti ve alignment been has
selected. the next step is to prcpar e COlltract drawings and specifica tions. Deta iled
cont ract drawings, Including plans and profiles for each scwer. 'a nd speci ficatio ns
The p ipe thi ckness wi ll va ry with the type 01' sewer For this exa mple. 0.05 III will
be used fo r all pipe s izes. Th e lower elevati on is co nlpui ed.tw ,>ubtra ctlng the fall as mllst be prepar ed before bids can be obtall1el! to bude! the proj ect. A typi cal pran
follows: and profile of a segment uf a sewer· line is show n ." 1 Fig. 67 13. Th e Importance of
preparing accura te and detailed draw ings and specificat ions canno t 'be ove rem-
Lowe r Uppe r Slope Length phasized. the most com pelling reaso n is tha t such caref ul preliminary
in vert =' i 11\Trt of A of work wi ll likely ensure a successful pr ojec t with a minimum number of change
ion devatioll sewer orders and wi tho ut a lawsu it.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAUU

90'l5 13 ' '' ll]_

+
v 'ON HW "1 veLtz + 0 P. IS o 6-17 CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
i \\ or ·,
r ,' There are many way s in which the actual constructionofasewerl!YS
l\ +
o accomplished, dependin g on the soil conditions encountered and the,
equipment available for the j o b. The important (hing is that the
II;
c? l
\ o
o
N
+
perfor m the function for which it is intended with a minimum of main!,! .
To attain this end, three conditions should be met: (1) the pipe shoul\.!i}'1i_:_ .
Vl o
carefully, properly bedded , and backfilled in such a manner that there j ',
I:;:, o or breakage during and after construction ; (2) joints.should be made
00
3 care to eliminate excessive infiltration; and (3) the line and slope

,
+
\ o should be free of irregularities that might favor the accumulation of

\ 0
0
'"
o
V)

+
with resultant clogging of the pipe.

o
\ LHOS 13"1l] ..,
,.., 6-18 MAINTENANCE OF SEWERS
£ ON HW 0
Ov'lS I + 0 CIS

+
o
""
.; Sewer maintenance involves keeping sewers clear of obstructions -'
working order. Mo st stoppagesin sewers are caused by the accumulati.
o, E material. tree roots, accumulatI?n of grease, or collapse of the sewer :, ...
.... E
c :;; «J
llsually enter through the pIpe jomts. Good deSIgn and proper jomt
+ S
0 o
'"
U;
";; IS the best preventIve measure .. Most CItIes have ordinances
grease traps o n serVIce connectIOns where wastewater may contam
99 ' 0513"U ] o
o
of grease , Collapse of the pipe is unlikely if adequate cover is provided . >., '- '
'ON HW II' WI+OElS + able care is exerci sed to avoid breakage during and after constructio .
o
Where flushin g is inadequate to remove an ·obstruction, sewer$.
o with specia l tools attached to cables or jointed rods and pushed or p '
00
o
.. . .. . . . .... . . .... the sewer rrom a manhole or o ther point or entry. The type of tool d _,.,
0 o
0 calise or the obstruction, Cutting tools are used to remove roots,
0
I o are lIsed to remo ve grit and sludge, and brushes are effectIve III rem ,'.,
i V)
o The use or a little copper sulfate in a sewer is often effective in killing r ,
+
II
'"-'I
1 1 o

o
damaging the tree.
Occasionally, explosions may occur in The most
\
"+
o explOSIve gases are mflammable and volatile liqUIds III the wastewat <, /
E or dome stic gas from an adjacent main. Ga ses gIven off by the de
E o
o 6 or wastes are rarely the cause of explosions. However , many sewer-
-0
o
S: , -, 0

I
o
r
o
, worker s have been asphyxiated in gas-filled sewers. In no case sho
0
:r: + be permitted to enter a sewe r until proper tests ror the presence of
Vl R \
0
have been made. Whenever a worker enters a se wer, there . should
I Ali i g person at the surface who can give emergency aId If reqlIIfeci, [6-5 , 6-4fJ ."
--::- be- 0
N HW +
° I
000 + 0 l' IS
. 1 I I
0

6-19 DESIGN OF STORMWATER SEWERS

/'

'"
Oll UI
The design procedure ror stormwater sewers is essentially the
E c: c:
E E E lor the deSign or sa llltary sewers. The major dIfference IS that "
6 6 6
V ) Water to be removed rrom a serv ice area is determined on the baSIS
"

:170
 372 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRA U LICS DESIGN 373

analysis. Details on the analysis and design of stormwater sewers may be found Radial now
Mixed n ow
in Refs. [6-5, 6-7,6-14, and 6-16].

Axial now
Water and Wastewater Pumping
Single slage
Some form of pumping is used in' most water supply and wastewater collection Mulli s tag e
systems. As noted earlier, in water supply systems pumps are required to deliv!!r
water from wells. to lift water to distribution reservoirs and elevated tanks. and J e t (ej ec tor boosted)
'. Cas lift
to increase pressure in distribution systems. In wastewater systems. pumps are
H ydrau lic ram
used to avoid deep excavations. to convey wastewater over hills and other terrain Electromagnetic
where gravity sewers cannot be used. 'and at treatment plants to provide sufficient
head for plant operation. The movement of water and wastewater from one loca- Piston
tion to another is the most common application of pumps ill both types of systems. Plun ger
Because pumping is so important in the operation of water supply and collec-
tion systems, it is the purpose of this section (I) to examine the types of pumps Diaphragm
and pump drivers that are commonly used. (2) to review pump application termin-
ology. (3) to review pump characteristics and their applications. (4) to review the
Single rotor
analysis of pump systems and the selection of pumps. and (5) to review the design
of water and wastewater pump stations.
Multipl e rotor

6-20 PUMPS
Figure 6-14 PrinCipal types (If pumps. (Adaptcd (rom Hvdraulic Institllte Standards [6·3].)

The types of pumps used most commonly in the water and wastewater systems are
described in this section. In general. pumps may be classifi ed according to their
The principal components of kinetic-energy pumps are:
(1) principle of operation. (2) field of application (i.e .. liquid s handled). (3) opera-
fieaci"anc(
........ tlonar'cfLliy'({.e.·: capaci't'y): (4) type of construction. and (5) method of
L The rotating element called the impeller that imparts energy to the liquid being
drive. With respect to the principle of operation, pumps may be classified as
kinetic-energy pumps or positive-displacement pumps. The term lurbo machine is' pumped.
also used to describe kinetic-energy pumps. The principal types of pumps included 2. The shaft on which th e impeller IS mounted.
3. The pump casing that includ es th e inlet and outlet passages for leading the
under these two classifications are shown in Fig. 6-14.
.liquid being pumped int o and ou t o f the pump . and the recuperatmg sectIOn
\':hid1 receives th'e liquid discharged from the impeller and directs It to the
Kinetic-Energy Pumps outlet pa ssage. The function of the recuperating sec tion is to convert a por tion
The principal subclassification of kinetic-energy pump s is centrifllgal. which, in of the kinetic energy of th e fluid into pressure energy. T ypica lly thiS IS accom-
turn . is divided further into three groups: plished by means of a vo lut e or a set of diffusion vanes. In a volute casmg,-the
size of the channel surrou ndin g the impeller increa ses gradually to the size of the
J. Radial-flow pumps pump discharge nozzle, and most of the conversion of veloeity to pressure occurs
2. Mixed-flow pumps in the conical discharge nozzle. In a difl'usion casing, the impeller discharges mto
3. Axial-flow pumps . a channel provided with guide vanes. The cOliversion of velocny to pressure
occ ur s within the va ne ]1<tssages.
The above classifications are derived from the manner in which th e fluid is displaced 4. The frame which supports the pump casing.
as it moves through the pump. Thus. the fluid is displaced radially in a radial-flow
pump. axially in an axial-flow pump. and both radially and axially in a mixed- Because rags and trClsh In wastewate r (eve n though screened) would quickly
tlnw pump. clog the small passa[!c s Ifl typic,tl cle;lr\.\<lter radiClI-Ao,,' pump s. th e pump s used
 374 WATE R
for untreated was tewater are usua lly the s ingle-end suction vo lut e type. fitt ed with
nonclog impeller s. Nonclog pump s have open pa ss age s and a minimum number
of va nes (no t exceeding tw o in th e smaller s izes and limited to three . or at thc m os t
fou r. in th e la rger sizes).
Wastewater pumps mu st be ab le to pas s so lid s that en ter the co llcc ti o n sys tem.
Because a 70- mm (2 .S-in) -diameter so lid ca n p ass thr o ugh m os t d o me sti c to ilets,
it is co mm o n practice to req uire that pumps be able to discharge a 7S-mm (3-in)
so lid . M os t IOO-mm(4-in) pump s -- Le.. pumps w ith a IOO-mm (4-in) di sc har ge
openll1g -:- no rmall y s ho uld be abl e to pa ss 7S-m m so lid s, and
200-mm (8-in) pumps should be able to pass IOO-lllm (4-in) -diam e ter so lids, etc.
N o nc log pump s s maller than 100 mm (4 in) s ho uld not be used in municip a l
pumping sta ti o ns fo r hand lin g untr ea ted was te wa ter.
Figur e 6- 15 T y pical screw pump lI se d 10 pump wa stc\ \ater.
ENV IRO NMENTAL ENGINEERIN G H YD RA ULICS DESIGN 375
Positive-Displacement Pumps
Posi ti ve-di splacemcnt pump s are usuall y divid ed in to tw o major categories:
recipr ocatin g (piston o r diaphragm) pumps and rotary pump s. Pneumatic ejectors
and th e Archimedean screw pump are also included under this category.
Piston-t ype reciprocating pumps utilize a reciprocating piston or plunger
ill a cyli nd er to draw a fluid in on the suction side and to discharge it under pressure
on the di sc harge side . In a diaphragm pump, the reciprocating element is a flexible
diaphragm. In both of the se pump s check valve s a re used to control the pump
suctio n and discharge.
In rotary pos itive-di sp lac ement pumps , the essential working element is. a
rotor thaI may have th e fo rm o f an impeller. vane, lobe, or any o ther suitable
configura tion . The principal types o f rotary positive-displacement pumps are (I)
eccentric ro tor sc rew (progre ss ive cav ity), (2) gear, (3) lobe, (4) peristaltic, (S)
pisto n, (6) sc rew, (7) vane , a nd (8) flexible vane.
Pneumatic ejectors are o ften used for raising wastewater from building sumps.
The ejector consists of an airtigh t tank into which wastewater flows by gravity and
out o f which the wastewater is forced automatically whenever sufficient waste-
water has accumulated to raise a float and ope n the compressed a ir-inlet valve .
The screw pump is based on th e Archimedean sc rew principle in which a
revo lvi ng sha ft fitted with one, two, o r thr ee heli ca l blades rotates in an inclined
trough and pushes the wastewater up the tr o ugh (see Fig. 6-IS). Screw pumps are
com mo nl y used in wastewater -tre atment plant s to pump untreated wastewater
and return was te activated s lud ge .
6-21 PUMP DRIVE UNITS
Th e most com mo nl y used drive s for pump s are direct-connected electric motors
(see Fig . 6-16). Constant-speed electric motors coupled to var iab le-s peed devices
are a lso used extensive ly: Int erna l-comb ustion engines and turbine s are ofien
Install ed to ensure that th e pumps ca n operate during electric-power ou ta ges or
whe re was tewater gas or other gas is available fo r fuel.
Electric M otors - Direct Connected
Electric dire c t-conn ec ted motor s may be con stant -. Illulti- or variable-speed.
Each is d esc ribed below.
C011SIMIl-speed pump s may be driven by squirrel-cage indu ction motor s,
wo und-I' o ln r indu ction motor s, o r sy nchronou s motor s. Squirrel-cage inductio 'n
motors ;.II1d synchro nous m o tors opera te at a co ns tant speed, but wound-rotor
indu cti o n motors can operate at diffe rent speed s b y va ry ing the re s istance of the
rot or or seco ndary ci rc uit. Squirre l-cage motors will normally be selected for
constan t-speed pUlllpS because o r th e ir s impli c it y. reliabilit y, and economy.
 376 WATER EN G IN EER ING HYDRA U LI CS DESIGN 377

Table 6-6 Approximate operating

speeds of co nstant -spee d motors on
60-cycle a lt erna tin g currcnt

M ow r sreed. ri mi n

Sy nchr o no u s I nd uct io n

3500 ,550
I KIJu 17' fI 1770
1200 I I ) 11 117(1
900 90'
10 7::'0 h<)() 705
I" 600
14 51 4 ,Oil
16 450
IS 400 390
20 3)0 .'SO
22
24 :;00 c'J()
26 277 cr.X
2B 257 24'}
--_._--
6-16 E x" mpl es or elec lri c mOlor s use d 10 drive pump s

Muilipl e-:ipeed operati o n ca n be o bt a ineci with squ irre l-cage o r wo un d-ro tor
motor s. For squirrel-cage mo tor s. th e choice of speeds is res tricted to two o r more
of th e speed s listed in Table 6-6. If the lowe r speed of a two-s peed mo to r is one- half
th e hig her speed, a single- o r two-wind ing mo to r can be used. If the lower spee d is
not one-ha lf. a two-speed mo tor wi th·t \.V 0 willdrng s ·is · reqll ired : WlieiY ·otie(a fih-g ..• .
a pump at two co nstant speed s. th e ad va nta ge of the squ irrel cage (or synch ronous
motor) is that the motor operates at maximum e tficieney at both spee ds. However.
the wound-rotor motor 0perates at maximum efficiency o nly at full speed·
If the operating c.oqciit.ions vary in pumping sta tio ns. (,CltiL/hle-speed Qperation
of. the pump s may be desirable. Variable-spe ed (steple ss ) mo to r uperatiun has
been po ss ible. for man y years us ing liquid res isto rs with wo und-rot o r mot or co n-
trols. With tile devel o pment of solid elec tr o nic controls <l numb cr of meth ods of
achiev ing variable- speed control fo r both squirr e l-cage and wound-rotor motors
are no\-\' available. They includ e (I) variable-frequ ency drive. (2) variabl e vo ltage.
(3) wound-rotor mot o r. solid- state co ntr o l. and (4) wo und-r oto r. rege nerati ve
seco ndar y cont ro l. ,
Electric Constant-Speed Motors Coupled to Variable-Speed Dnices
Worldwide: th e mo st co mnlOn way to o btain vari a ble-spce d pUIllP ope ra tion is
to li se ,I co nstan t-speed elec tric motor co upl ed to a I':lri'lble-spced del·icc. Variab le-
. spc eu device s. inse rted between the motor and the PUIllP, Illay he l·lassined as
rneclElnica l. ma gneti c. and Iluici.
T he mus t Ul l11l11UII Illcc: il <l IlICa l I <lI'ia ble-speed de vices include co ne dri ves,
gca l· dmes . a nd be lt d rl\·es . .'\ Illag nclic co upim g (a lso kn own as an edd y curren t
ciulch) IS Inslali ed between Ih e lllotOl' and pump. A magnetic coup ling co nsists
of a co nsta nt-speed member (dr um) a nd a 1·0 10 1'. Th e dr um is driven by the co n-
slallt-speed e lectric motor Th e ro to l is lLsed .lo. dri ve the pump. FlUid co uplm gs
used to ob tain variable- speed o peration
Wi lh pump s. Th e Illost C'l llll1111n flu id cu upling s ma y be class ified as hyd rosta tic ,
hydr okineti C. an d hydru visC(lu'..
Internal-Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines
In large pumpin g sta tions, inl crnal- l·ombu stl o n e ng ines a re used as a sourc e o f
standby power for clril in g Ih e pumps ancith e crit ica l elect rica l con tr o ls If the powe r
fails. Int ernal- co mbu stion cl1llincs us uall y clri\·e ge ncrator s so that powe r IS ava il-
able not o nl y for the pump b'ut a lso for the <luxillia ry equipm ent and th e co ntr o l
system. T he po we r generat ed hy the se engin es can also be Ll sed III any of the a va il-
able pump s instcad llf bemg cunnect ed to a s ingle pump. Die sel engme s o r spa rk -
ignited engines fu eleli lI·it h e.itirn na tural ur ga s are common ly used fo r
th is sen ·icc. G aso.linc cnll ines· a re install cd but ar e no t co mm on
because of lhe prub lems ,;' ith fuel stllrage .
Al trea tme nt p lants \\ irnc slu dge gas is e ithe r clual-fue l diese l
engi ncs o r spark -igni lcd ga'. en glncs Gin be uscd . Dual -fuel d iesel engllles a re
Opel'a ted IV it h a 111 ix t lire <If d iesc l pi i :lnd gas. Spark -Ign iled eng Ines ca n be o perat ed
with Sludge gas. The se engines II "u ILi nor illa ll } hc supp lied lV ith dual carbur etors
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 379
378 WATER

and a separate so urce of alternate fuel, such as natural or propane gas, to pr ov ide
power when the s ludge gas is not avai lab le.
Gas turbines have been used a s high- speed driv es for pumps. especially in
large-capacity m ob ile pumping unit s. In larger s izes. gas turbin es are competitive
wit Ii steam turbines.
Fluid-Driven Pumps
Fluid-driven pump s are a lso bec o min g mo re common throughout th e world .
The most common Auid drive s are powered with compre sse d gas, pressurized
water or oiL and steam .
6-22 PUMP APPLICATION TERMINOLOGY AND USAGE
The purpose of this section is to present the ba s ic terminolog y used to define pump
performance and to con sider its usage in the so lution of pump pr o blem s. Term-
inology to be considered in this discu ss ion includes (I) capacity. (2) head, (3)
pump efficiency. and (4) power input to the pump. [6- 8J
S. I'vlal1oll1!!crie discharge head (U md) is the discharge gage reading (expressed
III meters) measli red at the di sc harge nozzle of pump referenced to the center-
IlIIe of the pump imp e ller.
6. tv/allometric (Hm) is the ' incre ase6f presstirehead (expressecl in meters)
ge nerated by the pump (U ms + H md)' . .
7. (h f s' hfd) is the head of water that must be supplied to overcome
the fnclIonal loss caused by the flow of fluid through the pipe system. The
frictIOnal head loss In the suction (h f ;) and discharge (h f ,,) piping system may
be comp uted WIth the Hazen - Wllh,ims or Darcy - Weisbach equations,
8. Velocity head is the kinetic energy contained in the liquid being pumped at .
any POlI1t III the system and is given by
V2
Velocity head = - (6-6)
2g
where V = velocity of fluid, m/s (ft/s )
9 = acceleration due to gravity. 9.81 m/s 2 (32.2 ft/ S2)
9. tv! inorhead loss is the term applied to the head of water that must be supplied
to overcome the loss o f head through fittings and valves. Minor losses in the

Capacity
The capacity (flow rate) of a pump is th e vol um e of fluid pumped per unit of time,
vJ
2g
which us ually is measured in cubic meters per second (m 3 /s).lit e rs per se cond (L is),
gallons per minnte (ga l/ min) , million ga llon s per day (Mgal /d), o r c ubic feet per
·· · ··· · · ··· ·····second(ft.3./ s):·· ................ .

Head
The term head refers to the elevation of a free surfac e o f water above o r bel ow a
reference datum . Term s app lied s pecifically to the ana lys is o f pump s a nd pump
sys tem s are illustrated grap hica lly In Figs. 6- 17 and 6- 18 and are defined brieAy
below.
h, v2
l. Stalic SLiCliOI1 head (lis) is the in e leva tion betwe e n the suction liquid
level and the centerline o f the pump imp e ller. If the s uc ti o n liquid le ve l is
below th e center lin e o f the pump impeller. it is a sllllie sli c ri o l1 liJi. Datum
2. SlllIic di sc!wry e hew l (h J ) is diA'ere nce in eva lu ation between th e di sc harge
liquid level and the centerlin' e o f th e pLlmp impeller.
1 Stm;c head (H sta ,) is the diA'e ren'ce in ele'vation between the sta tic discharge E
and s tatic s uc tion liquid levels (hd - II,).
4. M al10melri c Sllct iOIl/,eud (H mJ is th e sucti oll g:.tge reading (expressed ill me te rs)
mea sured at the suc tion non le of th e pUIllP refere nced to th e center line o f the
Figure £>.17 Definition sketch for a pump installati on with a suc ti on head .
pump imp e ller.
 380 W ATER ENV IR ON MEN T AL ENG IN EER ING H YDR AU LI CS DESIGN 381

where
(6-9)

(6 - 10)

-- where /-I , = to tal d yna mic head, m (ft)

/-Imd( /-I",,) = man o metric d isc har ge (suctio n) hea d mea sured a t dischar ge
(suctio n) nozz le of pump referenced to th e cent erlin e of the
pump imp eller, 111 (ft)
Vs) = ve locit y In d isc ha rge (suctio n) no zzle, m/s (ft /s)
9 = accelera tio n du e to gravi ty. 9.8 1 m/s2 (32.2 ft/s")
H,
hd (Ii,) = static dischar ge (s ucti o n) head. m (ft)
. - -j[-- .p,;-t-t- H-t-l1-+H+t-.L- -+---- -- Da tum
hen' = suction entr a nce loss . m (ft)
h fd (hfJ = fl'ictiona l head loss In d ischar ge (suctio n) p iping, m (ft)
H ms h",d (II",,) = mi no r fi tting and va lve losses in discha rge (sucti on)
pi ping system. m (rt )

-- --- As no ted previo usly. t he reference datum fo r wr it ing Eq. (6- 10) is taken as th e
elevation of the ce nterline of the pump impeller. In accor d ance wit h th e stand ards
of the Hydrauli c Instit ut e f 6·} ]. distan ces (head s) above diltu m are co nsidered
posit ive : distan ces below da tum ar e co nsidered nega tive.
In terms of the sta t ic head. Eq . (6- 10) ca n be written as
Figur e 6- 18 Defini t io n sketc h fo r a pum p insta llation with a sucti o n lift.
(6- 11 )

suctio n (11m,) a nd di sch a rge (hmd ) pip ing system ar e usua lly estim a ted as where /-I , = to ta l dynam ic head. m (ft )
....... ......... . '. of the veloc ity hea d by using th e fo llow ing exp ression : /-Is,o, = tota l static head. m (ft )
= h" - 17 ,
v2
h = K - (6- 7) Th e energy (Bernoulli's) equat io n ca n a lso be appli ed to de termine the tota l
m 2g
dyna mic head on the pump , Th e energy equ'a tio n writt en be tween the suction and
wher e 17 m = m ino r hea d loss, m (ft) ciischa rge nozz le of the pump is
K = head loss coe fficient
fI , =
J) V'
+ '-..Ci + :" - (P-' + V 2 + :, ) (6-1 2)
" .'2{/ ;. 2g
St andard textboo ks and reference wo rk s o n hydra ulics should be co ns ulted
fo r typica l K values for va rio us pip elin e fi tt ings a nd appurt enance s. Where H , = to ta l dy na mic head . m (ft)
Pil ( Ps ) = disc ha rge (suctio n) gage pressur e. kN / m2 (lbr/ft )
2
10. T otal dyna mic head (H, ) is the head again st which th e pump mu'st wor k when 3 3
= specific we ight of wat er. N !m (lh r/ ft )
wil ter or was tewa ter is being pump ed . Th e to ta l dy na mic head on a pump .
( V;) = veloc ity in d ischa l!;e (suct ion) nozz le. m/s (ft/s)
co mmonly a bbr eYla ted TD H , ca n be de termined by co nside rin g th e static
q = accelerat io ll dll e gl'a vity. 9.8 1 m/s2 (3 2. 2 ft /s2 )
suction a nd d ischa rge hea ds, the frictio na l head losses. the veloc ity heads, a nd
2,1.(Z,) = eleva tio n of disc hal'ge (s uctio n) gage cl a tuill. III (ft)
th e mm or head losses. T he expr ession fo r deter min ing the to ta l d yna mic head
for the pump show n in Fig. 6-1 8 is give n by Eq. (6-1 0).
Pump Efficiency

Hf = H md -
v3 V;
Hnos + -- - --- (1i-8) Pump perfo rm a nce IS Illeas ured in term s of th e c lpa cit y tha t a pump can discharge
2g 2g ag<linst a gi\ en head and :It a gi'.e n e fficiency Th e pump ca pac it y is a functio n o f
31ll WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING H YDRAU LI CS DESI GN 383

the design. Info rmati o n on the design is furni shed by the pump manufacturer in a
series of curves for a given pump . Pump efficiency Ep , the r:ltio of the useful
power output to the power input , is given by
power delivered to Auid Po
E = "-----;-- - (6- JJ)
P power input to pump PI
Pump efficiencies usua lly range from 60 to 85 percent. The energy losses in a
pump may be class ified as vo lumetric. mechani cal, and hydrau lic. llolumet ric losses
occur becau se the sma ll clearances necessary between the pump casing and the
rota ting element can leak. Mechanical losses are ca used by mechanica l friction in
the stuffing boxes and beari ngs, by internal disk friction , and by fluid shear.
Fri ctio nal and eddy losses within the flow pa ssages account for the hydrauli c'
losses.
Application of the terminology and equations used to define pump per-
formance is illustrated in Example 6-5.
Example 6-5: Finding energy requirements for pumping A water pump is discharging at
a rate of 0.25 m J/s. The diame ters of the di scha rge and suctio n !Jozzles are 300 and
3-50 mm , respective ly. Th e reading on th e di scha rge gage located 0.25 m a bove the
cent e rlin e of the impeiler is 150 kN /m 2'; th e. rea din g o n th e sucti o n gage located at the
centerline of the impe ller is 20 kN / m2 Determine (I) the to ta l dynamic he a d , (2) the
power input required b y the pump, and (3) the power input to the m o tor. Assume the
cmciency of the pump and m otor are 65 and 90 percent , respectively.
SOLUTION

Determin e th e head on the pump using th e energy eq uati o n [Eq . (6- 12)]. The reference
Power Input
datum is th e cen ter line o f th e pump impeller.
In practice, power input to the pump is computed using the fo llow ing equa tion : (/. Th e va lues for the indi vidua l ter ms in the ene rgy equations are as fo llows:

pow er delivered to nuid ;'Q H ,

PI = -.--------- = (6- 14) = N/ m 2 = 15.29 m
Ep LI' )' 98 10 N/ m 2

where PI = power input to pump . kW (kN· m/s)

)' = specific weight of liquid . kN / mJ V = -Q" = 0.25 m) /s
= 3.)-4 /
ms
" Ad (n / 4)(0 .3 m)2
Q = ca pac ity, m J/s
H , = to tal dynamic head [see Eg. (6-II)J , III (3.54 m/s)2
Ep = pump efficiency -- = = 0.64 m
2g 2(9.8 1 m/s2 )
When the How rate is given in ga llo ns per minute, million ga llons per day , or z" = 0.25 m
cubic feet per seco nd and the head is give n in feet, then the power ' inpu t to the
pump can be co mputed using Eqs. (6- J5), (6- 16), and (6-17), respec ti ve ly. P, = 20.000 = 204 m
)' 98 10 N/ m2
. (62.4 Ib/ ft J)(Q gal/ min)(H, ft)
p - -_._---- --------- - .------
J - (60 s/ min)( 7.48 gal/ft J)(550 ft . Ib is· hp)E I' Q, 0.25 m)/s 260
V
,
= -A, = (1[ / 4)(0.35 m)2
= .
m/s
(Q galf min)(H, ft)
(6- J 5)
3960 EI' .1:1 = (2.60 mj s)2 = 0.34 m
2g 2(9.8 1 m/s2)
p _ (62.4
I - 86.400 sic! (7.48 gal /ft J)(550 ft · Ib/s· hp)E p Z, = 0

(Q Mga l/d)( H, ft)

(6-16) h. The tota l dynamic head is ob taine d by s ub stituti ng th e above va lues in Eq. (6-12).
5.696 Ep
. (62.4 Ib/ ft J)(Q ft 3 !s)(H, ft )
P - --- -._- -- H =
P" = 29
y' 1'5 (P, v; )
+ Z" + r + 2g + z,
I - (550 ft· Ibi s· hp)E p
(Q ft J/ s)(H , ft) = 15.2Y m + O.M m + 0.25 m - (2.04 m + 0.34 m + 0)
- -----
8.8 14E p (6-17) = I 3.R III
 384 WATER ENG INE ERI NG H YDRAULI CS DES IGN 385

2. Us ing Eq . (6- 14) de te rmin e t he power input require d by th e pump . int ersec ti o n o f th e new pump h ead-c apac it y c ur ve w ith th e sys tem head- ca pa c it y
cur ve. a nd not h y app lica ti on o f the affinit y laws to the or ig in a l ope rating p oi nt
yQH
p =- - on ly.
, Ep

= (9 810 Cha nges in Imp eller D ia meters

0.65
To cove r a wide range o f fl ows eco n omica lly \v ith a min imum numb er o f pump
= 52.1 kW sizes and impell er des ig ns. man u fac tur ers cus to maril y offer a range o f impeller
3. Determine th e powe r input to th e m o to r. diamete rs for eac h size ca s ing (see Pump Chara c te ri stic Cur ves helow). I n ge n e ra l,
these impe ller s h,J\'e identica l inlets a nd o nl y th e o ut s ide diameter is changed.
lI suall y by ma chinin g clown th e diame ter. Th e' fo llow ing re la tio n s hip s for det e r-
minin g the effec t of chang es in th e d iame te r o f th e impell e r ho ld a ppro xi mately.
52.1 kW but wi th less accuracy than th e a fJinity laws.
=-- -
0.90 QI DI
(6-21 )
= 57.9 kW Q2 D2
HI Df (6-22 )
6-23 PUMP OPERATING CHARACTERI STICS AND CU RVES
il l Di
(6-23)
The operating c har ac teri s tics of pumps depend o n th e ir size, speed. and design .
P u mps of si mil a r size a nd des ign are p rod uced by many m anufac t ure rs. bu t they
In som e cases. two o r more iJll[le lle r des ign s may be ava ilable . eac h in a range o f
vary somewhat because of t he design mod ification s made by ea c h man ufa cturer.
sizes . fo r the sa me ca s ing. Beca use the se impell ers are not geo me t rica ll y simil a r.
Im p o rt ant bas ic re la ti o n s hi ps th a t ca n be used to cha rac teri ze a nd ana lyze pump
the affinity law s do not ho ld.
pe rfo rm a n ce un der va rying cond itions include t he affinity law s. ty r e numb ers.
a nd 'ne t pos it ive s uc tio n head. To aid in t he se lecti o n o f an appropriate rump for
a g iven se r vice , pump manufacturer s provide characteri stic curve s fo r th eir pump s . Type N umb er (S pec ific S pee d)
.... . . . . ... ........ .. .. . . ......... ........ ... ... .. " .. - ... .. ....... .
For a geometrically s imilar se ri es of pump s o peratin g und er s imil ar conditi o ns.
the fo ll ow in g relati ons hip ()htain ed is d e fined as th e' t ype numb e r (s pec ific spe ed ) .
Affinity Laws
IIQI 2
For t he sa m e p u mp operating a t di fferen t speed s t he diamet er d o es not c hange. 11 =---- or (6-24 )
s H J '4
. and fo llowing re la ti o nship s can b e derived fo r.centrifuga l pump s.
where = type number
II,
Ql 11,
= speed. r/ min
11
(6- 18)
Q2 = n2 Q = capaci ty. 11I 3 ;S (gal /min)
H = head. m (ft)
HI nf ( 6-1 9)
H2 = Although th e seco nd form of the type-number eq uation is correct when a ppli ed
with a consis tent se t of-u nit s. the fil'st fo rm is used in the United State s. [6-1J
PI Fo r a n y pump o peratin g at any given speed. Q a nd H are taken a t th e p o in t
(6-20)
P2 =
of ma ximum efficien cy. Wh en us in g Eq . (6-24) fo r pum ps ha vin g double- suction
T h ese re la t ionsh ips. k n own co llective ly as t h.e alJinil,l'./aws.are use d to determine im[le llers: o ne- hair o f t he di sc h;\r ge is used . unl ess o ther w ise noted. F o r mult i-
tHe effect of c han ges in spee d on th e ca pacit). head . a nd po wer o f a pumr. stage pump s. t he head is th e head pe r stage. Th e var iations in maximum effic ien cy
The effect of changes in speed o n the pOmp c harac teri stic c ur ves is obtained to he ex pec ted with va ri a ti o ns in size (ca pa c it y) a nd design (t ype num be r) a re
by pl o tting new curves with the use o f the aiffinity law s. T he new o perati ng po in!. show n in Fig. 6- 1Y. The [lrogre ssi'e cha n ges in impeller shape as th e typ e num her
th e Inte rsec tion o f the pump and sys te m he ;Jd-ca pa c ity curve s. wi ll he give n hy th e inc n::ascs a re shol\n a lo ng th e b o ttllm o f Fi g. 0-1 9.
 386 WA IloR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 387

Net Positive Suction Head (N PSH)

When pumps operate at high speeds and at a capacity greater than the best effi-
ciency po int (bep) , pump cav itation is apotential danger: cavitation reduces pump
capac ity ane! elTicicncy and can damage the pump. It occurs in pumps when the
abso lute pressure of the inlet drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid being
pumped. Under this condition, vapor bubbles form at the inlet, and when the
vapor bubbles are carried into a zone of higher pressure, they collapse abruptly
and the surrounding fluid rushes to fill the void with such force that a hammering
action occurs. The high localized stresses that result from the hammering action
ca n pit the pump impeller.
0.031 mJ/s When determining if cavitation will be a problem, the NPSH available
I
70 r-_--,,,£-- ___ ___ 13 mJ/s ------ --1 (NPSH A ) at the eye of the impeller is determined. The available NPSH A is then
compared to the NPSH required by the pump (NPSH R ) to prevent cavitation.
Th e NPSH A is the total energy available at the inlet flange of the pump, above
the va por pressure of the water. expressed in feet (meters). In effect, the NPSH A is
the head available to push liquid into the pump to replace .liquid discharge by the
pump. The NPSH 4 is found by adding the. term (PatmiY to the total
energy head available at th e suction side of the pump .

Palm Pvapor
NPS H 4 =
.
± IIs - I1,nl - Jlfs - L hms + --
Y
- ---
Y
(6-25)

where Palm = atmospheric pre ss ure , kN / m 2(lb r/ft2)

['vapor = vapor pressure o f water, kN / m 2 (lbr/ft 2 )
'i' = specific weight of water, k N/ mJ(lb r/ft3)
Tile N PSH required by the pump is determined by tests of geometrically
similar pumps operated at constant speed and rated capacity but with varying
Sucti o n head s. The onset of cavitation is indicated by a drop in efficiency as the
heau is reuuced. The application of Eq. (6-25) is illustrated in Example.6-6.

Example Determining net positive suction head Determine the available net positive
suclion head (NPSHAl for the pump installation shown in Fig. 6·17. Assume the following
Imrc' lkr s hape dala are applicab le
Figure 6-19 Pump efficiency ve rsus Iype number and pump caracilY
h, = 2.0 m
h,", = 0.10 m
Pump d esign c haracteri stics. cav itation paramet e rs, abn o rmal ope rati o n
under transient co nditi o ns can be cQr relat ed satisfactor ily wi th the ty pe numb er. "Is = 0.25 m
Fu rt her con s idera ti o n o f th e typ e- number equat io n .reveals t he fo llow ing: L:>ms = 0.1 5 m
Temp = 20c e
J. If la rger unit s o f the same typ e are se lect ed fo r ab o ut th e same heac!, the opera-
ting speed mu s t be reduced. S( ll.L! nO N
2. If unit s o f high e r s pecific spe ed are se lec ted fo r the same head and ca pacit y,
the y will o perat e at a high e r speed: henc e the cum pl ete unit , inc lud/ll g th e driver. Delermine the vapor pressure at 20°e.
s hould be less expensive. H o wever. long -ter m ope rati un a nd maintenance
cos ts will ge nera lly be hig her. P"",,, = 2.34 kN/ m2 (see Appendix C)
 388 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 389

2. Substitute known quantities in Eq. (6-25) and solve for NPSH" . curves, the total dynamic head H, in meters (feet), the efficiency E in percent, and
the power input P in kilowatts (horsepower) are plotted as ordinates against the
NPSH A
= h.sent
- h - hfs _ 'h
L ms + P"m _ --
P"POt capacity (flow rate) Q in cubic meters per second (gallons per minute or million
}' I' gallons per day) as the abscissa (see Fig. 6-20). The general shape of these curves
2.34 kN /m2 varies with the type number. Characteristic curves for typical radial-flow, mixed-
= -2.0 m - 0.1 m - 0.25 m - 0.15 m +
9.789 kN/m 3 9.787 kN / m 3 flow volute, mixed-flow propeller, and axial-flow centrifugal pumps are shown
in Fig. 6-21. The variables have been plotted as a percentage of their values at the
= - 2.0 m - 0.1 m - 0.25 m - 0. 15 m + 10.35 m - 0.24 m
best efficiency point (bep).
= 7.61 m

COMMENT The computed value of NPSH A is compared to the value required for the
150 150
pump (NPSH R ) to determine if the pump can be operated safely without cavitation. Radial flow
11 , = 1000

Pump
Pump manufacturers provide information on the performance of their pumps
In the form .of characteristic curves, commonly called pump curves. In most pump

100
30

25 300
'">- Axial flow
o flow
", = 65 00 11, = 13,000
20 ;; 250
:::
<l>
60 0.
E
-0 15
'"'"
:r::

10 150
\
. \ .
20
5 .
___--
__

0 0
50

0 2000 4000 6000 (gnl/ min)

I I I J
I I I I I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Discilnrge , m 3j s Per ce nt 0 1 d isc harge at be; t effi ciency

Fi.gure 6-20 Typical pump characteristic curves for a 375-mm-diamcter impeller variable-speed pump. Figure 6-21 Typical characteri stic curve s fo r centrifugal pumps' (0) radial-flow; (b) mixed -flow
(Courtesy 01 SmiTh and Lorrlrss.) VOlute; (c) rrdxeLl-tlo w propeller ; (d ) axial -fl nw.
390 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING·HYDRAULiCS DESIGN 391

6-24 ANALYSIS OF PUMP SYSTEMS 40,-------------------------------.

System analysis for a pumping installation is conducted to select the most suitable Pump head-
pumping units and to define their operating points. System analysis involves capacity curve

calculating system head-capacity curves for the pumping system and the use of 30
these curves in conjunction with the head-capacity curves of available pumps.
Both single-pump and mUltiple-pump systems are considered.
E System head-
System Head-Capacity Curve 20
:r:"
To determine the head required ofa pump, or group of pumps, that would discharge 90
various flow rates into a given piping system, a system head-capacity curve is ;>,
u
prepared (see Fig. 6-22). This curve is a graphic representation of the system head c
10 80
and is developed by plotting -the total dynamic head (static lift plus kinetic energy
losses) over a range of flows from zero to the maximum expected value with the I:i:i
70
use of Eq. (6-1 I) for pump systems such as shown in Figs. 6-17 and 6-18.
____ ______ -L ______ ____

Single-Pump Operation o 10 15 20
Discharge. Lis
As noted previously, pump characteristic curves illustrate the relationship be-
Figure 6-23 Definition sketch for determination of pump operating point.
tween head, capacity, efficiency, and brake horsepower over a wide range of pos-
sible operating conditions, but they do not indicate at which point on the curves
the pump will operate. The operating point is found by plotting the pump head-
capacity curve on the system head-capacity curve (see Fig. 6-23). The intersection
40,---------------------------------, of the pump head-capacity curve and the system head-capacity curve represents
the head and capacity that the pump will produce if operated in the given piping
·Systc·riiTliis· poinf is ·alsc)"(<'iioWtyaslhe -pump opeyating·paine.
System ilc'ad-c·apacity curve

30 Multiple-Pump Operation
In most pump stations, two or more pumps usually operate in paralleL Situations
will also be encountered where pumps operate in series. In pumping stations
E where two or more pumps may operate either individually or in parallel and dis-
-g 20
<l)
charge into the same header and force main, the following method for determining
:r: minor losses the pump operating point is recommended:

I. The friction losses in the suction and discharge piping of individual pumps are
10 omitted from the system head-capacity curve. .
Total static head 2. Instead, these losses are subtracted from the head-capacity clIr,>;esof the individ-
lIal pumps to obtain modified· pump head-capacity curves, which represent the
he,ld-capacity capability of the puinp and i·ts individual valves and piping com-
OL-______ ______ ________ L- ____ bines.
o 5 10 IS 20 3. When two or more pumps operate in paralleL the combined pump head-capacity
Discharge, Lis Curve is found by adding the capacities of the modified curves at the same head
Figure 6-22 Typical head-capacity curve for a pump installation . (,ee Fig. 6-240). The point of intersection of the combined pump-head curve with
 l:NV I RO N ME N TAl ENG INE ERI NG HYDRAULI CS DESIG N 393
392 WATER

Forc e main (eliameler = 3 S0 111 III , Ekv .= I S.O m

PI le ngth = 200 m) Pump syste m
PI P2 Diameter and length

-0-
manirold I
--E)--D- or pump suction lines
No I 2S 0-mm q.,2 m Bend
No.2 300-mmq., 2m
P2
-g r- ___ 1 Diameter and length or
pump discharge lines
::c'"
No. 22 S-mmq.,3 m
No.2 27 S-01mq.,3 m

Pump
d ischarge line

. Discharge Elev. = 5.0 m

Disc harge
(a) (b) Bend
Figure 6-24 Head -ca pacity curves ror pumps opera ted in (a) parall el and (b) series.
I so lation VJl vc

tli e sys tem head -ca pacit y CUrves is the ope ra tin g poin t for th e two pump s oper-
No te: Bo th pump s
a tin g in pa rall el. By enter ing th e mod ified pump-head curv es of each pump at Sucti o n are se t at t he
the o per a tin g- po int head. th e capacity con tri b ut ed by each pump. th e effic iency Intake Pump sue t io n line sa me e leva tio n .
of each pump. and th e brake ho rse power req uir ed under th ese co nditi on s can bel l (a)

be d etermined. To find th e to ta l head a t w hic h eac h indi vid ua l pUIllP will

Pump no. I :
operate. pr ocee d verti ca lly a t co ns tant capac it y from the m odifi ed pump
head-capa c it y c urve to th e actua l head-capac it y curve. The pump spe c ificat io ns No min a l impell er size = 225 mill
o r purch ase or der mu st be drawn so th a t th e pump will pr od uce thi s hcad . Ope ralin g , pecd 00 11 50 r ' min
Each pump can o perate a t seve ral po int s on the head-capacity curve. w ith the
. . ' .. ' ' heaG liicreas 'ing; a ncl"rhe oisc h'arge'dec' rea s ih'g ::is'I'lW WpUi11p S go' int o o pera tion: "Q. II .
An effort s ho uld be made to limit th ese o pe ra tin g po int s to a range of fl ows In ·l i ':, III

between 60 and 120 perc ent of bep .

0 :10n
D.I n. u
I X.S
Often o ne o r more bo os te r pwnps may be ins talled in th e s ucti o n lin e or the 025 X()
forc e main lead in g from a pumpin g stati o n to meet spec ific s ite co nditi on s. Pump s
in sta lled in se rie s wi th ex is ting pump s are used to increa se th e hea d capa cit y of
th e pumpin g s tation, When two o r more pump s operate in se ries, the co mbin ed Pump no.
head -capacity cur ve is found by adding th e head of eac h pump at th e sa me capaci ty, No m ina l im peller size 111 m
Thi s proc edur e is illu strat ed in Fi gure 6- 24b. Wh e n a bo os ter pump is add ed to spee d = 70(J r min
a for ce m a in fed by parallel pumps , th e combined head -capacit y curve is found by
adding th e hea d of th e boo ster pump to th e m odifi ed head of th e parallel pump S. Q II.
at a given cap ac ity, The analy sis ofa typical pump sys tem is illu str ate d in EXCllllple' 3
In s ·m
6-7,
i - lI .tl 40.0
1). 1 ,I) 2
Example 6-7; Analyzing a pump sys tem T wo ce nt rifugal pump s ar e ava ibbJc fo r usc in 0.2 l5 .U
th e pump sys tem shown in the acco mpan yin g f'igure (a). Using Ihe data gi ven bel,,\\", tU 26 0
det ermin e the syslem d ischa rge when eac h pump is opcrated sep.lrately a nd WIl , '11 Iwlh (U IO.il
pumps a re opera led ill IXlralJcI.

i-
394 WATER
ENv tR ONMEN TAL ENG INEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 395

3. H ead loss coefficients:

a. Int a ke be ll = 0. 3
b. Isolatiun valves = 0.1 (open fully) O rigin al pump
c. Eccentric reducer = 0. 1 heod-capac it y curve (P2)
d. Co nc entric increa se r = 0.05 40,-- __ _
Modified pump System
head -ca pacity curve (mP2)
t'. C heck va lve = 2.5 head -ca pacity
f Bend = 0.25
g. Fricti o n = 0.020
4. H ead lo ss co mputati o ns:
u . Use Darc y- W e isbach eq uati on for head loss co mputati o ns Eq . (6-26)]. 30
h. Neglect hea d loss in pump system manifol d. E
U
'""
SO l. UT ION
:r:
20 --
I. De\"elup a nd p lo t the sys tem head-capacitycurve.
{/. The head loss in the force main. compu ted using the D arcy W eisbach eq uation , is as
follow s

L V'
" = j --
D 2g
whe re r = 0.020
L = 250 m
o 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Di sc ha rge , m 3/s
D = 0.35 m
(b)
1(3.14 x (03W)
V = Q
I 4 2. Pl o t the o riginal pump head-capacity cu rves. The head-capacity curves fo r the given
....... g.",; .9.R I m/ s2 pumps are pl o tt ed o n figu re (b).
3. Determine th e station lu sses fo r the pump s.
b. P re par e a head lo ss com putati on table .
a. Com pute the head loss in the suction piping as follows:

Q. iI. It . L) V 2

m 3 .,s m
hni" '"
m m h1{"al
=
(0.3 +.0.1 + 0.1. + 0.020 D- -29
0.0 000 0.00 10.0 10 00 b. Cu mput e it L , as a fun cti u ll uf the discharge fo r the two pump s
0.1 0.7'i 0.0 5 10.0 10.84
0.2 3. 15 0.22 10.0 13.37
0.3 7.09 0.50 10.0 17.59
0.4 12.60 0.88 10.0 23 .48
Pum p I Pump 2
0.5 19.68 138 10.0 31.06
Q,
m' /s fiLS ' m ilL , m
V'
* h(1. 011 := 29 0.0 0-0 0.0
t S tat ic head = 10.0 (15.0 - 5 0) 0.1 0.14 0.06
0.2 0.56 0.26
0.3 0.58
0.4 1 03
(" The system head-capactty cline is ploned III ligure (h )
 396 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRA ULICS DESIGN 397

c. Compute the head loss in the discharge piping as follows: h. Determine the pump discharges and operating heads al the given discharge va lues.

hLD = (h;n< + h,. + h. + 2hb +

(0.05 + 2.5 + 0.1 + 2(0.25) + 0.020 -L)

Q. H,
V2 Pump(s) m' /s m
-
D 2g
I 0.200 18.0
d. Compute hLD as a function of the discharge for the two pumps.
2 0.312 24.2
(I )* 0.133 26.0
(2)* 0. 272 28.0
Pump I Pump 2
Q,
* When pump ' (I) and
m' /s hLD.m hLDI m
(2) are operated in parallel.

00 0.0 0.0
0.1 110 0.48
CUMMENT A wider range of di scharges could be achieved if the smaller pump was con-
0.2 4.41 1.95
vertecllo variable-speed operation
-. 0.3
0.4
4.39
7.80

e. Sum of the head losses in the suction and discharge piping to obtain the station 6-25 PUMP STATIONS FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER
losses for each pump. .
Pump ror wa ter and wastewater will \'ary in configuration depending 011
Pump I Pump 2
the ser\ice requircments. Beca usc th e deSign o r pumplll g stations is be yo nd the
Q, scope of the pre se nt discuSSI()n. tile read er IS referred to Refs. [6-1. 6-S, 6- 11. and
mJ/s 17 sl • In fl si • m 6- 15J for a ll10re complete discussion or water and wastewater pump station s.
00 0.0 00
O. I 1.24 0. 54
0.2 4.97 2.2 I
0.3 4.97
Hydraulic Analysis of Water and Wastewater Treatment
0.4 8.83
The primary purpo se of tilis sectio n IS to delineate the steps involv ed in th e hy -
draLilic analysis of wate r- and plants. I-!owe\e r, before
4. Plot the station losses and develop the modified pump curves. conside ring th e subj ec t o f plant hydl·<lulics·. it is imp o rtant to consider
a. The sta tion losses are plotted as.shown in figure' (b). all or th e steps involved in the de sigil or water- and \\<tstewater-treatm ent plant s.
b. The modified pump curves are ob tained by subtracting the station losses from the
or igina l pump head-cap acity curves. The modified pump curves are designated
(mP I) and (mP2).
5. Determine the system discharges and corresponding heads.
6-26 TREATi\IENT PLANT DESIG N
a. Referring to figure (b) the following values are ob tained'

Once th e requir ed emuc nt qu:liilv has ocell defined. the steps involved in treat -
Q, H, mellt plant design typic:l11\ Include (.1) s\nthesis of alternati\e fl ow sheets, (2)
Pump( s) m"'/s III bench tcsts pihlt-plant s tu dlc, . (,I) se lection oj design cr iteria. (..) sIzi ng PI'
phy sica l faci lit ies. "I' solids b;II:ll1ces. (6) layollt of the ph vsic al
0.200 13.5 facilitie s. (7) prepar:tlioll nrllldraltilC I'rnfil cs. and (X) pr eparation of cons tructi 011
0.312 I H.I
(2) !I (I) 0.405 24.0
c1ra\\·ings. specil i c:lIlllI1S. :Ind CtlSl est 11I1:ltes Recilise o f tile imporwnce of each
of these steps. e:lch IS c()nsidcled In the f"lluII'JIlg discliss io n.
 398 WATER
Synthesis of Alternativ e Treatment Proc ess Flow S heets
A fl ow shee t can be defi ned as th e group in g toge ther o f unit o pcr a ti o ns and pr oc es-
ses to a c hieve a specific t reatment o bj ec ti ve. Altcrnate fl ow s hcets wi ll be dev e lo ped
o n th e ba sis o f t he characte ris ti cs o f the wat er and wa stewa ter to be treated ,
the tr ea tm e nt objec ti ves a ncL if availab le, the res ult s o f be nch and pil o t-sca le
tests. Th e bes t a lterna ti ve fl ow s heet s are se lected after the y ha\ 'e a ll bee n eva lu-
a ted in ter m s o f their perfo rmance , ph ys ica l implementati o n. ener gy requIre -
ment s. and cos t. T yp ica l ex ample s o f s uc h fluw s hee t:; ar e s how n In Fi gs. 4- 1 and
a nd Fi gs 5-2 a nd 5-3 . .
Bench Test s and Pilot-Plant S tudie s
Th e purp ose o f co nductin g ben c h tes ts a nd pil o t-p lant studies IS ( I) to es ta b lish
th e s uitab ly o f a lter na ti ve unit o pe rati o ns a nd proces ses fOI' tr ea ting a g ivcn wat er
o r wa stewa ter a n d (2) to ob ta in th e data a nd Infor ma tion necessary to de s ig n t he
se lec ted o r e ratio ns and pro cesses. Be nc h tes ts, ;15 th c n;lmc illlpli es. ;Irc s mall-
sca le te sts tha t ca n be co nducted in tlt e labora to r). T y ricalh ' tltey arc use d to
es tabli s h app rox im a te c hemical d os ages a nd to obt; lill kll1etic coe t-ficie nt s.
Conti nu o us r ilo t- pla nt st udies are co nduct ed to \'crif y t he result s llr bc nch tes ts.
Selection of Design Criteria
Afte r o ne o r m o re a lternati ve tl o\V s hee ts have hee n de\"eill ped . th c nex t s tep in
design inv o lves se lec ti o n o f d es ig n cr iteria. De s ign cr iteria ar e selected o n the basi s
o f t heu ry, pu b lis hed dat a ill ·t·he· Irterat 'ure-, ·t·he Its' pf be m:h ' ·<I l1 d· r rlot -sc ale'
... 6-27.. PREPARA nON .. OF ·HYDRAULIC
st udi es . and th e pa st exp erience o f the de s igner.
Sizing of Unit .operations and Proc esses
Once de s ign criteria hav e been se lec ted. th e nex t step is to s ize requ ired uriit
o per a ti ons a nd pr ocesses so that the phy s ica l fa c iliti es requir ed fo r th e ir imp le-
mentati o n can be de ter min ed . De pending o n s ite co nst ra int s. it Illay be nece ss ary
to cha nge from a c irc ular to a rec ta n g u lar ba s in. fo r examr k .
So lids Balanc es
. Afte r de s ign cr it er ia ha ve been se lected and th e unit o perati o ns ;.IIld processes
s ized. so lids ba la nces shou ld be pr erared for each se lec ted p mcess !lo w sheet.
[·deall y. so lid s balance s sho uld be prepared for the average and peak /l o w rate s.
The preparat io n o f a so lid s ba lance II1 vo lves th e det e r m inati o n ll f th e quantities
o f so lid s en te rin g and lea ving each uni t o pe ra ti u n or proce ss . The se da ta are
espec ia lly imp o rt a nt in th e de sign (s izin g) of the s lud ge-proce ss ing facilit ies.
ENV IRONMENTAL ENG INEER ING H YDRAU LI CS DES IGN 399
Plant Layout
Usi ng th e informa t io n o n th e size o f the facilities de te rmin ed o n the basis of the
selected cr ite ri a. va ri o us p la nt layou ts are de vel o ped w ithin the con straints o f the
ph ys ica l s ite. [n layi n g Ollt the va riou s faci litie s, s pecial a ttenti o n s ho uld be g iven
to minimi z in g pipe le ng t h s, to g ro upin g toge th er rel a ted fac iliti es, and to th e nee d
for future expan s ion.
Hydraulic Profile s
Once the treatm e nt faciliti es and inter co nn ec tin g p ipi ng have bee n sized prelimi-
naril y, hydrau lic profi les s ho uld be dev elo p ed fo r peak an d average fl ow rate s. The
piepar atio n o f h ydrauli c pr ofi les is co ns ider ed in d e tai l in th e foll ow ing secti o n .
Const ruction Draw iings and Specifications
Th e fina l step in the des ign proce ss in vo lves the pr e par a tion of con st ruction dr aw-
ings. specifi ca t io ns. and cos t es tim a tes. Because th e clarit y w ith wh ic h the co nstruc-
tio n d raw in gs are pr ese nted w ill affec t b o th t he bid price s and final plant o perati o n,
th e imp orta nce o f th is s tep ca nn o t be ove rstr ess ed. Co n s tructi on spe cificati o n s
ha ve been m ore o r less s tand a rdi ze d. The key iss ue is to make sur e th a t specifi c a-
ti ons are co mplete s o th a t cos tly ch a n ge orde rs ca n be elimin ated. Finall y, the
eng ineer 's cos t es tim a te is use d as a gu id e in eva luatin g th e bids subm itt ed by the
var io us contra ctors.
PROFILES
Hydra ulic profile s are prep a red for three reaso ns: (1) to e ns ur e th a t the hydrau lic
grJdi ent is adeq uJ te fo r fl o w thr o ugh the tr ea tm e nt fac ilitie s, (2) to establi sh th e
head needed for pu mp s. w here requ ired, a nd (3) to ensure that pl a nt facilitie s w ill
not be fl oo ded o r ba ck ed lIr dur ing period s o f peak flow . Prep a ring hydr a ulic
p ro files inv o lves care ful co ns idera ti o n o f th e frict ional and min o r he ad losses
that ca n occ ur in piping sys tem s a nd o f th e head losses assoc iated with control
stru ctures. Th ese head los ses are co ns ide red separa tel y bel o w. Application o f the
info rma ti o n o n hea d lo ss es in t he prepar a tion o f hydra ulic profi les is illu str a ted
in th e fina l part or thi s sec tion.
Frictional Head .Loss
The fricti o nal hea (1 loss that ·o c.curs as water a nd was tewa ter fl ows thr o ugh pipes
ca n be ' computed wi th seve ra l eq ua ti o ns The recommended equati o n is the
O'\I"(;Y ' Weisba ch as g iven b.::lo w.
L 1'"
h,. f-D 2g
-- (6-26)
 400 WATER ENV IR ONMENTA L ENGINEERING HYDRAULI CS DEStGN 401

where h f = head loss, m (ft) The appl ica tion of Eq s. (6-26) ane! (6-27) is illustrated in Example 6-8. A mor e
f = coefficient of friction complete review of the equatio ns used for the analysis of co ntrol structur es ma y
L = length of pipe, m (ft ) be founci in Refs. [6-6. 6-X, 6- 13, and 6-15].
D = diameter of pipe, m (ft)
V = mean velocity , mls (ft /s ) Example 6-8: Pr eparing a hydraulic profile Prepare a hydraulic pr ofile for peak flow
9 = acceleration due to gravit y. 9.8 1 m/s2 (32.2 ft/ S2) conditions·and set cont ro l eleva tions for the portion of a treatment plant shown in the
The valuesofthe friction f?ctor are obtained from a Moody diagram. A repr esent a- accompanying figurc. Th e following data and assumpt ions a re applicable.
tive value used for most friction computations is 0.020.
Vee not ch weir (90°)
(Weir crest se t
Minor Head Losses Vee notch weir (90 ° ) Inlet channel at elev. 100.0 m)
/ Straighl (Francis) Weir
As noted earlier in the section on pump s. minor head losses ar e produ ced when
various control devices are inserted in piping systems. Valves are the mos t co mm on
control de vices used in piping system s. Min or head losses 31so occ ur at pipe
joint s, pipe interconnections, pipe expansions and contract ions. ane! pip e entranc es
and exits. For practical purpo ses minor head losses are usually estim a ted as a 17 m
-15 m
fraction of the velocity head in the down stream pipe section usi ng J::q. (6-7) 40 m

h
m
=
V2
K .- --
2g
(6-7)

Typical K values for various kind s of control devices ane! pipe configurations may
O.S

Air
III di"

-4- __
-
be found in Refs. [6-6.6- 8, and 6-13J and in manufactur ers' litera ture .

Head Losses from Control Structures

Primary Aeration . Secondary
Th e most common control structure s usee! in both water- and was tewate r-treat- sedimentation tank sedimentation
tank tank
_ ...... . ... .. ..s.<?rl. .<?r. ..u.sed .111ost .c().rn.monly.
(0)
for rectangular and vee-notch weirs are give belo w.
For rectangular weirs, the Fr ancis equation is used most co mm on ly. Th e
Francis equation is
I. Flow rates'
Q = 1.84 (L - 0.1 nh)h J2 (6-27) a. Average flow = 8000 mI ld
where Q = discharge, m 3/s (ft3 jS) h. Peak fl ow = 16,000 111 J Id
= D.IS5 ml js
1.84 = numerical constant
2. Primar y sedimentation tank'
L = length of crest of weir. m (ft)
o. Diameter at weir circle = 15 III
11 = number of end contractions
h. Weir sp acing = 0.3 m
h = head on weir crest. 111 (ft) r. Weir type = 900. vce Ilotch
3.33 = valu e of numeri ca l constant for U.S. customar y unit s d. Weir depth = 0. 1 111
e. Return flows frolll sludge·pr ocessing facilities = 0.15Q
For 90° trian gular weirs the general equation is:
3. Aeration tank .
Q = 0. 55 h S : z (6-28) o. In let type = slide gates
h. Number 01' gates = b
where Q = dischar ge, m 1 /s (ftJ;s) c Width or slide gate = 0.20 III
0.55 = t1umerical constant d. Return activated sludge discharged to influent chan nel at peak tlow = 0.25Q
h = heae! on weir crest. 111 (ft) e Length of aerati on tank eftlucnt \\'elr = 15 III
2.5 = value of numerical co nstant for U.s. customa ry unit s. j Weir Iype = straig ht sharp-crc,tcd
402 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 403

4. Secondary sedimentation tank: 2. Determine water surface elevation in aeration-tank effluent channel.
a. Weir crest elevation = 100 m a. Summarize head losses and coefficient values .
b. Diameter at weir circle = 17 m (I) Exit 1055_ k" = LO
c. Weir spacing = 0.3 m
d. W e ir type = 90° vee notch (2) Bend lo sses_ 2 at kb = 0.4
e. Weir depth = 0.1 (3) Friction lo ss in pipe, f = 0.020
f Underflow = O.4Q
5. H ead loss computations: (4) Entrance loss. k," = 0.5
a. Head loss coefficients b. Deter ri111le. velocity in pipe connecting the aeration tank to the secondary sedi-
Pip e entrance = 0.5
mentati o n tank:
Pipe bends = 0.4
Pip e exit = 1.0 v= Q/ A
b. Pipe friction factor in D arcy- Weisbac h eq uation = 0.020 = 14(0.185 m 3/ s)/ 3.14(0.3 m)2
r. Head los s across aeration tank = 0.02 m (The head los - .. . .
not well defined.) , across aeration tank s IS = 0.92 m/s

d. Neglect liquid in underflow from primary sedi m entation tank. c. Determine head loss in piping system connecting the aeration tank to the secondary
e. head loss be tw ee n s lid e gates in aeration-tank influent channel. sedimentation tank.

,, =(k" + 2kh + f L)
f ' h e the !Illet slide gates to the aeration tank ca n be modeled as a Fran CIS weir 2
V
\\It two end contractions. D+ k,n 29
g. Assume effluent weir in aeration tank can be modeled as a Francis weir.
h. th
In ese tt1llg
t weirf elevations
. assume a fre e -fall of 0 .010 m betwee n tlle weir' crest an d 50 m ) (0.92)2
wa er sur ace In th e downstream channel. =
(
I + 2(OA) + 0.020 0.6 m + 0.5 2(981)

= 0.171 m
SOLUTION
d. Determine water surface elevation in aeration-tank effluent channel.
Determine water surface elevation in seco nda ry clarifier 100.081 m + 0.171 m
Elev.
u. Determine number of weirs. 100.252 m

No. of weirs = Tr D/ (d/ weir) 3. Set the elevation of effluent discharge weir and -... ..... .....
= 114 (17)i(0.J rn/ wcir) aeration tank near the etTIuent discharge weir.
a. Set th e elevation of the effluent weir in the aeration tank. As given in the problem
177.9. say 17X
statement. the free-faJl distance between the weir crest and the water surface
h. Det er min e flow pe r weir. in the effluent channel' is 0.010 m. Thus
q/ weir = (16 ,000 mJ / d) / l n .Elev. = 100.252 m + 0.010 m = 100.262 m
= 89.89 m J/d . weir
b. Determine'the head on the effiuent weir assuming two end contractions.
= 0.00104 111 3 Is . weir
Q = 1.84(L - 0.1 nll)113/2
c. Det erm ine head on vee-notc h weirs.
1.4(0.11'5 mJ js) = 1.84[15 m - 0.1(2)I1JI13/2
q = 0.55115 ; 2
h = 0.044 m (by trial -a nd-error analysis)
II = (Q!0.55)2.'s
c. Determine water s urface elevati o n in aeration tank near effiuent di sc harge weir.
= (0.001 04:0.55)' <

= 1).081111 Elev. = 100.262 m + 0.044 m = 100.306 m

4. Set elevation 0 1s lide gates and determine water surface elevation in influent channel to
d. Determine water su rface elevat ion in seconc!;lry cbrilicr.
aeration tank .
Ele\'. 1000 m + O.OX I rn a. Ass ume 3 head loss o f 0.020 m acr oss the aeration tank. Also assume a free fall of
100.0 8 1 rn 0.0 10m between the crest 0 1 t he s lide gate a nd t he water surface in the aeration tank.
 404 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER I NG HYDRAULI CS DESIGN 405

b. Set the elevation of the crest of t he slide gate.

c Detcrmine flow per weir.
Elev. = 100 306 In + 0.020 rlI + 0.010 In = 100.336 In If/weir = J
I 15(16.000 Ill /cI); 157
c. Determine the head on rhe·slid e ga tes:· 117.2 m ·ljd· weir
= 0.00136 111 3 /s· wClr
(I) The flow per slide gate = 1.4(0.185 m J/s)/6 = 0.043 m J /s
(2) Determine head on slide ga te assuming slide gate is a Fran cis weir with lWO end Ii. Determin e head on vee-nolch weirs.
contractions.
if = 0.55115"
Q = 1. 84(L - 0.1 nh)h J /2
" = (QIOS5)' 5
0.043 mJ/s = 1.84(0.5 In - 0.1(2)h)h 3 /' .. = (0001 36/055) , ,5
h = 0.139 m (by trial-and -er ror ana lysis) = 0.091111

d. Determine water surface eleva tion in influent channel to aera ti on tank. e. D eterrnJllL: \V{l i e r S·lll·r'lce elpv·
.... ··tl·on in primar y sedi men tation tank .
u p

Elev. = 100.336m + 0.139 m = 100.475 m Elcv. = 100.7 17 m + 0.091 m = 100.808 m

7. Preparc a hydraulic profile showing Ihe computel I e In·d"

I )ns.. See th e acco mpanying
s. Determine water surface elevation in primary-sedimcntation-tank etfiuenr channel.
(/. Summarize head losses and coefficient values. See step 20. tigure (iJ).
b. Determine velocity in pipe con necting the primary sedimentalion lank 10 Ihe
100.808 100301)
aeration lank inlet channel.
100.717 100.26: 100.08 1
v= Q/ A ;--
11 5(018 5 m 3 /s)/ 3.14(025 m) ' 100.707
= 108 m/ s

c. Determine head loss. in piping syslem connecting the primary sedimenlali on lank
to the aeration tank inlet channel.

. = ( 1 + 2(0.4) + 0.020 -.-

40) + 0.5 1.0'
O.S 2(9.X I)
= 0.232 m

d. -:vater surface elevaiion in primary sedimentation tank em-lIenl eha·Jlnel.

Elc\,. = 100.475 m + 0.232 m = 100.707 m Aeration Seconuar y

:-oeulllltniatioll lank sediment ation
6. Set elevation of primary cttluent weirs and del ermine wain surface eleva l ion in primary lank lank
sedimenlalion lank .
(Ii)
Q. Set elevalion of weirs in primary sedimenlation tank.
l ·(),,\II:'H .
In Ihl\ e.\ampk;1 distance 0 I· 001
. n 1 'VIS . ao; a .free-fall..•..
. . lI sed at each of Ihe
b
EIe\'. ,= 100.707 m + 0.010 m = 100.7 17 m . Where lhe loss "I . he<lJ ..IS elili
eunlro l weirs. . . .ca I . ,".) He deSI"lIers
. <- wli l. allO\\- lhe wells
'.
to e-
cb nlC suhlllcrt;cd <II pcak·now cOnd,IH)n, .. ...S 11 h mel. .g·cd Inlels ,md outlets have. a15.0 ' been
.
b. Determine numb er of weirs. . ·· · ·1lOU 1( i·a."0 be made 10 select. lhe 0plJmum
used in man)- .planls . .'\ !lad
. e·on . .,In,'')''5' . I Idpipe
b
No. of weirs = rrDI(d!weir spac ing) ..
"zes ill use 10 Interconnecl treatmcnt llilih . .. 1-·' cost . 01·. large. r pipe size s lOU . . e1
'eonlp
. ared . to the COSI of encrg y needed Il) m·t'fCome .. . the differential
..... head loss assocblatecI
114( 15 m)!(OJ m/weir) . .. .. . I· . . lum pipe size wlil be Imllted Y I le
with Ihe sl11aller pipe size In most Sl llla!lllns. t lc IlldXm ..
157 . require. d I!) a,(Ill I tl ' (, . 01 solids.
minimum wlncll)'

n
 406 WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS

DISCUSSION TOPICS AND PROBLEMS 6-8 Why IS the equation used in Example 6-3 no longer favored for estimating fire flows
in business districts"
6-1 Determine the maximum monthly water s upply that can be taken from a st ream using the 6-9 What is the origin of th e ter m" fire plug ""
data from Example 6-2. What is the capacity of the reqll1red sto rage reservoir'! 6-10 Referring to the figure used in Example 6-3 and assuming that the data given in that
6-2 Determine the maximum monthly water supply th a t ca n be obtained from a stream with the eX 3m r ie are applieahle. wh<Jt modifications must be made in the water distributIOn system to
cumulative runoff record shown in th e accompanying figure. What is the capacity of the re- serve an additional po pulation of 2500 persons located beyond the lower boundary of the
quired storage reservoir'! existing system?
6-11 Referring to the figure and the population information given in Prob. 6-15, and to the
data given in Example 6-3. estimate the size of the pipes for a water dlstnbutlOn system for
the service area shown. Assume a water main will be placed in each street and that a loop Will .
be placed around th e service area. Assume the water supply main, to be placed in Peavy
Avenue, wi ll enter the se rvice area from 65th Street.
6-12 A 2.0-m circular sewer is laid on a slope ofO.OOOS m/m. If n is equal to 0.013 at all depths
,
'<> of flows. determine:
a (a) Q and V when the sewer is flowing full .'
x (b) Q and V when the sewer is flowing at a depth of 0.3 m
<:!i 30 (c) Q and V when the Aow in the sewer isat 0.6 of its capacity
3
;::'" (d) V and depth of flow when Q = 1.0 m /s .
o
6-13 Solve Prob. 6-12 assuming that n is variable and is equal to 0.015 when the pipe is flowmg
;:'"
<> fulL
.."; 20
6-14 A rectangular sewer 1.25 m wide and 15 m high has been laid on a slope of 0.0055.
'"
"3 (0) What is the maximum flow rate if the Manning's n value for the sewer is 0.013?
E
;:0 (b) What are th e dimensions of an egg-shaped sewer laid at the same slope that has the
u
10
same now caracity?
6-15 Develop a preliminary design. Including flow rates, pipe sizes, and pipe slopes for a trunk
sewer to be laid in the develorment shown in the accompanying figure from 6th to 1st Streets
along Peavy Avenue. Assume the following data apply.

20.5
6 12 18 24 30 36 19.0
Month

Low-rise
6-3 Using the cumulative runolTcurve given in the figure for Prob 6-2. determine the capacity I \
of the storage reservoir needed to provide a'constant supply ofO .:n x 10" m 3 / month.
6-4 Referring to the figure used in Example 6-1 and assllming that the following data apply.
18.5

\ \
\ Commercial
apartments Vi
.;:
V"l Single-
family \
I upstream
area
3
determine the maximum flow rate that can be withdrawn by the c it y while maintaining a Peavy Ave. dwellings 0.005 m 7s
minlIllum pressure of 140 kPa.
To I
fp = 50 III L, = 3,500 III treat· \ Park \
Jnent
L" = S.OOO m ill' = OS III plant I =====1 \ High- \ '\
Lo w· risl'
iI" ,= 0.5 III j = 0.020 (d p , d,)
\
apa rtm ents
\ . Vi
flse
I
I

__
\ Single·family \

i \
_\_J
6-5 Refe rring to th e sa ine figure and assulllin'g that the data gi ven in Prob. 6-4 apply , de-
termine E .\ when th e city demand is equal to 0.3 m 3 /s.
6-6 Estimate the required fire flow for a schoo l of wood frame cons truction with a total
Aoor ar ea of 1600 m 2 Assume the fire flow Illust be increased by 10 rercent clue to unfav orab le o 500
expos ur e.
II I I I
6-7 Estimate the I'e(juired fire tlow for vour classroom huilding. sCJle. m
 408 WATER ENV tRO NMENTAL ENGINEER ING HYDR AULICS DESIGN 409

(a) Saturation population and flow data: r-- ---- -- -- ---

I
I
Commercia l
1
Saturation 1 .1
population
'1)c v>
I . ·c -=
Wa stewate r
Type of density, Ash St Single-family
flow,* .c
Zoning development o ;;; r ·, dwellings ;;:; 1
person/ha L/capita d o-lo. -
Residential
Residential
Single-family dwellings
Duplexes
30.
50.
380.
1
2063 206 1 20.60
'"
-r
'1
310. ·1 .,;
Residential Low- rise apartments 10.0. 260. I ;-

Residential High-rise apartments 160. 220.

I
Industrial
- .20.01
.<::
. .
Birch St. I
• Refer to figure (c) in Example 6-4 for peaking factors. -- 19.80 19.70 57
19. 1

(b) Wastewater flow and peaking data for commercia l and industrial areas and in-
i Cedar Sf. High-
rise Low·r ise 1
a part· apar t men ts
stitutional facilities: I
I Comrnerci,11
mcnts
II
I --- ---
-----------
o 500
Area/ Flow Peaking II! til
facility basis Value factor : :; caie. III

Commercial m 3 /ha . d 32 1.5

Industrial m 3 ; ha ·d 60. 2.2 6-21 II wastewate r pump has:1 lOO-mm d ischarge a nd a 350-mm suc tion. The readin g on the
School L/student . d 80. 3.5 discharge gage located at the pump cent erline .is J40 kPa (kN / m'). The readin g on the sucti on
Hospital L/bed . d 60. 3.5
Park gage loca ted 0.75 m below t he pump cen terl ine is 20 k Pa (k N/ m '). 1ft he total head 0 11 the pump
L/person . d 3D 4.0.
... " . ..... .... -. -.. - .....,-.-.. -.. .,-
.. -..-.-
.. -..- ..- . ...,.
.. ...,.
.. c-
.. .,-
....,-
..----,.,-,.,.... .. .,-
. . ..,-
.. .. .. . ....... ........... .
is 15 m. determine (I) the pump discharge and (2) the energy input to the motor. assuming a
pump efficiency of 82 percent and a mot or dficiency of 91 percent.
6-22 Solve Pr ob. 0-21. but assume that the total head is 10 m and the readin g on the discharge
(c) The average daily attendance at the schoo l is 1000 students. gage IS 100 k Pa (k N/ ni') .
(d) Assume park usage wi ll be 500 persons/d.
6-231\ centrifugal pump with an impeller cliameter of 0.25 m delivers 0.02 m' /s agamst a
(e) Assume flow from upstream area is equal to 0.005 m 3 /s.
head of IX m at a power input or 4 kW whe n opera ting at 1170 r/ min . If it is assumed that
6-16 Develop a preliminary design '. including flow rates. pipe sizes. and pipe slo pes for a trunk the cfliciency remains th e same, the (I) head. (2) discharge. and (3) power input
sewer to be laid in the development show n in the figure show n on the opposite pag e frotn 10th for a geometrica lly similar pump with <.ill impeller diameter of 0.30 m operating at 870 r/ min.
to 13th Avenues along Ash Street to II th Avenue to Birch Street. Assume the data given in 6-24 A mixed-flow volu te pump is to opera te at a head of 5 m and discharge 0.17 m 3 js. It is
Prob. 6-15 are applicable.
to be driven by a direct-coupled squirre l-cage indu ctio n motor operat ing on 6-cycle (60-H z)
6-] 7 Using the data from Pr ob. 6-1 5 and the contour data shown in that figure. prepa re a current If the spec ific speed is not to exceed 100. what sho uld be the operat ing speed? What
profile simi lar to the one shown in Fig. 6-16 for the trunk sewe r. efficiencycou ld be expected. illld how much power will be requir ed
6-18 Using the data from Prob . 6-16 and the elevation data show n in that figure. prepare a 6-25 Ir the ciJameter of the imp eller in pump no. 2. in Exampl e 6-7 were changed from 275
profile similar to the one shown in Fig. 6-13 for. the trunk sewer. to 250 mm. \\'hat would be the maximulll discharge that clJuld be expected with two pumps
6-19 Compute the volume of excavat ion and length of pipe'of various diametns req'uired for Operating ill paralleJ'l
the trunk sewer designed in Probs. 6-1<; and (,-17.' Assume thaI the width of the trench is 14 6-26 Usin!, the given below in conjunction with the pumpin g system schematic show n in
times the inside diameter of the sewe rs plus O.lnl. The minimum width of the trench is I m and figure ((]) on page 410: .
to allow for pipe bedding material. the depth of the excavation is to be 0.2 m oelow the invert (a) Determine t he system pumping Cil pacity when pumps I and 2 are ope rat ing in parallel.
of t he sewer. The pump performance curves for pump s I and 2 are given in figure (b). Ignore losses othe r than
6-20 Compute the volume of excava tion and leng th of pipe of various diameters required for rriction ill developing the system cu rve. Minor losses should be considered in deve loping th e
the sewer designed ill Pmos. ()-!Ii and 11,<' the design constraints gi\e nll1 hob. (,-1'.1. muddied pump curves.
 410 WATER ENVtRONMENTAL ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS DESIGN 411

Elev. 10.0 m (I» What is the kilowatt requirement for each pump at the above operati ng point?
3
(c) At what reduced speed must pump I be opera ted alone to pump 0.20 m / s to the
Po int c reservoir ? Wh a t is the corresponding head?

L.
H ev. 3 .5 m
Pipe D, m L,m
Point b
a- b 0.35 30 (sa me for both pump s)
b -c 0.50 800

I i.
Head loss compu ta tion s:

Pum p 2 Bo th pump s are se t at th e same eleva tion . k,nl = 0.3

(a)
k" ,,, = 0.5

kche ck yalv e = 2.5

f = 0.020 (for all piping)

6-27 Solve Pr ob. 6-26 using pump c urves 3 and 4 give n in figure (b) of Prob . 6-26.
6-28 Determin e the a vaila ble net po siti ve suction head (NPSH A) for the pumping system give n
in Examp le 6-6.
6-29 Solve Pr o b. 6-26 for the pumping sys tem given in Prob . 6-24.
6-30 Develop the hydraulic profile for th e peak-flow condition for the portion of the waste-
water-treatment plant shown in th e figure o n page 412. Assume that 33 percent of the plant
E inflow is recyc led from the seconda ry 'sedit'rierHation tanks tu the head'end'of the aeration tank :·· · · .... .. .
-0 16 The pertinen t data and inform a tio n are show n as follows:
'"'"
::r: 3
Q". = 10,000 m /d
12 90 3
Qp<" = 18,000 m /d
*;:,
u
P(imar y sedimentation:
8 80 "
u
E Nu mber of tanks = 2
lJ..I
4 70 Di a meter - 13.75 m

Secondary sed imentation :

0
0 0.6 Number o f tanks = 2
Discharge , IIl J !>
Di a meter = 15 m

.--
lb)

Aeration-tank cflluen t weir : :;.!:'

T ype-s ha rp- crested , straight weir

J
We ir length = 4 m

. .
. -
.... "'
412 WATER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENG INEERING HYDRA UI.I CS DESIGN 413

6.6 K ing. H . W. , a nd E. F. Brat er HOlldbook o/Hydraulics, 51h cd., M cGraw- Hili , New York, 1963.
6.7 Lager, J . A., and W . G. Smith' erball SlOrnJll'Oler and Te chnolo gy: An Assessmenl,
EPi\.670 /2-74-040 . Ci ncin nat i. Ohio, December 1974.
518.26 6-8 Metcalf & Eddy. In c. WaS/ elVala Engineering. Col/eclion and PlImping of WaSlell·'(Jler. rev . by
(secondary) G. Tchobanoglous , McGraw-HilI. New York. 1981.
6.9 Metcaif & Eddy , Inc. Wa .HeH'llIer Engineering. Trealmenl, Disposal, R ellse, 2d ed .. McGraw-HilI.
New York, 1979
6- 10 Pardoe, .W . S.· "Computing Head Loss in Grid iron D istributi on System;" Erigineerlng News-
Record, 93(1 3):5 16 (1924). '
6. 11 Pump in!) Sialion Design fin Ihe I'raniein.'! Enl}lI1ecr Volllllle f Fundamentals. Volume II Wasle-
waleI'. Vol;ill1e III W(lIer. Conference P roceedings . Depanrilent o f Civil Engineering and Engi-
neering Materials, Montana State Linrversil\'. Bozeman, 1981.
6-12 Ripple. W.: "T he Capacity of Storage Re sef\'oirs f\>r Water Supply." Prof Insl Cie Eng: vo l. 7 1,
1883
6.13 Vennard. J . K .. a nu R . L. Street Ul'fllenllJfl' FlUid .If echanics. 5th cu .. Wiley. New York, 1975.
See de lai l A 0-14 \Vanieli sta, M P.: S'tnrnlll'oter !\l alla[lenlrr!1 QuantifY und QUOlifY· Ann Arbor Science. Ann
,\roor , Mich .. 1978.
EI 6-15 Water Pollution Cutltru\ FederatI on Drsigll alld SwrmH'([ler Pumping Srariolls.
5 1il.26
Manual of Pr actice no. FD-4. New Yor k. 1%1
6-16 Whipple. 'Ivy" et al . Sror1Jl\\'(J/c'f .\4ollaqerncltf In l (rhani::ing Areas, Prentice -H all, Englewood

ClifTs. N.J .. 1%)

EI
48.0 m 5 16.00 15 .0 m

I
EI 51J.90 I__
2-0.40 m

I
. 1----- - - - ----1
4 0 n1

Primary Seco.ndary
clarification c larifi ca li o n
tanks lank s
Profil e

REFERENCES
1966.- , H.: Cenln.IlIgal and Ollwr R O{()<YllanllC
6-1 Addison I . P umps , 3d ed .. Chapman an d Hall. Lo nd on,

6-2 ami
G,' M ., J . C. Ge ye r, and D. /\ . Oktlll: fI '(ilCI' WaSlell'Oler Volume I . Waler
IIppl) and WaSlewater Remoral, Wiley. New York. 1968. .
6-3 Hydraulic
.' a.
In>lilul e Slm;& If d F: r C' ·'Ii I . I Jlhed. Hyuraulic
I nSlllute , Cleveland . Ohio. 1975 . . .." .
6-4 R. W .: Allalysis 0/ Flo II ' ill Pipe .Velll·orks, Ann Arbor Scicnce. Ann Arbo r Mich 1976
6-5 Oml
F d ommJ!lee
: f I A ' . . ..
0 I Ie .. mencan Soclelv of C ivil Engin eers and Ihe Walc r Po llu lion COnlrol
.
E e erallon: . Design and Co nSlruct ion SanilOr r Sellws , ASCI:' Manuals and on
. ngmecflng Pracllce no : 37. Ncw Yo rk , 1969 . .