> 4 ; GEODETIC SURVEYING | * Definition and Classification of Geodesy | orientation, size, and sro Figo i | Geodesy deals with the determination of the shape, earth. The various methods used to achieve this purpose are: - Coo 1. Marine geodesy—— ~~ . 7 ; eptet 1. Geometrical method ee oO Il, Celestial method (satellite plus astronomic method) IV. Satellite, method (measurements taken on or from satellite) V. Gravimetric method— — ~ Ts | “These various methods can generally be regrouped into two and geodesy then broadly falls | under Geometrical and Physical Geodesy. Gravimetric dnd satellite methods are treated under physical geodesy while others are geometrical. Objects of Geometrical Geodesy Geometrical Geodesy utilizes geometric measurements (distances and directions reduced to | thelr corresponding values on the ellipsoid) and properties to obtain the shape and size of the earth. ‘Other considerations of geometrical geodesy are the international survey ties among the land masses of the earth, the determination of azimuths, lengths of lines and positions of specific points Applications of Geodesy: 1. primary or Zero order triangulation, trilateration and traverse. 2, ‘The measurement of height above sea-level by triangulation or sprit levelling. 3. Astronomically observations of latitude, longitude and azimuth to locate origins of surveys, and to control their direction. 4. Crustal Movements, To detect changes in the relative positions on the ground, and in their heights above sea level. 5. Observation of the direction of Gravity by astronomical observations for latitude and longitude. 6. Observation of the intensity of Gravity by the pendulum and other apparatus. 7. To deduce the exact form of earth's sea level equipotential surfaces at all heights. 8, Polar motion studies. 9. Earth tides 10. The separation between the Geoid and the mean sea level. 11, Engineering Surveys. 12; Satellite Geodesy: includes the modern techniques of positioning by space methods e.g. GPS, SUR and ViBl etc. ‘Scanned with CamScannerDIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEY sro. Plane Surveying Geodeti : Surveying 4, Theearth surface is considered "The earth sur ace is Considered f asaplainsuriace 5.4 cu ved surface ‘The line formed by any ho points The fine former by joining any two. are considered as a siraight line -' points are con: dered as arch as e a the same angles are plain the samo any ies are spherical angles é vules, Plane Surveying Effect ol the - Geodetic Surv sying Etfact of the 3 curvature of the earth's surface is: curvature of th earth’s surface is __ ignored int ude, 4 Length up to 12K ts treated as Length more th in 12KM is treated plano surveying @s.geode ¢ slinveying 5 {Plane Surveying Sutiabie tor small Goodelie Surv ying Suitable for area surveying large ort 3 surveying 6 Plane Survey accuracy is lov’ Geodetic Surve + accuracy Is high 7 lols smater args ess ian Invokes ager reas more tn about 260 km*. about 260 km. fg _Evonomicel and easy survey The special ir strumentneded method ‘and long § irvay mothod 9. Knowiogge of plano triganomeliy ! Knowledgy of splrerical __.__ is required = Inigonomel y 1s requires! to Used in general ciwl enginocring They aro use for the precise _sutvey project work location pf a w Jely distant area Plane surveying uses normal’ Goodetic surv sying uses more “ instruments like a chai, "precise instrun ents ang modern measuring tape, theadol Done locally by the individual _ctechnoteg ¢ like GPS Done by the ci ncemed state or goveramer department 12 ; Geometry of the Ellipsoid One of the functions of geodesy is the determination of the exact positions of points on the earth surface the earth's surface, where measurements obtained f 2m various techniques are carried out directly, is highly irregular for computational purposes. To overcome this problem, various mathematical surfaces or models have been defined by geode ists to approximate the irregular shape and size of the earth to various degrees of precision. These nclude the topography, the geoid, the : sphere and the ellipsoid (spheroids) cS The actual shape of the solid mass of the earth is referred to as the Topography. This is the surface on ‘which actual earth. measurements are made. It is too irregul: - and geometrically very complex. It is therefore, not suitable, for exact mathematical computations ‘The universally accepted best approximation of the earth is t enuipotential surface that coincides with the undisturbed mean sea level, called the geoid. A geoid is defined as the surface of the earth’s " Bfavity (attraction and rotation), which on the average, coincid s with the mean sea level (MSU) in the ‘Scanned with CamScanneropen undisturbed ocean. The geoid surface is highly irregut realize. It therefore has disadvantages, ind this makes it virtually impossible to if horizontal coordinates of points, be calculated. Owing to local anomalous gravitas capable of , distances and angles are to tional attraction the Geoid is not a regular surface Practical mathematical definition. it cannot be represented by any mathematical parameters, Earth as 2 Geoid The first step to map spatial features on the earth’s surface is to select a model that approximates the shape and size of th the earth is someti less)) P Projection, (Possible for small scale maps (1:5,000,000 or Sphere is based on a circle, Representing earth as a sphere calculations. But the Earth is not a perfect sihere. The earth ic wider al the poles, it's close to being a spheroid or ellipsoid. The earth therefor oid, Ellipsoid is an ellipse that has been axis, the same way a sphere is formed by rotating a simplifies many matNematical long the equator than between je can be mathematically modeled rotated around its short or minor Circle around a line passing through its center. More accurately as an ellips PS enon any Scanned with CamScannerellipsoid furnishes a simple, consistent us of geodesy as well as geophysics. tis a reference surface "satelite navigation, It is a convenient mathematical ating it about its minor axis which ttened at ‘Although the Earth is not an exact ellipsoid, the equipotential and uniform reference system for all purpo: for geometric use such as map projections an surface generated by choosing 2 proper sized ellipse and rote approximately coincides: with the rotation axis of the earth, It appears as 2 figure that is flat the poles and bulging at the equator. It can be described using 2 mathematical formula that approximately defines a part of the surface of the geoid. The ellipsoid which is usually defined by its semi-major axis and flattening has latitude and longitude to form a curvilinear coordinate system However, because of the great variations in topography, many different ellipsoids ‘exist a spheroid (or ellipsoid) is based on an ellipse. The shape of an ellipse is defined by two radii. ‘The longer radius is ‘the shorter radius is called the minor axis. ‘Semimajor Axis z a One-half of the major axis = semi-major axis b-=One-half of the minor axis = semi-minor axis Although an ellipsoid has many geometric and physical parameters, it can be fully defined by any four independent parameters. All the other parameters can be derived from the four defined parameters The parameters differ, depending on the choice of ellipsoid. “The table below lists two geometric parameters of several representative {[Ellipsoid a metres at Where used Airy (1830) 6377 563, 299.3 Great Britain Australian National (1965) _ | 6 378 160 298.2 Australia Bessel (1841) 6377397 299.2 East Indies, Japan Clarke (1866) 6378206. | 2950 _| Northand Central America Clarke (1880) 6378 249 23.4 Nigeria Everest (1830) [6377276 300.8 India, Pakistan . South American (1969) 6378 160 298.2 | South America WES 1984 6.378 137 298.2 World When f= 0, the figure described is a sphere, ‘Scanned with CamScannerEllipsoid can therefore be defined by either the semi major axis, a, and the semiminor axis, b cor by semimajor axis, a, and the flattening f ‘The flattening of an ellipsoid is described by: f= (a ~b)/a. ‘The flattening is the difference in length between the two axes expressed as a fraction or a decimal. The flattening is a small value, so usually the quantity 1/f is used instead, The flattening ranges from zero to one. A flattening value of zero means the two axes are equal, resulting in a sphere, ‘Asa first approximation, the Earth is a rotating sphere. As a second approximation, it can be regarded as an equipotential ellipsoid of revolution. n of an ellipsoid are the first and second eccentricity of the Further parameters used in the defini ellipse (e and e’ respectively) wy" = ef - pay ety)" Ellipsoid:- It is the figure or shape obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis.'It is the accurate and computational figure used to sepresent the figure of the earth in geodetic form. EI Itis the locus of points which moves such that sum of the distances from two fixed points to it isa constant, fal Pr=NMinor Axis Where: 0 = Center, OA = OB F2P + FiP =constant= 2a jemi major axis, OP1 = OP2 = b = Semi minor axis Fundamental parameters In any figure, there must be certain fundamentals used to define the figure, For an ellipse, we have: first cocentricity second eceentricity ‘Scanned with CamScannersterreated and ther relationship ca Be derived fairly easy: A Lane meters we need at least (WO of the parameters. Therefore, to define an ellipse out of tnese PES Geodetic coordinates By geodetic coordinates, we want to determine the pos rotational ellipsoid, ition of the points on an ellipsotd of revolution oF = Geodetic latitude = Geodetic longitude itis to note that OX, OY and OZ form aright handed Caresian coordinate system. OX. OY fein the equatorial plane, Q(®,) ae the coordinates of Poin’ o8 the ellipsoid (Q(6.4,h) for points on the elevated position from te ellipsoié Geodetic latitude isthe angle between the normal tothe ellipsoid ata point and the equatorial plane. qeettetie longitude is the angle between the initial meridian plane and meridian plane of point Q measured in the equatorial plane positive eastward. ‘Types Latitude ‘We have three different types of latitude as follows: {a} Geodetic latitude (#) is obtained by producing a normal from point P to the ellipsoid, Therefore angle between the equator and the normal from point P is called geodetic latitude as shown in figure a. : (2) Geocentric Intitude (¥) is the angle between the line connecting P to the center and the equatorial plane as shown in figure a. (3) Reduced latitude (8) is the angle between the equatorial plane and the line connecting point 7 on the reduced sphere to ihe center ofthe ellipsoid and equatorial plane. Note that (i) B defines the coordinate of P and not P” i) Pison the ellipsoid and not on reduced sphere. ‘Scanned with CamScanner() Reduced latitude (8) x= acosp z=bsing (ii) Geodetic latitude (0) xa sete ene ‘Scanned with CamScanner(i) Geocentri latimde (W). xercos __eaeey qersiny, where: t= Saget Prove that \ tween Geodetis . Relations x= acesb, bsing cord =reosy, z=rsin’ zie =tan y= (1—e2) tan 6 = fq tan ge stan (1—e#)tang= (1-6?) tank sing va (4 e(einp) 2 Difference betwee sin( — 8) Jotic and Reduced lati in g cos B — cose sin B = ic. Reduced and Geocentric latitudes ‘Scanned with CamScannerstn wib tan($ ~ f), determine the difference between the two angles (# ~ 8). Difference between Geodetic and Geocentric latitudes Note that tany = (1—e*)tang tany = tang — e7 tang tang tan = e? tang ef tang = tan(d —y)(1+ tandtany stan(p—) = For small(# — w), tan(¢ —¥) Ittan @ tany ¥ 1+ (tang)? “OWS (e*B22 (cosp)*) = ef cingcose ome A O-Ws sin 2 Space rectangular coordinates (6.2) = curvilinear coordinates XYZ space rectangular coordinate defined as universal axes to form Cartesian coordinate system. 2: axis coincides with the semi minor axis ofthe ellipsoid. X- axis isin the plane of the equator and passes through the zero meridian Y- axis is also in the plane of the equator and passes through longitude 90°. XYZ form a tight handed system. X= xeosi Y= xsin Zaz From the expressions from x and z er) X= 22h cosa AS sind X- Ys Z show the space rectangular coordinates ofthe points on the ellipsoid. Chord distance(s) between P and P' is given by: ‘Scanned with CamScanner———— Foran elevated point ex thoosd dexthsing yi (E =n) cose coed =n)corpsina Potting = = (W4A)eose cost vie (Ws h)eos@ sind Ising ical section). [Note that this N is known as the [Radivs of curvature in the prime vert! XYZ coordinates inde, longitude and height f Finding a Given: X, Y, Required: #4, . Known: X= (N+ h) 086 COSA... oO) Y= (N+ h)cosesind.... @) ame) Z= (Cae) +h) sing. From (1) and (2) Q=(ytna=t Considering the diagram below: P rng Z=Nsing —e'Nsing +hsing (N+ A)sing=Z + eNsing [2 Since latitude ¢ is on both sides of equation, we must carry out iteration, As first approximation considers ht = 0 10 ‘Scanned with CamScannerang erate or update ¢ vatil ‘stop iteration when either ba giD| Se rho NteN where Z = (N(2-€7) mee M=Radius of curvature in the meridian Pl While N= radius of curvs N ‘At North Pole and South Pole M = N inresps lane Equator Pole ¢ g=0__| =90° Mace) faG— =) z we ane N kes A @ a a-eye "(cos ¢)? p(w be the te and fin eh)sing® ature in prime vertical section. a al value of no iteration ective of direction but generally N= M- ‘Scanned with CamScannersine mum and the other jal radii of eure ‘of curvature is minim containing them are where radius Tecan ti The eat an este i i svete itis ssi Tes o* called pt ections. ; ; one Pe een ie Senile the iia M. Principal normal sections at any point are th ye maxi seotions along the PME ial section and the meridian section. curves on the Elipsoid ‘Weare interested in two tyP’ ipsoid es of curves on the ell (1) Curve of normal section (@ Geodesic Curve of normal section: It describes the ordinar: whe instrument station and the x line of sight between @ target station, '" ct i jnysical surface Pi norma section spnnennees—— sold ects two points on that surface igh the other point, The normal ‘Normal section is a eurved Kine on the surface of the ellipsoid which cont and lies in a plane which contains the normal atone Point and passes throu! section AB is not necessarily the same as the mormal section BA hence planes defining the (wo sections are not the same. Noted cases {two points are on the same latitude or ongitude, we have one normal section. A parallel circle is not a normal section. Equator is a special case of parallel circle hence itis a normal section. A meridian is a normal section. nim ection AB <— normal section 8 =A ‘Are length of normal section 2 ‘Scanned with CamScanner| f gandg can be determined bY sterative procedure starting with, approxima Geodesic: tis the hotest line between two points on the ellipsoid. Jt is @ unique curve between two points on the ellipsoid. Tris fundamentally defined a5 & curve along which the oscillating plane at any point passes through the normal 10 the surface of the same point. The oscillating place is defined as the plane which passes hrough the tangent {0 & space curve at some point and through another point oF the ssame curve which is snfinitely close to the first point. Geodesic is not a plane cue put a curve of double ceurvavure. It normally lies between the reciprocal normal sections being closer 19 the normal section from & point to another point at the initial point. i iw \ erences bobwecn normal secu and sos () azimuth difference ay — te = 6 5) cos?O,, sin 2 Example; for S = 200km; Om = © 42, (2) Distance difference 1 ply s Lye [: adg(E) etestossitan = fei erst yame = anz0nte | ‘Where L = geodesic distance “ \ Ly= Normal section distance i Calculation of geodesic co Cw hue caleulation can be ‘on can be in for of either of the following two st ages B Scanned with CamScannerDirect problems This involves given 0, .Ay,cty2,5y Required —to find 0, .2, Indirect problems ie. Given 0, ,44,09,A3 Required ~to find e325 ¢t2y Reductions of quantities measured in field (Directions and Distances) Correction to direction correction for going from normal section ta geodesic __e (2) ~~ aay) © in SiN ety correction for height of observed point 0570, sin eye 53 = correction for the deflection of the vertical = (sin ys 9 cose,) cots Where: 5 - zenith distance of the observed point 2 Local Verticai«—/ Total deflection of the vertical Normal to the ellipsoid = component of total deflection in the meridian plane 11> component of total defledton in the prime vertical plane Linear measurement GW IFS is distance along earth's surface se25(1-Bs) Where: R= radius of curvature in the azimuth 2 of the line s EurthrSurfree—_ | So | NY ~setipoidl surice 7 ‘Scanned with CamScannerqi) s,= aR, sin l he ote | 1 Geodetic datum defines the origin of the computational system and the surface over which the computations are made. The follo ig are the minimum parameters used to define the datum: - ©, — geodetic latitude of point 1 A, — geodetic longitude of point 1 hy — geodetic height of point 1 above the computational surface i! a semi major axis (equitortal radius) | f flattering Other necessary requirement is making the minor axis ofthe ellipsoid parallel (o the rotational axis of the carth and centre of ellipsoid to ncide with centre of the earth. Since the geodetic parameters cannot be measured directly, their astronomical equivalents can be measured and the geodetic values can be computed, OA am Ma f | Therefore we get as follows: - =O - & = nyseeg ' heHen Ys. SG ny could be obtained by gravimetry method, astrogeodetic method etc, as Scanned with CamScannercr System O and C to coincide zand Z also to coincide Arbitrary System ‘When the two centres and the two areas do not coincide. ‘Transforming from arbitrary to ideal (*) : (#) =A (0%,00)(y) | W,6,@ are Euler's angles \W= rotation about the new z—axis = rotation about the new x —axis ‘= rotation about the new y~ axis 7 Spheri al excess is the amount by which the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle exceeds the sum of the angles of a plane triangle, denoted by e, namely: SAFB+C~ 180", : ‘The computational formula of e is given by: s ez ‘here $ denotes the area of the sph I triangle and R is the radius of the sphere. ‘Scanned with CamScannerGlobal Positioning System (GPS) “In the latter days of the arms race the targeting of ICBMs became such a fine art that they could be expected to land right on an enemy's missile silos. Such a direct hit would destroy the silo and any ‘missile in it. The ability to take out your opponent's missiles had a profound effect on the balance of power, But you could only expect to hit i lo if you knew exactly where you were launching from. That's not hard if your missiles are on land, as mast of them were in the Soviet Union, But most of the U.S. ruelear arsenal was at sea on subs. To maintain the balance of power the U.S. had to come up with a way \ 5 " ‘0 allow those subs to surface and fix their exact position in a matter of minutes anywhere in the world | ‘The result is the Global Positioning System, a system that's changed navigation forever. What is GPS? i > Global Positioning System (GPS) | . > Satellite-based navigation system | > Network of 24 satellites placed in brbit > GPS works in any weather conditions > 24 hours global coverage \ How it works OPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate the uuser’s exact location. Essentially the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was tansmited by a satelite with the time it ‘was received, The time difference tells the;GPS receiver how far away the satellite is, Now, with distance measurements froma few more satellites, (he receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the units electronic map. A GPS recsiver|must be locked on tothe signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude and longitide) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, Position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's Position has been determined, the GPS unit}ean caleulate other information, tip distance, distance to destination, ‘ 's 3p) the receiver can determine the user's 3D, Such as speed, bearing, track, sunrise and sunset time and more, ‘The GPS satellite system The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space sogment are orbitn ig the earth about 20,000 kilometers above i two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. These satellites Ming at speeds of roughly 11,000 kilometer an how ‘hey have backup batteries onboard to keep them running in - They are constantly moving, maki are travel GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no “HY power: Small oeket boosters on each satelite keep them Alying in the eorrect path, Here are some v Scanned with CamScannerother interesting facts about the GPS satellites {also called NAVSTAR, the official U.S, Department of Defense name for GPS): ‘The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994, % Exch satellite is butt to last about 10 years. Replacements are constanth into orbit, © AG ly being built and launched Panels extended, Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less, What's the signal? * OPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, designated L1 and 12. Civilian GPS uses the LI frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the UHF band. The signals travel will pass through clouds, glass and pla: buildings and mountains. by line of sight, meaning they but will not go through most solid objects such as A GPS signal contains three different bits of information ~a Pseudorandom code, ephemeris data and almanac data. The pseudorandom code is simply an LD. code that identifies transmitting information. You can view this number on Which satellite is ‘Your GPS unit's satellite page, as it identifies which satellites it's receiving, Ephemeris data, which is constantly transmitted by each satelite, about the status of the satellite (healthy or unhealthy), contains important information current date and time. Thig part of the Signal is essential for determining a position, ‘The almanac data tells the GPS recoiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time {hroughout the day. Each satellite transmits almanac data showing the orbital information for that Satellte and for every other satelite in the system, 13 ‘Scanned with CamScannerSources of GPS signal errors Factors that can degrade the GPS signal anc thus affect accuracy include the following: + + lonosphere and troposphere delays - The satelite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. ‘The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error. . “Signal multipath - This occurs when the GPS, signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby can ig errors. + Receiver clock errors - A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors. *% Orbital errors - Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location. % Number of satellites visible - The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the Letter the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal 2 reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground, ! * Satellite geometry/shading - This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to each other, Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight grouping. Intentional degradation of the satellite signal - Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. Department of Defense. SA was intended to. prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers. CONTINUOUSLY OPERATING REFERENCE STATIONS (CORS) INTRODUCTION Initially, GPS surveying used stati GPS receivers inpairs, post processing the observed data using differential techniques. Permanent GPS base stations were later deployed {0 augment traditional geodetic networks. Individual base stations initially supplied users with data stored on personal computers for post processing electronic Bulletin Board Service (BBS) technology. Radio 9 ‘Scanned with CamScanner :transmitters were also located at these base stations for Real Time Kinematic (RTE) positioning. As ir ing capabilities of basestation GPS receiver technology began to incorporate the data processing cap computers, they became known as Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS). WHAT IS CORS? CORS as Continuously Operating Referenze Station, which had taken the place of a traditional base station used in differential GNSS positing. CORS can give an instant high positional accuracy of + 20 mm. CORS Network began in 1994 when NGS officially installed permanent GPS receiver in the National Institute of standards and Technology, Gaithersburg Campus, Maryland, and few months later in Colorado, which were later incorporated with three other continuously operating GPS stations that are originally part of CIGNET to become the first five stations in CORS Network TYPES OF CORS , Due to usage and functions, CORS can be categorized as + Post-Processed CORS are the conventional reference stations whose data are applied only in post processed surv 's. They do not transmit corrections /data to the rover receivers in the field, hence cannot be used in Real Time Kinematic (RTK) survey. © A Real Time CORS on the other hand captures and transmit data or corrections to roving receivers within its area of operation which can be used for RTK surveys. CORS COMPONENTS % AGNSS receiver and antenna set up in a'stable manner at a safe locationwith a reliable power supply. The receiver operates continuously, logging raw di fata andstreaming (continuously outputting) raw data and other specified products. A computer, can be remotely located, usually controls the receiver, data files at regular interv community. The PC will usuallydownload als and pass them to an FTP server for access by the GNSS user Communication device for data dissemination Software to monitor and control the data inflow, Other devices based on the area of applica‘ vvv outflow, processingand presentation, n ©, weather monitoring device ies The characteristics of CORS are as follows; Nation-wide/ Regional/ State wide coverage Supports real-time 3D positioning Compatible with global reference system — [TRF Enable attainment of sub-meter accur: receivers XXX, racy withmapping grade GNSS Fable atainment of centimetre level accuracy withm ‘quency GNSS receivers 20 Scanned with CamScannerCORS must have the following but not limited capabilities; CORS CAPABILITIES ‘Track GNSS signals from multiple GNSS constellation satellites Have in built communications capabilities either through dedicated internet ports or radio transmitters Haveremote configuration capability Provide industry standard data output through RTCM and RINEX, though additional proprietary outputs may be used Be capable of logging at least one week of data locally to proviciea continuous data time series in the event of a prolonged communications outage Be suitably weatherproof (dust/humidity/water/stiock resistant) Be capable of recording data from additional sensors such asmeteorological or tilt sensors Have in built data security and adh nistration capability throughelient authentication and secure administrative controls. AREAS OF APPLICATIONS Areas of applications of CORS are; Spatial and Surveying Industry Land Use and Management ing & Quarrying Precision Agriculture Construction and Civil Works And lots more BENEFITS OF CORS ‘Scanned with CamScannerThe benefits of CORS are numerous but few of these are outlined asfollows; : : + GNSSCORS will facilitate the accurate location and rapid mapping of all landed properties and resources in Nigeria. = Theestablishment and operation of CORS in Nigeria will enhancethe realization of : | unified geocentric and vertical datum, j «Tell also support efforts to establish a precise gooid for Nigeriaand Africa in General. at = CORS will practically reduce the labour, cost and time spent in small and medium scale i mapping across the nation + Rather than using two receivers, the surveyor would need only one receiver as rover to pair with CORSs; thereby reducing surveyequipment cost. It will enhance the consistent monitoring of ground and structuralsubsidence activities in the coastal and mine field areas of the country. ! "Ease of Use Coordinate accuracy and homogeneity of coordinates system. ‘Challenges of CORS in Niger Eficient use of new technologies is always accompanied by variouschallenges; the challenges of using CORS in Nigeria are as follows; * Difficulty in the inter-operation and integration of the Private, Stoteand Federal owned CORS due to personal aspirations and goals. + Readiness for sustainable indi i cadiness for sustainable funding (individual users/sefentists, corporate organizations and governments), 22 ‘Scanned with CamScanner“+ User education, value and acceptance of CORS as a superioralternative to the existing traditional methods + Policy on data access, service and sharing may take long 1e tobecome operational. & Future proof and expansion Inconsistent Global —_Local ~ Global transformation parameters Intemet data Coverage Security ‘Maintenance Cost of acquiring a rover GNSS receive CONCLUSION ‘The ever-increasing adoption of GNSS technology has revolutionised the way 3-dimensional positions are determined on and above the Earth's surface. CORS networks are being introduced across many countries to provide improved access to positioning infrastructure for a wide range ofapplications. In order to provide (and achieve) reliable GNSS positioning of homogeneous and h accuracy across the network area, decisions regarding the operation of the CORS network are required. Important aspects include the consistent connection to a high-quality datum, GNSS- based height transfer considerations, the use of absolute GNSS antenna modelling, stability and integrity monitoring, and the possible contribution to regional or global geodesy initiatives. 23 Scanned with CamScannerHEIGHT DETERMINATION: TECHNIQUES ‘There area lt of geodetic methods for detemmining of heights or height differences. These methods are Classified as geometric levelling, trigonometric levelling, and GPS/Levelling according to used surveying instruments and applied measurement method. The historical development of heights determination techy niques is given in Figure 1, Geometrid Levelling Geometrit:levelling is the determination of the hei rods (Figure 2). Geometric levelling may ight differences by using level and hold vertical best eeéult method. However, ‘rstly appear a method as a very simple andyielding the the practical applications have shown that carrying out of this method is vey Jifficult on the rough ground and sensitive to re gular or irregular model errors. The preven- {ass measures must be taken (o eliminate or reduce model errors stemmed from conler surroundings. If it is not, these ‘eying rises Strumental and lons decrease the survey velocity, thus the cost of sur- The effects of such errors can be reduced by using Schwarz or Red pants methods or, applying ap- Propriate measurement methods, taking equal backward and forward ebservation range, the round ‘vip surveying, following BFFB (backward forward forward backward) or FBBF (forward back- ‘ward backward forward) observation order or surveying calibration in lab and surveying additional Parameters such as pressure, temperature and time atthe survey moment ar” 1850 41900 195060 70 80 90 2000 Figure 1. The historical development of heights determination techniques 24 ‘Scanned with CamScannereles leone ae Figure 2. The fundamental principal of geometric levelling Nowadays, also motorized geometric levelling applications have been done by establishing survey hardware on the land vehicle, thus successful results have been obtained. Accorlim@wgecametric levelling, the advantages ofthe motorized levelling may be summarized as below; ~ Improve 40-60% in production velocity - ~ Decrease errors connected to time ~ More observation ray, thus decreasing asymmetric refraction error = More accuracy Only disadvantage of this technique is that the cost of instrument and vehicles is very high and lev- el points must be on the edge of the road. ‘Trigonometric Levelling Height differences are computed by using vertical angle and distance in trigonometric levelling, According to the land, time and observing vertical angle, trigonomettic levellingean be classi. fied as follows: + Unidirectional trigonometric levelling ~ _ Leap-Frog (jumped) trigonometric levelling ~ Reciprocal trigonometric levelling With development ofthe dlctronic total stetions which are able to observe v ‘ance by high accuracy the trigonometric levelling las just updated again together ical angle and di Applications of the motorized trigonometric levelling have been made by placing survey hardware of the trigonometric levelling on the land vehicle. The motorized accuracy ( <2mm / km ) and equal cost with the motorized geometric | ‘rigonometric levelling is done according to following rules; 25 onometric levelling is equal levelling when the motorized ‘Scanned with CamScanner= The reciprocal and simultaneously vertical angle observations = The reciprocal distance measurements ~The short observation runges (~250-300 m) = Using calibrated instruments = Carried out by the experienced person More than 27% speed of production has been reached with motorized trigonometric levelling. ‘Survey and Computation Model in the Unidirectional Trigonometric Levelling, ‘The observations of the unidirectional trigonometric levelling have been made by using total station that is set up in a station point to vertically established target tablet as unidirectional (Figure 3). ij Vertical angle and slope distance are measured. It is assumed that level surfaces are same centered sphere surfaces in the survey model, In figure 3, Z : vertical angle that must be measured ij: vertical angle that is observed 42¢ : model ervor that is caused by refraction ‘8j: model error that is caused by plumb line deviation Sij :slope distance Rim : radius of the Earth spheroid Height difference between P, and P, points (hy) any =, on gh sin? 24 |-5(¢,+42,)bin 25) © ) is computed by equation (1). In this equation, first term is nominal height difference and second term shows that radius of the Earth spheroid affects the height difference, third term shows that vertical refraction and plumb line deviation affect the height difference. Because and dZ,are not known in the application, third term has been neglected, thus the height difference is computed by first two terms. 26 ‘Scanned with CamScannerPhinb fine ea spheroid . ion Model in the Reciprocal Trigonometric Levellin; The observations have been made reciprocally for each other in this trigonometric levelling by using total station that is set up in the two stations point (Figure 4). Zig and Zj vertical angles and Sij slope distance are measured, Ifequation (1) is used in observations that are made in every two points and if arithm height difference is computed, equation (2) is obtained. ( mean of (60825 ~cos2y)+ 54 Gin! 24 -sn?2,)- e fe, +42, )sin2, ea In +02, 27 ‘Scanned with CamScannerPum iine Plumb tine Earth spheroid Figure 4. Survey model of the reciprocal tigonometric levelling ice and second ter mn shows that radius of the term show that vertical ‘ation affect the height difference Fespectively. Because <2, are not known in the application, thitd term and fourth te term have been neglected, ference is computed by equation (3) ‘Scanned with CamScanner‘lets of station points in this trigonometriclevelling by "among the station points (Figure 5) Slope distances are measured, Fore-signt Figure 5, Survey model ofthe Leap-Frog (jumped) trigonometric. levelling, equation (1) is used in observations in back-sight and foresight, 4h (6.008245 ~S 0082, sin® 24, Siisin?® Z,,) . Ra (4) ~Su fy 442, lon 2) +Sulee +02, loin 2,) equation (4) is obtained. 4m equation (4), first term is nominal height ditference carth spheroid affects the height difference, ref and second term shows that radius ofthe and fourth term show that vertical height difference respectively, secause eu third term faction and plumb line deviation affect the 29 ‘Scanned with CamScanner“Sygoezy Jest t © Here; hi ellipsoidal height Na, } Horthometric height N: geoid height 30 ‘Scanned with CamScanner