Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review and perspective on industry high-temperature heat pumps

Jiatong Jiang a, Bin Hu a, R.Z. Wang a, *, Na Deng b, Feng Cao c, Chi-Chuan Wang d
a
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Research Center of Solar Power & Refrigeration (MOE China), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
b
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
c
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, 710049, China
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300, Taiwan, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A reduction of CO2 emission from heating industry is urgently required due to the transition of industry towards
High-temperature heat pump carbon neutrality. The High-temperature Heat Pump (HTHP) is a valid alternative technology for heating while
Low-GWP refrigerants enhancing energy utilization efficiency to potentially contribute to carbon neutral electrification. Therefore, this
Industrial heating
study proposes some future development directions for HTHPs based on the current state of research and
Carbon neutral
application cases to accelerate the replacement of industrial boilers. The laboratory-scale HTHPs with heat sink
temperature higher than 80 ◦ C are reviewed following different configurations, including single-stage, multi-
stage, cascade, hybrid system, etc. Among these experimental researches, about 71% of the prototypes were
charged with low Global Warming Potential (GWP) refrigerants. Besides, HTHPs with large temperature lift is a
must in practice, and some even achieved temperature lift above 100 ◦ C. For the application researches, the
heating capacity of reviewed HTHPs applied in industry ranged from 60 kW to 18 MW with output temperature
higher than 80 ◦ C. High-GWP refrigerants, especially R245fa and R134a, are the mainstream refrigerants for
applications until now, accounting for 67% of the reviewed cases. The remaining units were charged with natural
refrigerants, and no reports are available for new synthetic refrigerant (e.g. HFOs, HCFOs). Based on the
comprehensive review of HTHPs from laboratory and application, four suggestive prospects are revealed for
HTHPs, being i) low-GWP refrigerants; ii) output temperature higher than 100 ◦ C; iii) heating capacity larger
than 1 MW; iv) Coefficient of Potential (COP) larger than 4 under 40 ◦ C temperature lift.

take the lead in achieving carbon neutrality in 2025, the UK and Japan
aim to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, and China announced that its
1. Introduction
carbon emissions would reach the peak before 2030 and strive to ach­
ieve carbon neutrality by 2060.
As early as 1992, people started to recognize the unprecedented
The heating process is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions,
serious impact of greenhouse gas emission on the global climate change,
accounting for 25% in the UK [1], and more than 20% in China [2]. At
and the United Nations subsequently passed the “United Nations
present, the heating in industry is mainly provided by coal-fired boilers
Framework Convention on Climate Change”. As of 2016, a total of 197
in China. Note that the conventional coal-fired boilers produce 1.3 Gt
countries had signed the convention, of which the goal is to reduce at­
CO2 every year, which contributes 33% to the dust and 27% of total SO2
mospheric greenhouse gases and maintain their concentration at a stable
emissions in China [3]. Industrial boilers not only act as major energy
level. Followed by the “Kyoto Protocol” which was passed in 1997, 183
users but also are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions and air
countries had signed it by 2009. In 2016, it was further realized that
pollution [4]. Therefore, the replacement of coal-fired boilers is under­
more actions must be taken to face the climate change, hence it brought
way. From a variety of economic comparisons of different industrial
a total of 178 countries to sign the “Paris Agreement”, acknowledging
boilers (electric boilers, gas-fired boilers, heat pumps, etc.), the gas-fired
that the world needs to take immediate action to reduce greenhouse gas
boiler is competitive in containing both clean nature [5] and economy
emissions and strengthen the capability of dealing with climate change.
advantage [6]. However, gas-fired boilers consume a large amount of
The above three pacts are the landmarks in human history to respond to
natural gas that require high-pressure storage tank with concerns upon
climate change. Further, in 2020, many countries committed to take
safety and high investment costs for gas transmission network, thereby
more drastic measure through policies. For example, Denmark would

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rzwang@sjtu.edu.cn (R.Z. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112106
Received 26 August 2021; Received in revised form 25 November 2021; Accepted 9 January 2022
Available online 10 March 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Jiang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

studied in experimental stage to display the current technical level of

Nomenclature HTHPs. At the end of this section, Table 1 summarizes the configura­
tions, compressors, working conditions and capacity of experimental
ACHP adsorption-compression HP research studies on HTHPs to compare these lab-scale researches clearly.
CFC Chlorofluorocarbons
COP Coefficient of Potential
DS Double Stage 2.1. Single-stage vapor compression system
DX-SAHP Direct Solar Assisted HP
EEV Electric Expansion Valve Single-stage vapor compression heat pump (shown as Fig. 1(a)) is
FT Flash Tank very popular in applications, various refrigerants/compressors have
GWP Global Warming Potential been studied based on the heat source and heat sink temperatures and
HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbons the heating load needed.
HCFO Hydrochlorofluorolefins In early 1985, Yamazaki et al. [9] reported the highest condensation
HFO Hydrofluoroolefins temperature of 135 ◦ C by a R601 single-stage heat pump, and the COP
HP Heat Pump
HTHP High-temperature Heat Pump Table 1
IHX Intermediate Heat Exchanger Cycles, working conditions and capacity of experimental studies on HTHPs.
ID-SAHP Indirect Solar Assisted HP
MVR Mechanical Vapor Recompression
ORC Organic Rankine Cycle
SHX Solution Heat Exchanger
SS Single Stage

restricting its promotion [7]. Overall, the combustion of fossil fuels is the
last means for heating processes due to the severe primary consumption
and pollutants. To meet the demand of carbon neutrality in heating
industry, Heat Pumps (HPs), especially HTHPs are recommended to
replace primary energy consumption boilers. The use of HPs can not
only recover the waste heat from industrial processes and improve the
energy utilization efficiency, but also cut down the use of fossil fuels and
thereby reduce CO2 emissions. In essence, upon augmenting the tech­
nically feasible performance yields, the implementation potential of
HTHPs can be further increased [8].
Regarding boiler replacements, it is essential to realize the scenarios
of the corresponding applications to clarify the future of HTHP devel­
opment. Accordingly, this study first reviews the state of the art of HTHP
technology, explaining the gap between the laboratory-scale and actual
industrial applications, followed by pointing out the perspective to
bridge the gap of HTHP future development. The existing studies of
laboratory-scale HTHP with output temperature higher than 80 ◦ C are
then reviewed to understand the current research status of HTHP
development. Subsequently, the working fluids for HTHPs are reviewed
based on the concerns of environmental impact, policy and perfor­
mance. Finally, to clarify the current implementation status for HTHPs,
some applicable case studies of HTHPs in different industrial sectors are
reviewed. Based on the summary from refrigerants, output temperature,
temperature lift, efficiency and heating capacity, four predictive devel­
opment directions for future HTHP are proposed.

2. Configurations of HTHPs

The vapor compression HP system is based on the reversed Carnot

cycle, and is modified with ideally isentropic compression and isen­
thalpic expansion. The most common configurations are the single-stage
layout, including original single stage, single stage with vapor injection
or ejector to improve cycle performance, and single stage equipped with
economizer and Intermediate Heat Exchanger (IHX). Multi-stage system
employs more than one compression stage to achieve higher output
temperature at the expense of mechanical energy consumption. Cascade
heat pump system couples the circulation of two or more working fluids
to achieve larger temperature lift. Hybrid heat pump system integrates
vapor compression heat pump with other thermal systems, like ab­
sorption, adsorption, solar energy or chemical heat pump systems. This
section reviews the above typical HTHP configurations which have been

2
J. Jiang et al.
Fig. 1. Configurations of single-stage HTHPs.
reached 3.0 at an evaporation temperature of 65 ◦ C. In the past recent
ten years, more researches about HTHP have been conducted. Song et al.
[10] conducted some HTHP tests, using R142b as refrigerant under a
heat source temperature of 35–45 ◦ C and a heating temperature of
60–85 ◦ C. When the heat source temperature was 45 ◦ C and the heating
temperature was 85 ◦ C, the COP was 4.07 and 2.8 under 10 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C
of heating water temperature lift, respectively. Yu et al. [11] synthesized
an azeotropic refrigerant BY-4 and tested its thermodynamic perfor­
mance in a single-stage compression system. Under the working condi­
tions of heat source at 50–70 ◦ C and heat sink at 80–110 ◦ C, the achieved
COP was higher than 3.5 when the temperature lift was larger than
30 ◦ C. Madsboell et al. [12] developed a centrifugal water vapor
compressor for HTHP subject to single-stage compression, their moti­
vation was to meet the industrial heating requirements (90–110 ◦ C) with
a capacity in the range of 100–500 kW and 25–30 ◦ C temperature lift per
stage. Fleckl et al. [13] investigated the performance of a lab-scale HTHP
with R1336mzz(Z) as the working fluid with a piston compressor, and
reported a condensation temperature up to 150 ◦ C and a COP of 2.4
under 70 ◦ C temperature lift. Without mentioning the details of the
named refrigerant of HT125, Noack et al. [14] developed and applied
this refrigerant in a HTHP with a COP of 1.7 which could yield 140 ◦ C
hot water and 70 ◦ C temperature lift. Huang et al. [15] tested a R245fa
heat pump with a scroll compressor, which had the ability of generating
120 ◦ C hot water and a maximum temperature lift of 49 ◦ C. A new
refrigerant, BY-5, was synthesized by Zhang et al. [16], and their
single-stage HP attained a COP of 2.2 with the heat sink temperature of
130 ◦ C and heat source temperature of 80 ◦ C. Liu et al. [17] modified a
heat pump with a scroll compressor having R134a and R513A as the
working fluids. When operated at the evaporation temperature ranging
from 0 to 30 ◦ C and the condensation temperature spanning from 70 to
85 ◦ C, hot air with temperature higher than 70 ◦ C was obtained for
drying application. The R513A system outperformed R134a when the
evaporation temperature was higher than 0 ◦ C and the condensation
temperature being lower than 60 ◦ C. However, R134a system showed a
3
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
larger temperature lift. Deng et al. [18] synthesized a new refrigerant
mixture named NBY-1, which is non-toxic, non-flammable and has a
zero ODP. Hot water up to 130 ◦ C was obtained under the condition of
50 ◦ C heat source with a COP of 2.74. Recently, Zhang et al. [19] carried
out experimental investigations on the working fluids of R134a, R227ea,
R236fa, R245fa and R1234ze(Z) in a single-stage HP system. From their
assessments, R1234ze(Z) is suitable for moderate HTHP applications.
Due to the high discharge temperature at high-temperature condi­
tions, the liquid-injection cooling technology can be applied to ensure
the safe operation of compressor, especially for water refrigerant with a
high adiabatic coefficient. The typical process is shown in Fig. 1(b).
Chamoun et al. [20] set up a water HTHP bench and demonstrated the
dynamic evolution of system parameters. To avoid overheating of the
compressor chamber, liquid water from Flash Tank (FT) was injected to
the suction chamber of twin-screw compressor. Condensation temper­
ature of 119–121 ◦ C could be attained with the heat source temperature
varying from 85 to 95 ◦ C. In 2019, Wu et al. [21] also established a
prototype of water vapor HTHP, using the same liquid injection cycle
depicted in Fig. 1(b). They found that the COP decreased from 4.40 to
4.03 and the heating capacity augmented from 226.1 to 230.5 kW with
condensation temperature being raised from 121.4 to 126 ◦ C, when the
evaporation temperature was 87 ◦ C.
The basic single-stage compression configuration is generally less
efficient at a large temperature lift. To improve the efficiency, cycle
optimizations are applied. It can be seen from Fig. 1(c), single-stage
cycle equipped with IHX improves the enthalpy of vapor at condenser
inlet, thereby increasing the heat exchange rate in the condenser.
Reiβner et al. [22] composed a new, safe and environmentally friendly
working fluid, called LG6. With a single-stage HP and IHX, output at
about 140 ◦ C and a COP of 3.2 were achieved at 80 ◦ C heat source.
Helminger et al. [23] obtained the heat sink temperature up to 155 ◦ C
and a COP of 2.7 (ΔT = 45 ◦ C) using R1336mzz(Z) HTHP. Moisi et al.
[24] exploited a R600 HTHP and achieved output heat at 110 ◦ C. To
further utilize the sensible heat of refrigerants after condenser, a
J. Jiang et al.
subcooler was arranged after IHX. Cao et al. [25] experimentally
investigated the performance of an air-source HTHP by using a tran­
scritical CO2 cycle with an IHX. To investigate the influence of IHX, the
experiments with and without IHX were both conducted. The conditions
of 2 ◦ C ambient temperature and 40/70 ◦ C, 10/70 ◦ C and 10/90 ◦ C for
heat sink inlet/outlet were tested. At the condition of 10/90 ◦ C, the COP
of the system without IHX fluctuated from 2.55 to 2.75, and that of the
system with IHX ranged from 2.51 to 2.91. Subcooler before expansion
valve is generally used to decrease the temperature of liquid refrigerants
before entering the Electric Expansion Valve (EEV). Wemmers et al. [26]
added a subcooler in a HTHP with IHX. Hot water at 70–100 ◦ C was
obtained in the subcooler, and steam at 80–125 ◦ C (0.5–2.4 bar) was
produced in the condenser. COP was 1.9 under the condition of 60 ◦ C
heat source and 125 ◦ C heat sink.
2.2. Refrigerant injection system
Injection technique has been proven to be an effective solution to
improve the performance of heat pump systems by increasing the effi­
ciency of compression process [27]. Such modification can be applied
through liquid refrigerant injection or vapor refrigerant injection. The
former is commonly used for cooling compressors to ensure the reliable
system operation, which has been introduced in Section 2.1. In addition
to reducing compressor discharge temperature, the vapor refrigerant
injection targets at increasing capacity for large temperature lift. At the
same time, the system capacity can be adjusted by controlling the
injected refrigerant flow rate. The injection system mainly employs two
typical configurations, which are the FT and economizer, to assist vapor
injection cycle as shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively. From some
prior researches, the FT cycle has better performance in both heating
capacity and COP. This is because the superheat of injected vapor in FT
cycle is typically lower than that of the economizer cycle, yielding more
efficient compression process. Additionally, FT is more economical
compared with heat exchanger.
The injection incorporates with economizer is displayed as Fig. 2(b).
Fig. 2. Injection system.
4
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
The refrigerant at the outlet of condenser is branched into two streams,
with some being throttled to subcooling state while most refrigerant
passes through the economizer and cooled by the subcooling fluid. He
et al. [28] applied the vapor injection system with an economizer to
provide hot water up to 88 ◦ C. From the operation of the R124 HTHP
prototype in different injection pressure (0.82–0.98 MPa), the injection
mass flowrate and heating capacity increased with higher injection
pressure, but the COP did not change remarkably. The temperature of
EEV inlet decreased significantly, which ensured the reliable operation
of EEV in HTHP system. Wilk et al. [29] utilized the vapor injection
system assisted with an economizer in an öKO1 HTHP, producing hot
water at 80–130 ◦ C. At the highest output temperature, the COP was 2.3
with 60 ◦ C heat source.
A vapor injection HTHP with an IHX and economizer (shown as
Fig. 2(c)) was developed in France, conveying a heating capacity from
300 to 500 kW. Refrigerant of R245fa and twin-screw compressor were
adopted. The design offered the highest heat sink temperature of 102 ◦ C
and a COP of 2.5 at 32 ◦ C heat source [30]. Arpagaus et al. [31] suc­
cessfully tested R1224yd(Z), R1233zd(E) and R1336mzz(Z) in a 10 kW
HTHP in a same design configuration as Fig. 2(c). The experiments were
conducted at 30–80 ◦ C heat source and achieved output temperature
ranging from 70 to 150 ◦ C. When operated at 60 ◦ C evaporation tem­
perature and 110 ◦ C condensation temperature, the COP value was 3.2,
3.1 and 3.0 for R1223yd(Z), R1233zd(E) and R1336mzz(Z), respec­
tively. The implementation of IHX increased the COP approximately by
15% for R1233zd(E) compared to the basic cycle.
2.3. Ejection system
Using ejector as an expansion device to replace the throttling valve in
HP is recognized as an efficient way to reduce the throttling losses and
irreversibility. Also, it can reduce the compressor work by raising the
suction pressure and temperature, leading to higher system COP [32].
Zhou et al. [33] developed a HTHP using a vapor ejection system in
combination with BY4 refrigerant as depicted in Fig. 3(a). The output
J. Jiang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

Fig. 3. Ejection system.

hot water at 130 ◦ C from condenser was directly used to eject flashed
vapor to avoid the loss of heat transfer in FT. The COP was 2.52 when the
ejection coefficient (μ = Poutlet/Pejected) was 2.72 (Theat source = 74 ◦ C,
Theat sink = 130 ◦ C). Zhu et al. [34] designed a transcritical CO2
ejector-expansion HP water heater that offered hot water temperature
ranging from 50 to 90 ◦ C. The system COP reached 4.6 when the supply
temperature and ambient temperature was 70 ◦ C and 22 ◦ C, respec­
tively, which was 10.3% higher than the basic cycle.
2.4. Multi-stage vapor compression system
Multi-stage vapor compression system employs more than one
compressor, which is beneficial for increasing the temperature lift and
improvimg the compressor efficiency. As typical systems are shown in
Fig. 4(a) and (b), in which vapor injection is added to multi-stage
compression to decrease the discharge temperature of each
compressor and lower the power consumption of the heat pump system.
The multi-stage compression system has higher energy and exergy effi­
ciency with the stage increasing [35]. Due to the complexity of the
multi-stage compression system, most studies focused on its theoretical

Fig. 4. Multi-stage compression system.

5
J. Jiang et al.
investigations, and there were only some experimental prototypes.
Friotherm company [36] launched two-stage HTHPs using R1234ze(E)
as refrigerant. The circuit was equipped with an open-flash economizer,
achieving a COP of 3.5 at an operating condition of 33.8 ◦ C heat source
and 95 ◦ C heat sink temperature. Larminat et al. [37] designed and built
a water HTHP prototype with a two-stage centrifugal compressor. The
unit was designed for 700 kW heating capacity at an evaporation tem­
perature of 90 ◦ C and a condensation temperature of 130 ◦ C, achieving a
COP of 5.5. Sang et al. [38] tested the NH3 two-stage compression sys­
tem with an intercooler, which could deliver a highest temperature up to
87 ◦ C. The discharged refrigerant from low-pressure compressor con­
denses in the intercooler while NH3 evaporates on the other side of
intercooler, followed by being compressed by high-pressure compressor
to facilitate high-pressure cycle. Also, the intercooler is a reservoir and
reacts flexibly even to the fluctuation of heat load. At a supply tem­
perature of 85 ◦ C, the corresponding COP reached 2.75 and 3.49 subject
to evaporation temperatures of 25 ◦ C and 35 ◦ C, respectively.
Parallel HP system has evolved as a typical configuration over the
past decades, including parallel compression in one cycle and two par­
allel cycle. Parallel compression in one cycle doubles the heating ca­
pacity at the same single-stage compression configuration. Bobelin et al.
[39] designed a 200 kW HTHP using two parallel scroll compressors.
The prototype reached the highest condensation temperature of 140 ◦ C.
The COP varied from 2.0 to 3.0 at an evaporation temperature span of
50–60 ◦ C and a condensation temperature of 125 ◦ C. For parallel cycle,
as shown in Fig. 4(c) and (d), the main objective is to achieve gradient
heat transfer in heat exchangers. Wang et al. [40] proposed and built an
R134a parallel HTHP prototype with serial heating on the water side as
depicted in Fig. 4(c). The two evaporators were housed into one shell to
reduce the unit volume. The cooling water was heated by
low-temperature and high-temperature stage consecutively to achieve
serial heating. At the same working condition (45/90 ◦ C), the COP of the
parallel system was 4.3 in comparison with that of the single stage of
only 3.25. Šarevski et al. [41] proposed a novel concept of turbo
compressor to boost the thermal vapor recompression system which can
be considered as an assisted parallel cycle. Turbo compressor was
applied for each heat pump cycle. From the application, the temperature
of waste heat was 43 ◦ C and 23 ◦ C for high-pressure and low-pressure
cycle, respectively, and was 63 ◦ C and 43 ◦ C for output temperature,
respectively, with COP ranging from 7.4 to 8.4. They also estimated the
COP under different temperature conditions subject to the evaporation
temperature from 30 to 100 ◦ C and condensation temperature from 40
to 160 ◦ C. The calculated COP was up to 5.2 at 100 ◦ C evaporation and
160 ◦ C condensation.
2.5. Cascade heat pump system
Cascade system consists of two independently operating systems,
connected by a cascade heat exchanger in which heat released by the
Fig. 5. Cascade heat pump system.
6
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
condenser in low-stage system and taken from the evaporator in high-
stage system.
Lee et al. [42] conducted a HTHP which was consisted of R245fa
low-temperature cycle and a steam generation process. At the conditions
of 60 ◦ C heat source temperature and 110 ◦ C condenser inlet tempera­
ture, 104 ◦ C steam was generated and the COP was about 3.5. Bamig­
betan et al. [43] experimentally tested a cascade heat pump with the
refrigerant of R290 in low-temperature cycle and the refrigerant of R600
of in high-temperature cycle, and the schematic of the system is shown
in Fig. 5(a). This cascade system could meet an 85 ◦ C temperature lift
with a COP above 2. In 2019, they further investigated a semi-hermetic
and 4-cylinder piston compressor using R600 in a R290/R600 prototype
[44]. The heat source temperature was 52–63 ◦ C and it could satisfy the
temperature demand between 100 and 125 ◦ C with the highest
discharge temperature of 140 ◦ C. The average total compressor effi­
ciency was 74%, and the isentropic efficiency was 83%. Schlemminger
et al. [45] built a 20 kW lab-scale cascade HTHP prototype using
R290/R600 as working fluids. The prototype was designed for produc­
ing both ice-water and hot water. The test conditions covered evapo­
ration temperatures ranging from − 1 ◦ C to 1 ◦ C to produce 4 ◦ C
ice-water and condensation temperatures ranging from 113 ◦ C to 118 ◦ C
to yield hot water from 85 to 116 ◦ C. The combined heating and cooling
COP were 2.8 and 2.6 for 80 ◦ C and 110 ◦ C temperature lift, respectively.
Li et al. [46] developed a water-source cascade HTHP that can provide
hot water temperature up to 170 ◦ C. Three kinds of refrigerants com­
binations were tested in the prototype. The inlet/outlet of heat source
temperature was 58/52 ◦ C, and the outlet water temperature ranged
from 100 to 125 ◦ C for BY3A/R245fa, 100–130 ◦ C for BY3B/R245fa and
100–140 ◦ C for BY3B/BY6. The achieved COP was 2.54–2.37, 3.1–2.3
and 3.18–2.86 correspondingly. The pair of BY3B/BY6 exhibited the
highest output temperature and system performance. Yan et al. [47]
designed an air-source heat pump boiler, which consisted of a cascade
heat pump with a vapor generation system as shown in Fig. 5(b). R410A
worked in low-stage loop and R245fa worked in high-stage loop, and a
temperature lift up to 80 ◦ C was obtained. The water was heated in the
condenser of high-stage loop, then flowed into the FT to heat the water
under vacuum pressure with flash temperature ranging from 60 to
100 ◦ C, finally the vapor from FT was compressed by a water vapor
compressor to 120 ◦ C (1.98 bar). They tested the unit under ambient
temperature ranging from 5 to 35 ◦ C, and the boiler efficiency was 1.95
when the ambient temperature was 14 ◦ C.
2.6. Hybrid heat pump system
To achieve high-temperature output, vapor compression HPs must
contain high condensation temperature, therefore resulting in large
compression ratio and high discharge temperature. To decrease the
compression ratio, some effective methods were employed to improve
the heat source quality of HP system. For instance, solar thermal assisted
J. Jiang et al.
system can be employed. On the other hand, to decrease the high
discharge temperature of compressor, the absorption heat pump can be
integrated into HPs to provide higher temperature output. The absorp­
tion heat pump has the ability to supply heat at 100–150 ◦ C, based on a
driving temperature that is above 80 ◦ C [48,49]. To take advantages of
vapor compression HP and absorption HP, mainly two types of
Adsorption-Compression HP (ACHP) were proposed. In the first type
ACHP (shown as Fig. 6(a) ACHP-I), adsorption cycle and vapor
compression cycle merge into one system, and NH3–H2O is the working
fluid with NH3 as cycling refrigerant. The second type ACHP (shown as
Fig. 6(b) ACHP-II) utilizes vapor compression HP as low-temperature
cycle to release heat to adsorption HP, which completes
higher-temperature output. LiBr–H2O and NH3–H2O are the two general
working fluids for ACHP-II, with H2O and NH3 as the cycling re­
frigerants, respectively. Kim et al. [50] constructed an ACHP, which
mainly consisted of a two-stage compressor, absorber and desorber, as
shown in Fig. 6(a). The refrigerant vapor from desorber is compressed by
the compressor, and the absorber releases heat by absorbing the pres­
surized refrigerant vapor into the weak solution. The unit could produce
hot water over 90 ◦ C at 50 ◦ C heat source, with a heating capacity of 10
kW. The system COP varied with NH3 concentration in weak solution.
For example, the COP decreased from 5.5 to 3.0 when weak solution
concentration increased from 0.2 to 0.42 kg/kg. Wu et al. [51] con­
structed a test rig of NH3–H2O ACHP (Fig. 6(b)), which utilized the
evaporator to absorb heat from air or ground (lower to − 10 ◦ C) and
utilized the compressor to improve the absorption pressure. Conse­
quently, the solution concentration difference was larger than normal
absorption HP, making ACHP more efficiently even under much lower
driving temperatures. From the test results, when the evaporator inlet
was fixed at − 10 ◦ C and the inlet temperature of generator decreased
from 130 to 115 ◦ C, the COP declined moderately from 1.442 to 1.271,
with heating capacity dropping drastically from 68.21 kW to 31.28 kW.
Further, they compared the performance of ACHP with conventional
adsorption HP, and the results showed that ACHP could lower the
driving source temperature of generator by 15 ◦ C and enhance the
heating capacity by 96.4%.
Fig. 6. Hybrid heat pump system.
7
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
There are mainly two types for the solar assisted HPs, the Direct Solar
Assisted HP (DX-SAHP) and the Indirect Solar Assisted HP (ID-SAHP).
The former employs solar collector as evaporator in which refrigerant is
filled, and the latter uses medium (like water and air) inside solar col­
lector as the heat source for HP. DX-SAHPs have been studied compre­
hensively by both theory and experiments, as shown in Ref. [52]. Most
studies were carried on the DX-SAHPs for domestic heating with low hot
water temperature (below 50 ◦ C). Chaturvedi et al. [53] modified
DX-SAHP for high-temperature applications. They investigated the
performance of a two-stage DX-SAHP (shown in Fig. 6(c)) with R134a
for 60–90 ◦ C output. When the evaporation temperature was 20 ◦ C and
condensation temperature was 90 ◦ C, the tested COP was about 3.2.
Djuanda et al. [54] proposed a novel ID-SAHP for steam generation. The
heat pump configuration was single stage cooperated with an IHX and a
heat sink preheater, using R600a as refrigerant. To ensure the stability
and continuity of the heat source, a latent thermal storage was designed,
which stored RT50 as phase change materials. For a typical one-day test
run, even though the radiation intensity fluctuated appreciably, the
evaporator inlet water temperature remained at 64 ◦ C. Yet, 102 ◦ C steam
at 1.2 bar could be generated with heating capacity varying between 2.5
and 4.8 kW, and COP varying from 1.0 to 1.8. Lee et al. [55] developed a
prototype of ID-SAHP using a low-GWP refrigerant (R1233zd(E)). As
demonstrated in Fig. 6(d), a flexible solar collector acted as the heat
source for the single-stage HP. When the heat source temperature
increased from 40 to 65 ◦ C at a fixed condensation temperature of 70 ◦ C,
the heating capacity increased from 1.39 to 2.99 kW and COP increased
from 1.56 to 2.83. Furthermore, they compared the system performance
of R1233zd(E) and R134a, and the results showed that the system using
R1233zd(E) exhibited a lower heating capacity than R134a but con­
tained a higher COP.
3. Assessment of refrigerants of HTHPs
Over the nearly 200 years of refrigeration history, starting with
caoutchoucine that was first used as refrigerant in mechanical vapor-
compression unit in 1834 [56], about 50 substances has been
J. Jiang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

extensively used as working fluids. Meanwhile, most of them has been
phased out due to concerns of toxicity, flammability, economy, and
operational difficulty, and a fair number of refrigerants still remain to be
applicable in different conditions [57]. During the refrigerant’s substi­
tution process, there are about 4 distinctive development stages [58].
The first generation was 1830–1930s, whatever worked substances that
were mainly solvents or volatile fluids, like CO2, NH3, SO2, HCOOCH3,
HCs, CCl4, etc. With the improvement of artificial synthesis technology,
more synthesized chemical refrigerants with stable structures were
produced, like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydro­
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), leading to the second generation
(1930–1990s). Between 1990s and 2010s, the world gradually realized
that the ozone destruction was caused by halocarbons, and started to
synthesize some ozone benign refrigerants, like Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), to replace CFCs and HCFCs. At the same time, some natural
refrigerants were still utilized. Since 21st century, more serious situation
of climate change caused by global warming have been widely
acknowledged. Therefore, more stringent environmental standards were
proposed to the fourth-generation refrigerants, as zero ODP, low GWP
and shorter atmospheric lifetime. Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), Hydro­
chlorofluorolefins (HCFOs) have been developed to relieve the envi­
ronmental impact and even natural refrigerants have been revived in
research and application. Apparently, refrigerant plays a key role in
HTHPs, affecting system working conditions, capacity, performance or
environmental impact. This section addresses that some kinds of re­
frigerants for HTHPs that are still in use in industrial applications. The
refrigerants with critical temperature exceeding 100 ◦ C are summarized
in Table 2.
3.1. HFCs
The chlorine atom in halocarbon chemical materials acts as a catalyst
in depletion of ozone layer, and one chlorine atom can deplete 100,000
ozone molecules. The chlorine content of CFCs is more than HCFCs.
Therefore, CFCs had been phased out in developed countries since 1996,
and was fully banned in 2010 in developing countries. HCFCs with a
much lower ODP are synthesized to replace CFCs, but they have been
phased out since 2020 in developed countries and 2030 in developing
countries due to their none-zero ODP and comparatively high GWP.
HFCs are the substitutes of CFCs and HCFCs to offer zero ODP. However,
HFCs still contain high GWP and longevity at atmosphere. Yet, safety is
an additional problem. With the restrictions imposed by Kyoto Protocol,
HFCs will also be eliminated in the foreseeable future.
To date, HFCs still dominate the main markets of refrigeration and
heat pump due to the benefits of low acquisition expense, chemical
stability and good thermodynamic characteristics. For example, R134a
is widely used in the applications of moderate temperature heat pumps
and chillers. In China, the R134a consumption increased from 2.5*104
tons in 2007 to 7.5*104 tons in 2015, with an annual growth of 14%
[59]. R245fa is still the recommended refrigerant both in Organic
Rankine Cycle (ORC) [60] and HTHPs, with high-temperature applica­
tions ranging from 80 to 140 ◦ C [61]. Many research papers on R245fa
and R134a can be found in the above review of configurations. Besides,
R245fa, R152a, R245ca and some mixtures of HFC refrigerants with
high critical temperature and moderate pressure have excellent ther­
modynamic properties [62–64].
3.2. HFOs, HCFOs
HFOs are recommended as the substitute of HFCs in heat pump due
to the negligible GWP and similar thermodynamic properties. Some
HFOs are the drop-in substitutes for the existing HFCs without any
modification in refrigeration system [31]. Except for R1336mzz, other
HFOs listed in Table 2 have weak flammability and are classified into A2
and A2L level, which limits the application in large capacity HTHP as
well. R1336mzz and HCFOs show excellent performance in safety and

Table 2
Comparative properties of refrigerants for HTHP application (ODP: basis R11 = 1.0 [94], GWP: Global warming potential for 100-year time horizon (basis CO2 = 1.0,
values from IPCC 5th assessment report [95] and F-Gas regulation (EU) No 517/2014 [96])).
Type Refrigerant Chemical formula Description Tc/◦ C pc/bar ODP GWP (100yr) SG NBP/◦ C

CFC R114 CClF2CClF2 1,2-Trichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane 145.7 32.6 0.58 8590 A1 3.8

R113 CCl2FCClF2 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane 214 33.9 0.85 5820 A1 47.6
HCFC R124 C2HClF4 1-Chloro-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane 126.7 37.2 0.03 527 A1 − 12
R142b CH3CCl2F 1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane 137.1 40.6 0.065 782 A2 − 10
R21 CHCl2F Dichlorofluoromethane 178.5 51.7 0.04 148 B1 8.9
R123 C2HCl2F3 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane 183.7 36.6 0.03 79 B1 27.8
HFC R134a CH2FCF3 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane 101.1 40.6 0 1300 A1 − 26
R161 CH3CH2F Fluoroethane 102.2 50.9 0 12 A3 − 37.5
R152a CH3CHF2 1,1-Difluoroethane 113.3 45.2 0 138 A2 − 24
R236fa CF3CH2CF3 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoropropane 124.9 32 0 8060 A1 − 1.4
R245fa CHF2CH2CF3 1,1,2,2,3-Pentafluoropropane 154.0 36.5 0 858 B1 14.9
R245ca CHF2CH2CH2F 1,1,2,2,3-Pentafluoropropane 174.4 39.3 0 716 n.a 25.1
R365mfc CF3CH2CF2CH3 1,1,1,3,3-Pentafluorobutane 186.9 32.7 0 804 A2 40.2
HFO R1234yf CF3CF–
–CH2 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-1-propene 94.7 33.8 0 <1 A2L − 29
R1234ze(E) CF3CH––CHF(E) trans-1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-1-propene 109.4 36.4 0 <1 A2L − 19
R1336mzz(E) CF3CH––CHCF3(E) trans-1,1,1,4,4,4-Hexafluoro-2-butene 137.7 31.5 0 18 A1 7.5
R1234ze(Z) CF3CH––CHF(Z) cis-1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-1-propene 150.1 35.3 0 <1 A2L 9.8
R1336mzz(Z) CF3CH––CHCF3(Z) 1,1,1,4,4,4-Hexafluoro-2-butene 171.3 29 0 2 A1 33.4
HCFO R1224yd(Z) CF3CF–CHCl(Z)
– 1-chloro-2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-propene 155.5 33.3 0.00012 <1 A1 14
R1233zd(E) CF3CH––CHCl(E) 1-chloro-3,3,3-Trifluoro-propene 166.5 36.2 0.00034 1 A1 18
HC R290 CH3CH2CH3 Propane 96.7 42.5 0 3 A3 − 42
R600a CH(CH3)2CH3 Isobutane 134.7 36.6 0 3 A3 − 11
R600 CH3CH2CH2CH3 Butane 152.0 38 0 4 A3 − 0.5
R601a CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 Isopentane 187.8 33.8 0 4 A3 27.7
R601 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 Pentane 196.6 33.7 0 5 A3 36.1
Natural R717 NH3 Ammonia 132.3 113.3 0 0 B2L − 33
R718 H2O Water 373.9 220.6 0 0 A1 100
R744 CO2 Carbon dioxide 31.0 73.8 0 1 A1 − 78.5
Synthesized NBY-1 Undisclosed 154.5 35.8 0 523 A1 13.5
BY4 Undisclosed 150 44.4 0 755 A1 11.9
BY-5 Undisclosed 155 43.7 0 800 A1 15.6
ECO3 Undisclosed 980 B1

8
J. Jiang et al.
properties, such as relative low pressure in high temperature, which can
yield higher output temperature under the same system pressure. Note
that the ODP of HCFOs is not zero. However, the life cycle in atmosphere
is short. For example, life cycle for R1233zd(E) in the atmosphere is only
26 days, which cast very minor influence on the environment.
Since 2010, there had been lots of theoretical and experimental
research about HFOs and HCFOs on replacing HFCs in heat pump,
especially replacing R245fa in high-temperature applications [65–67].
For example, Alhamid et al. [65] compared the thermodynamic and
environmental performance among R1224yd(Z), R1233zd(E) and
R245fa in a two-stage compression system with FT. With an evaporation
temperature of 50 ◦ C and a condensation temperature of 110 ◦ C,
R1223yd(Z) and R1233zd(E) showed comparable performance as
R245fa, achieving COP of 2.74 and 2.69, respectively. At 60 ◦ C and
70 ◦ C evaporation, the COP of R1223yd(Z) and R1233zd(E) system were
also higher than R245fa. Kaida et al. [68] presented the first experi­
mental results of R1224yd(Z) in a commercial SGH165 heat pump (with
economizer and IHX). Drop-in test showed a 3% higher heating capacity
and 12% higher COP compared to R245fa subject to an evaporation
temperature of 50 ◦ C and a condensation temperature of 95 ◦ C.
From the theoretical and experimental research, HFOs and HCFOs
have been proven to be comparable with HFCs from both performance
and environmental perspective. But those new kinds of synthetic re­
frigerants still need more studies in the future before extensive com­
mercial applications.
3.3. Natural refrigerants
Natural refrigerants had been used since the first refrigerants gen­
eration. Since it exists in nature and has almost no impact on the envi­
ronment, they should be the most ideal working fluids. However due to
some inherent natures like high pressure, toxicity and flammability, the
HTHP application using natural refrigerants is still in the development
process.
R718: Water contains no toxicity, non-flammability and good sta­
bility. Besides, water features wide acquisition source and low expense.
For thermodynamic properties, water has high critical temperature
(374.15 ◦ C), relatively low critical pressure (22.13 MPa) and large latent
heat of evaporation [69], making it very competitive as far as high
temperature is concerned (above 150 ◦ C). Yet, compared with CO2 and
NH3 systems normally operated at very high pressures, water works at a
comparatively low pressure in high temperature range. The vapor
compression system is often used as open cycle to provide high tem­
perature vapor [44,46]. However, water as HTHP refrigerant needs to
overcome the challenges of high compression ratio, large adiabatic co­
efficient and low vapor density. For example, the vapor compression
ratio is up to 50 when the suction and discharge temperatures are 50 ◦ C
(0.1 bar) and 150 ◦ C (5 bar). Due to the high adiabatic index, discharge
temperature of compressor is relatively high, which brings the safe
operation problems. Therefore, the cooling technologies are essential for
water vapor compressor [19,20]. The large-scale compressors or
high-speed oil-free turbo compressors with large flow rate and huge
compression ratio are suitable for water vapor compression at heat
source temperature above 100 ◦ C [70]. In general, water is an ideal HP
working fluid in HTHPs.
R717: Ammonia is a well-practiced refrigerant with excellent ther­
modynamic and transport properties, and has been widely applied in
heating and cooling systems [72]. In the United States, ammonia is used
in more than 95% of industrial refrigeration, and it also has a high
market share in Europe [71]. Although ammonia is toxic at certain
concentrations, it has a pronounced pungent odor that is easily to detect
upon leakage. Ammonia has competitive advantages in large-scale re­
quirements because of its high Volumetric Heating Capacity (VHC).
Hence, the compressor with small volume is enough for the same heating
capacity supply. At the same time, the cost for NH3 is lower compared to
other refrigerants. The output temperature of NH3 HTHP is limited to
9
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
the property of high pressure, for example, the saturated pressure under
97.5 ◦ C is 60 bar. Most supplied temperature of NH3 heat pumps are
limited to 90 ◦ C [37,78]. Recently, the material improvement of
compressor has made it possible to increase the pressure up to 76 bar in
ammonia compressors at higher discharge temperature (about 110 ◦ C)
[73].
R744: The natural refrigerant CO2 is one of the first-generation re­
frigerants. It is safer than NH3 and used for both cooling and heating
scenarios. Due to its high fluid density and working pressure, the
lightweight HP system can be made available. Its volumetric refrigera­
tion capacity is 3–10 times larger than CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC re­
frigerants, showing great advantage in refrigeration cycle [74]. For
heating, transcritical cycle is the most extensively used CO2 heat pump
configuration. From the Temperature-entropy and
Temperature-enthalpy diagrams, the enthalpy and entropy decrease
abruptly with a reducing temperature when it operating near the critical
temperature, enhancing its heating performance in gas cooler. However,
CO2 pressure is almost 5–10 times higher than conventional refrigerants
[74]. In that sense, the gas coolers with high pressure resistance ensure a
possibility of improving heat transfer through higher flow velocity, and
compact heat exchangers are more suitable for high pressure. The
needed high temperature discharge related to high pressure, leading to a
higher pressure difference. Also, the enormous pressure difference
causes the high irreversible throttling losses in expansion process,
resulting in a rather low COP [75]. The most high output temperature
for CO2 heat pumps is lower than 90 ◦ C, no matter in products [76,77] or
in experimental prototypes [35,78,79].
3.4. HCs
HCs are also an important part of refrigerants for HTHP applications.
Researches of R600 [23,25,43] and R601 [8] has been conducted in
single-stage HTHPs. HCs are also widely used as refrigerants for cascade
HTHP [41,43,44,80,81]. HCs mixtures can further expand the working
ranges and improve the system performance [81,82]. For instance,
based on the thermodynamic calculation, the COP of R290 + R600 and
R600 + R601 mixture is improved by 13.5% compared with pure fluid
[83]. HCs are believed to have comparable or even better performance
than synthetic refrigerant. HCs are characterized by more carbon atom
with higher critical temperature, which entitles HCs a larger relative
molecular mass and being especially applicable for high temperature
conditions. What should be noticed is the concern of flammability.
Higher supply temperature highlights the challenges and restricts the
HCs to be widely adopted in HTHP. Based on safety concerns, the charge
of HCs into the system is seriously limited, making it impossible for
large-scale application [84,85].
3.5. Synthesis
To compromise environment concerns while balancing cycle per­
formance and economic situation for HTHP utilization, using refrigerant
mixtures may be a better choice. Compared with pure refrigerants,
zeotropic refrigerants have obvious temperature glide during the phase
change, which can reduce the heat transfer temperature difference
during heat transfer, and thus decrease heat transfer loss. The charac­
teristic of changing boiling point makes it possible for lowering evapo­
ration temperature, reducing compression ratio and improving system
COP.
Li et al. [86] tested the zeotropic refrigerant of R22/R141b, of which
the maximum pressure is less than 2.5 MPa. For a 40 ◦ C heat source and
an 80 ◦ C heat sink, the compression ratio is less than 8. Zhang et al. [63]
experimentally investigated the R152/R245fa zeotropic refrigerants
with different mass fraction. Compared with pure R245fa, the system
with 37%R152a/63%R245fa (called M1B) has larger heating capacity
and better system COP than R245fa. Zhang et al. [87] used the zeotropic
mixture, which is composed of HFOs, to substitute R134a and R114.
J. Jiang et al.
Excellent thermodynamic performances of lower discharge temperature
and higher COP can be achieved compared with R134a.
Large amounts of research have substantiated a non-linear behavior
between the enthalpy and temperature in the phase change region.
However, in theory, there will be a narrow heat transfer point (minimum
or maximum temperature difference) and it is difficult to achieve perfect
temperature matching. Furthermore, the performance of zeotropic
refrigerant is susceptible to compositions or leakage. Notice that for
near-azeotropic refrigerants, the compositions of vapor and liquid is
nearly the same. Yu et al. [10] tested a near-azeotropic refrigerant called
BY-4, with maximum pressure of 1.73 MPa and the output temperature
could be up to 110 ◦ C. Deng et al. [17] proposed NBY-1 and obtained
130 ◦ C output temperature at 50 ◦ C temperature lift, with a COP of 2.74
and a heating capacity of 15.36 kW, respectively. Liu et al. [88] devel­
oped a ternary mixture of R124/R142b/R600a, called HTR01, and
tested it in a R22 heat pump unit, achieving 90 ◦ C output.
To date, the green refrigerants (low-GWP working fluids) are gaining
special attentions for environmental concerns, and HFOs, HCFOs and
natural refrigerants are the representative green refrigerants. Wu et al.
[89] compared the performance of a hybrid source HP with low-GWP
refrigerants by exergy analysis. Bamigbetan et al. [90] evaluated the
suitability of HCs and H(C)FOs in HTHP, resulting in R600 and R1233zd
(E) showing the highest potential. Mateu-Royo et al. [91] compared 8
advanced configurations and 9 low-GWP refrigerants from an energetic,
economic, and environmental perspective. Wu et al. [92] provided
comprehensive review on the pure low-GWP refrigerants applicable for
vapor compression HPs and recommended that the low-GWP re­
frigerants should contain a GWP lower than 150. Arpagaus et al. [93],
however, reported the lack of available low GWP refrigerants in HTHPs.
Large number of studies on low-GWP refrigerants applied in HTHPs has
been conducted in theory and experiments as reviewed above. There­
fore, the low-GWP refrigerants as the fourth generation working fluids
will be an on-going research subject in the coming years.
Table 3
Summaries of HTHP application in industry (Shaded table: simulation research).
10
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
4. Current applications of HTHP
Industrial processes contain huge amount of waste heat resources,
and only 30% has been recovered in China [97]. Among the waste heat
at different temperatures, the low-temperature waste heat faces diffi­
culties and challenges for high-efficiency recovery because of the limi­
tation by its temperature level. HTHP has been proven in both theory
and practice that it can better couple the waste heat and user demand
from spatial and energy grade [98]. Due to the carbon emission limit, the
heavily polluted boilers in industry need to be phased out, which leads
to a huge application potential for HPs. To replace the boilers, it is
necessary to increase the heating temperature and capacity. Therefore,
the HTHPs with large capacity are needed to fill the gap in the industrial
market. In this section, some existed industrial HTHPs which can obtain
heat supply of higher than 80 ◦ C are summarized and analyzed upon the
current applications in industry, summarized in Table 3. The unit con­
figurations, refrigerants, output temperature, efficiency, capacity and
compressors are then subsequently discussed.
A series of HTHPs has been developed by Kobe Steel [99], Japan,
incorporating double-stage screw compressors and R245fa as working
fluids. The units can achieve a COP from 3.2 to 2.5 with condensation
temperature around 120–160 ◦ C. Heating capacity of a single unit is
380–660 kW. The developed HTHP is suitable in applications like food,
medicine and concentration industry.
Friotherm company, (Sweden), produced a HTHP unit which adop­
ted a double-stage centrifugal compressor with halocarbons or hydro­
carbons as refrigerants. The unit is named as Unitop-50FY, with a rated
heating capacity of 30 MW [100]. The units served in the largest energy
company in Finland for district heating and cooling [101], one of them is
shown in Fig. 7. Waste heat from treated sewage were recovered by the
units from 20 to 4 ◦ C for district cooling, and 88 ◦ C hot water were
generated for heating. One project was constructed in a
Milano-Canavese cogeneration plant in Italy [102], which acted as a
geothermal heat pump. 90 ◦ C hot water was produced with the heating
J. Jiang et al.
Fig. 7. HTHP used for district heating in Finland [101].
capacity of 15.5 MW.
In crude-oil production industry, He et al. [103] conducted a HTHP
field test in the Jinzhou oil treatment station in Liaoning, China. The unit
was designed as two independent single-stage cycles, sharing the same
evaporator as shown in Fig. 8. R245fa was selected as the refrigerant and
twin-screw compressor was adopted. The waste water separated from
crude oil is about 55–65 ◦ C, and the HTHP can supply hot water ranging
from 85 to 95 ◦ C, with heating capacity varying from 1350 to 1785 kW
and the system COP spanning from 3.5 to 4.4. The total energy con­
sumption of the HTHP units is only 57% of oil-fired boilers. The payback
period of the capital cost is within one year.
In food production industry, Yan et al. [47] studied an air-source
heat pump for distributed steam generation to replace coal-fired
boilers in China, with the on-site picture shown as Fig. 9. From the
on-site test results, the system COP was 1.95 at an average ambient
temperature of 14 ◦ C when producing steam at 120 ◦ C. The mass flow
rate of the output steam was about 0.25 t/h, with heating capacity of
around 150 kW. Liu et al. [104] designed an ACHP, which could achieve
heat supply temperature for air or water to reach 180 ◦ C. Further, they
analyzed the ACHP application in Asian noodles factory in Hebei, China,
which needs 0.41 MPa saturated steam (144.5 ◦ C) for drying process. As
depicted in the flow sheet in Fig. 10, the exhaust gas from combustion
engines served as heat source for the reboiler and evaporator in the
ACHP. Meanwhile, the jacket water (99 ◦ C) from the engines served as
heat source for the rectifier in ACHP. High temperature heat was
released from the absorber to user, with the system achieving a heating
capacity of 432.03 kW and a COP of 5.23. The output heat capacity of
the ACHP system was 66.2% higher than the previous system using
Fig. 8. HTHP used for crude oil heating in Liaoning, China [103].
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
natural gas boilers. Jiang et al. [105] presented a multi-functional
thermal system in a poultry slaughtering plant. The system includes
refrigeration system, condensation heat recovery system and vapor
generation system. The refrigeration system and heat recovery heat
pump system both adopts NH3 as refrigerants and are connected by a
mid-cooler. The NH3 from refrigeration system condenses inside the mid
cooler, and the mid cooler acts as evaporator for the heat pump system
to recover the condensation heat from refrigeration system. The gener­
ated 80–90 ◦ C hot water acts as heat source for a vapor generation
system to produce vapor up to 125 ◦ C. The rated cooling load was 11,
835 kW and heating load was 1351 kW, which was provided by 4
multi-function units.
For the case study in dyeing industry, Wu et al. [106] tested a
single-stage HTHP using a twin-screw compressor and R245fa as
refrigerant in dyeing process. The flow sheet is shown as Fig. 11. To
ensure the safe operation under high temperature condition, liquid
refrigerant injection was applied to cool the compressor motor, and
subcooler was installed to protect the EEV. A sliding valve was installed
to adjust the heating capacity in response to the fluctuating dyeing
liquid demand. In fluctuating operating conditions, the highest output
temperature reached 95 ◦ C with an average COP of 4.2 when recovering
heat form 75 ◦ C waste soaping water. Further, economic analysis
showed that the operating cost of HTHP was only 53% of the traditional
steam heating.
HTHPs has been applied widely in drying industry. Umezawa et al.
[107] developed a R134a HTHP for recovering waste heat to yield
130 ◦ C pressurized hot water from exhaust air from drying furnace.
Two-stage compression turbo compressor was adopted. 115 ◦ C exhaust
air heated the water to 55 ◦ C, which acted as heat source for the HTHP.
130 ◦ C hot water was generated with COP reaching 3.0. Finally, 20 ◦ C air
was heated to 125 ◦ C by the 130 ◦ C hot water in a heat exchanger and
supplied to the drying furnace. Zhang et al. [108] presented a case study
of R245fa HTHP applied in wood drying process for producing Pinus
massoniana plates. The evaporator absorbed waste heat from the return
air and the moisture content contained in air was removed. The
condenser was used to heat the air in drying chamber. Therefore, the
HTHP provided heating and dehumidification simultaneously. The
temperature of the recovered moist air was 49.3 ◦ C, and the temperature
of the generated hot air ranged from 65 to 95 ◦ C. The average COP was
about 1.42 during the gradually heating period of 260 h, with average
heating capacity of 143 kW. Zühlsdorf et al. [109] constructed a heat
recovery system, which included a HTHP and some heat recovery heat
exchangers, in the spray drying processes for milk or coffee powder
production, as shown in Fig. 12. The single-stage HTHP equipped with
subcooler, superheater and desuperheater. Reciprocating piston com­
pressors were chosen for the requirement of 2.25 MW heating capacity.
A secondary water loop was linked to the evaporator and condenser.
70 ◦ C exhaust air from filter first released heat to the secondary water
loop (evaporator side) inside a heat exchanger. The 130 ◦ C secondary
water could be generated in the condenser, and 70 ◦ C drying air is
further heated in the heat exchanger (condenser side) to 125 ◦ C by the
130 ◦ C water. Based on the same working conditions, the system per­
formance with different zeotropic refrigerants were simulated. The
50%/50% Propane/Iso-Pentane reached the best COP of 3.08 and
80%/20% Propane/n-Pentane obtained the best COP of 3.04. For pure
refrigerants, COP of Propane, Iso-Butane, n-Butane, Iso-Pentane were
2.66, 2.78, 2.89 and 2.78, respectively. Jensen et al. [110] implemented
an NH3–H2O ACHP in a spray-drying facility. The 80 ◦ C exhausted air
from the spray-drying chamber was split into two paths, one path acted
as heat source for the ACHP and one path designated as heat sink. The
COP was a function of the NH3 mass fraction (x), circulation ratio (f) and
exhaust air recovery heat load. At optimal COP, the circulation ratio
would be lower when at higher heat recovery load. When the mass
fraction was fixed at 0.55, the optimal COP, subject to 10% and 20%
heat load ratio, was 4.0 and 3.5 when the f was 0.7 and 0.52,
respectively.
J. Jiang et al.
Fig. 9. HTHP used for steam generation in brewing process in Shandong, China [47].
Fig. 10. Flow sheet of ACHP used in noodle drying [104].
In medicine industry, Urbanucci et al. [111] investigated a HTHP
with a trigeneration system. The waste heat from the condenser of an
absorption chiller was used as the heat source for HTHP. The perfor­
mance of several refrigerants was numerically assessed in the
single-stage system with IHX, and the results showed that NH3 out­
performed other refrigerants. Furthermore, they analyzed the economic
feasibility in a case study of medicine industry. The actual energy de­
mand from a pharmaceutical factory in Italy was collected for analysis.
During operation, the heat source for HTHP varied from 1100 to 2900
kW and the heating load for HTHP varied from 1500 to 3900 kW, and
the corresponding COP spans from 3.0 to 3.9.
In chemical industry, Lee et al. [112] constructed a demonstration
site in a chemical plant. They proposed R245fa single-stage heat pump
cascaded with a mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) cycle to pro­
duce steam above 100 ◦ C. In application, a total heating capacity of 348
kW and an average COP of 3.05 was obtained upon recovering 58 ◦ C
waste heat.
To date, there are no specific application cases for the solar-assisted
HTHP which can supply hot water higher than 70 ◦ C. The only experi­
mental research was from Chaturvedi et al. [53]. While the low- and
moderate-temperature SAHPs have been widely applied in agricultural
and marine products drying [113]. Badiei et al. [52] chronologically
summarized the SAHP in 21st century. In the article, the authors pointed
12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
out that one of the key limitations for SAHP was high-temperature ap­
plications, lacking information on the lifespan and the performance of
collector subject to high temperature operation. The solar collectors’
efficiency deteriorates under such high temperature conditions and the
limit of sun tracking has to be considered if solar concentration is
applied for higher radiation intensity. Therefore, the high-temperature
SAHP technology is still in research stage.
5. Analysis of the state of art of current HTHP
The experimental research conducted on HTHPs, achieving supply
temperature higher than 80 ◦ C with temperature lift ranging from 30 to
70 ◦ C, are summarized as Fig. 13. System configurations are classified as
different colors of marks listed at the right part of the figure. It appears
that, the single-stage heat pump configuration is mostly adopted by
researchers and engineers because of its simple system layout, being
easy to be built and operate. Another reason is that most single-stage
heat pump prototypes were set up to test the thermodynamic charac­
teristics of refrigerants, through which no need for complicated system
configuration.
The experimental results generally show the trend that COP in­
creases with heat sink temperature subject to the same temperature lift.
The prototypes capable of producing high-temperature output and large
J. Jiang et al.
Fig. 11. Flow sheet of dyeing process using an HTHP system [106].
Fig. 12. Flow sheet of drying process for milk powder production in Denmark [109].
temperature lift were mainly located in the lower right of the figure.
Prototypes with COP higher than 4 mainly spread over the upper left
side of the figure. A blank area can be obviously seen in the upper right
side of the figure, shown as shade area. Normally, only the HTHPs with
high-temperature output and small temperature lift (such as 30 ◦ C) can
possibly be located in the area. HTHPs with small temperature lift
achieving high temperature output necessitates high-temperature heat
source (higher than 90 ◦ C). However, waste heat at such high temper­
ature is usually used directly or used as the heat source for sorption heat
pump, chemical heat pump and ORC [114]. Therefore, HTHPs with
small temperature lift mostly concentrate on the left part of the figure
(Tc < 120 ◦ C). HTHPs with large temperature lift are more suitable for
recovering low-temperature waste heat to significantly elevate the
thermal energy grade. However, the energy efficiency is relatively low.
Therefore, HTHPs with large temperature lift mainly occupy the area
13
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
of lower right side of the figure. For 40 ◦ C temperature lift, the shade
area shows the technical bottleneck for current prototypes, with heat
sink temperature higher than 100 ◦ C and COP higher than 4.0. Only
Larminat et al. [37] achieved the highest COP of 5.5 at 130 ◦ C heat sink
temperature.
The COP sorted by temperature lift and configuration is shown in
Fig. 14. For comparison purpose, the ceiling limit is given as the COP
carnot of Carnot cycle at 120 C (100%). Correspondingly, as depicted in
◦
the figure, the best reported performance so far is around 60% COPcarnot.
Apparently, COP drops appreciably with the rise of temperature lift. The
achieved highest COP for temperature lift of 30 ◦ C is 6.5 from Frotherm
company et al. [36] using R1234ze(Z) with heat sink at 75 ◦ C. The
highest COP under 60 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C temperature lift is achieved by Zhu
et al. [34] who adopted ejector and IHX in a transcritical CO2 HTHP
when the hot water is produced at 80 ◦ C and 90 ◦ C, respectively. The
J. Jiang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

Fig. 13. Summarized experimental performance of HTHPs with different condensation temperature (Tc) and temperature lift. (red: single stage, blue: single stage
with improvement, green: double stage, black: ejector, orange: cascade, pink: parallel). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 14. COP of the summarized experimental HTHPs as a function of temperature lift (ΔTlift). The implemented configurations are color-coded (red: single stage,
blue: single stage with improvement, green: double stage, black: ejector, orange: cascade, pink: parallel). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

temperature lift greater than 70 ◦ C is mainly achieved by cascade
HTHPs. Yan et al. [47] developed an air-source cascade heat pump and
added a water vapor compression system to further increase the output
temperature, and a maximum temperature lift of 115 ◦ C was acquired.
The experimental research from Cao et al. [25] adopted a transcritical
CO2 single-stage cycle with IHX, and reported a large temperature lift of
88 ◦ C with the highest output temperature of 90 ◦ C and a COP of 2.9.
As estimated, the mean carbon sequestration of Chinese land
biosphere sink was 1.11 billion tons per year during 2010–2016,
equivalent to about 45% of the annual Chinese anthropogenic emission
over that period [115]. The ocean also plays a crucial role in CO2
mitigating, sequestering 31 ± 4% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions
[116]. If only considering the carbon sequestrating by ecosystem, 20%–
28% of the carbon emission by human activities can’t be absorbed.
However, the climate change and variation caused by greenhouse gas
enrichment are predicted to reduce the ocean CO2 uptake by 12%
compared with a constant climate [117]. Therefore, at least an average
of 34% CO2 reduction rate needs to be considered in this study. To
illustrate the effect of HTHP efficiency in helping the carbon emission
reduction, Fig. 15 displays the intensity variation of CO2 emissions (the
heating calories of 1 kWh is equal to 3.6 MJ), which decreases with the
rise of system COP. Additionally, the CO2 emitted by electric, coal-fired
and gas-fired boilers with the same heating capacity are analyzed. As a
result, the CO2 emission amount is 940.8 g, 399.7 g and 359.7 g for 3.6
MJ calories, respectively, shown as the solid lines in the figure. At the
same time, the 34% reduction in CO2 emission is marked by the dotted
lines. The electricity provided for electric boilers and HTHP is both
assumed to be generated by traditional coals combustion. In a conser­
vative estimation, the CO2 reduction ratio is supposed to be larger than
34%, presented as the dotted lines of the three heating boilers in Fig. 15.
It can be observed that CO2 reduction ratios of heat pump with any COP
has exceeded 34% compared with electirc boilers, however the CO2
emission is still high if no renewable electricity generated. The COP of
HTHP system has to exceed 3.5 and 4.0 to have 34% CO2 reduction ratio
when compared with coal-fired and gas-fired boilers, respectively, as
shown in the shadow area. If the electricity was only generated by

14
J. Jiang et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106

Fig. 17. Industrial HTHPs sorted by heat sink temperature and heating capacity
Fig. 15. CO2 emission of boilers and HTHPs with different COP.
with different compressor types.

thermal power, the HTHP with COP exceeding 4.0 could achieve the
natural refrigerants, such as NH3 and HCs. There is virtually no report
carbon neutrality, which also confirms the HTHP development direction
regarding utilized new synthetic refrigerants such as HFOs or HCFOs.
of reaching COP of 4.0. In short, Fig. 15 is based on the current carbon
Regarding the configurations, most of the cases adopted single-stage and
emission ratio to generate electricity in a thermal power plant, and the
double-stage compression system, with no extra heat exchanger or by­
renewable energy of 52% by 2030 Carbon Peak, 73% by 2050 and 100%
passes. This is mainly because the simple configurations are more suit­
by 2060 Carbon Neutrality [118] will bring down the carbon emission
able for practical applications.
ratio significantly. Therefore, the role of HTHP for CO2 emission control
As early as the 1990s, many countries had turned their focus on
could be very significant.
moderate and high temperature heat pump, such as Japanese Project of
From the aforementioned experimental research, it is summarized in
Super Heat Pump Energy Accumulation System [119], the International
Fig. 16 that the HTHP development is mainly driven by China, Germany,
Energy Agency (IEA) Heat Pump Center and IIR Heat Pump Developing
Norway, France, Korea, Switzerland and USA. Yet, these countries also
Plan, and European Large Heat Pump Research Center, all addressed
vigorously promote the carbon emission reduction. In addition, coun­
moderate and high temperature heat pump as the key research contents
tries with high HTHP application level are mainly European countries
[120]. To date, the carbon neutralization is a must-attain target for
(including Italy [102,111], Finland [101], Sweden [100], Denmark
sustainability of human society. For offering sustainable industrial
[109,110]), China [46,103–106,108], Japan [99,107] and Korea [112].
heating, the electrification has been a trend for industrial boilers to
Fig. 17 shows the heat sink temperature with different heating ca­
reduce carbon emissions [121]. Therefore, HTHPs will play a more and
pacity given in Table 3 for the various industrial HTHP applications, and
more important role in the substitution of industrial process heating.
the cases are sorted by different colors to represent different applied
The present study provides an extensive review regarding the HTHP.
compressors. The highest heating capacity larger than 10 MW was
Both the lab-scale research and current industrial status are reported in
achieved by the Unitop-50FY HTHPs [100–102] with two-stage cen­
details. The configurations of various HTHPs, including the single-stage
trifugal compressors. Besides, other single-stage compression HTHP
compression, multi-stage compression, cascade system and hybrid sys­
units in industrial processes are primarily less than 1 MW. From the
tem, were discussed thoroughly. Influence of refrigerants, from high-
statistics, 67% of the reviewed units utilized high-GWP refrigerants like
GWP refrigerants to low-GWP refrigerants, are addressed accordingly.
R245fa and R134a as working fluids. The remaining units adopted
Based on the foregoing discussions, some of the important aspects are
given:

a. The HTHPs with 30 ◦ C temperature lift, of which the supply tem­

perature is lower than 120 ◦ C, have achieved satisfactory perfor­
mance at the current operation conditions.
b. There is a research depletion region for HTHPs with 40 ◦ C temper­
ature lift, heat sink higher than 100 ◦ C and COP larger than 4.0. The
HTHPs with COP of 4.0 can help achieve the carbon neutrality even
under the condition of full thermal power generation, which is
meaningful for future increasing proportion of renewable energy.
c. The researches about HTHP with large temperature lift (>70 ◦ C)
have been conducted since 2017. The largest temperature lift of
115 ◦ C is achieved by an air-source cascade heat pump cooperated
with water vapor compression, supplying 120 ◦ C steam.
d. About 71% HTHPs in laboratory are charged with low-GWP re­
frigerants, including HFOs, natural refrigerants and new mixed
refrigerants.

Cases analysis about HTHPs applied in industry reveals the potential

Fig. 16. Proportion of HTHP experimental researches made by for HTHPs substituting industrial boilers and the application level for
different countries.

15
J. Jiang et al.
current HTHPs.
a. Only the Unitop-50FY HTHP with a two-stage centrifugal compressor
as key component achieves the single-unit scale larger than 1 MW
and up to 18 MW.
b. Screw and centrifugal compressors are the most suitable compressor
for large-scale heat pump systems, especially centrifugal compressor.
c. 67% of refrigerants in reviewed HTHPs are high-GWP refrigerants
such as R245fa and R134a. The remaining units are charged with
natural refrigerants. The large-scale HTHPs charged with low-GWP
refrigerants, especially new synthesized refrigerants like HFOs and
HCFOs, still need to be developed.
The disparity between laboratory-scale prototypes and commercial
units is affected by system reliability, flexibility, safety, economy,
environmental protection, etc. The maturity of refrigerants, configura­
tions, and components imposes combined effects on the system perfor­
mance of HTHPs, which determines whether the design is feasible or not
in practice.
Firstly, due to the foreseeable environmental concerns, most studies
were carried out based on low-GWP refrigerants, and about 71% of the
reviewed experimental HTHPs employed low-GWP refrigerants. The
feasibility of refrigerants for drop-in replacements is mainly studied on
new synthesized refrigerants, like HFOs, HCFOs and its mixtures, to
replace HFCs [65,66,86]. The compatibility of refrigerants with
component materials and lubricants, comparable heating capacity and
performance, and environmental impact are the major focuses of drop-in
replacements. Also, some low-GWP refrigerant mixtures were studied to
leverage advantages of multiple refrigerants.
Even though there have been studies showing high efficiency and
feasibility of drop-in replacements, challenges and problems always
accompany with the actual applications of HTHPs with low-GWP re­
frigerants. Firstly, the components must tolerate high temperature or
high pressure, especially for the natural refrigerants like H2O, NH3 and
CO2. Under high-pressure operating conditions, it is required to ensure
the tight sealing and structural strength, especially for refrigerants like
CO2 and NH3. For refrigerants with large pressure changes, especially
CO2, the compressor design, selection of bearing and lubricating oil,
controlling vibration noise, etc. become crucial. There are no effective
measures to decrease the operating pressure due to the intrinsic nature
of refrigerants properties, but one can improve the capability of pressure
resistance in design. The high temperature brings problems like
decomposition and charring of lubricating oil, failure of electronic
sensors and EEVs, structural deformation and alarm protection, etc.
Secondly, the applications of new synthesized refrigerants are limited by
the high cost in large charge amount. The safety of some poisonous or
flammable refrigerants also limits the charge amount in large-scale
applications.
Furthermore, the choice of favorable configurations is significant in
HTHP applications. From theoretical and experimental researches, the
optimization of system configurations not only improves the energy
efficiency, increases the output temperature and temperature lift, but
also ensures the safe operation under high temperature or pressure. For
example, using the low-temperature liquid refrigerant behind the
expansion valve to cool the compressor motor; setting an external
cooling system to cool the compressor under higher evaporation tem­
perature; liquid or vapor injection for cooling compressor chamber;
complete cooling between two-stage compression by economizer; add­
ing a subcooler before throttling equipment. However, half of the con­
figurations in applications are based on the single compression cycle or
single cycle with a double-stage compressor, without system bypasses
like IHX, economizer, etc. The challenge to apply optimal configurations
in practice is mainly due to the difficulty of complicated construction,
high cost, and high failure rate caused by complicated processing.
Besides, an optimal control system is important for the HTHP oper­
ation with high efficiency. A suitable control system can not only
16
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
optimize the operation parameters of units to ensure the high efficiency,
but also improve the adaptability of units, facing variable working
conditions, to shorten the feedback time and ensure the output stability.
The frequency compressor, EEV and other electric valves are extensively
applied in heat pump units, which need a suitable control system to
regulate the status. At the same time, the complex system configurations
also rely on a reasonable control system, like injection mass flow rate
and intermediate heat exchange capacity. Especially for the HTHP, the
overheat waning and cooling strategy is of significance to the control
system. Considering the complexity of industrial processes, the control
system should be designed case by case. The joint control of HTHP and
industrial heating process also need be considered.
Last, the key component of HTHP, heat exchanger, should be paid
attention to. Apart from the normal types like plate, fin-tube, tube-and-
shell and tube-in-tube heat exchangers, some special heat exchanger
types, like microchannel or super large scale ones, are designed as the
special application scenarios. In these scenarios, even some surface
treatment or coating materials need to be considered in heat exchangers.
What is more, the heat exchangers should have the capability of bearing
high pressure and temperature, from the aspects of materials improve­
ment, sealing methods and surface treatment.
The challenges and problems for the research on HTHPs can be
summarized as:
a. To improve the ability of components resisting high pressure and
temperature from the aspects of materials, structure, protection, etc.
b. To develop the suitable components for low-GWP refrigerants,
including heat exchangers, compressors, sensors, lubricants, etc.
c. To employ effective cooling measures or configurations to ensure the
safe operation.
d. To improve the rationality of complex system design and the
installation technology, like sealing and welding.
e. To improve the ability to independently develop and produce new
synthesized refrigerants, and to avoid monopoly to reduce the re­
frigerants costs. By developing refrigerant mixtures to reduce the
flammability of pure refrigerants through physical or chemical
flame-retardant methods to increase the charge inventory.
6. Perspectives of HTHPs
Based on the previous analysis on HTHP configurations, the HTHPs
with 30 ◦ C temperature lift have been developed quite maturely. How­
ever, because the high-temperature waste heat is not generally used as
heat source for heat pumps, HTHPs with 30 ◦ C temperature lift had not
been extensively tested in condition of sink temperature that is above
120 ◦ C. Further, a research depletion region is founded with output
temperature that is higher than 100 ◦ C and COP is larger than 4.0 under
40 ◦ C temperature lift condition. Therefore, the short-term break­
through for HTHP with 40 ◦ C temperature lift will be the first step,
followed by 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and even larger temperature lift. From 2017,
the researches had continuously pushed the limit of large temperature-
lift heat pumps, filling up the gap for temperature lift greater than 80 ◦ C.
The maturity of heat pumps with great temperature lift will greatly
promote the application process for industrial boilers replacement. The
heat pump has the capability of steam generation is proved to be the
sustainable heating system for industry, which further extends the
temperature lift and provides more possibility for the industrial boilers
replacement [122]. Therefore, large temperature lift will be a develop­
ment direction for heat pumps.
Developments of new green refrigerants (pure and mixture) with
better characteristics and adaptability studies for drop-in replacements
are the long-term prospects for refrigerants. In terms of environmental
protection, the stable substances that already existed in nature for long
time are the most ideal candidate refrigerants. Therefore, another
important prospect for HTHP refrigerants is to improve the efficiency of
HTHP with green refrigerants from configuration optimization,
J. Jiang et al.
components improvements, safe operation, etc., to promote the com­
mercial application in industrial HTHPs.
The summary review investigation of current HTHPs in industry
revels the technological maturity for HTHP applications from heating
capacity, configurations, refrigerants, efficiency, economy, etc. The
reviewed heating capacity for most single HTHP units are lower than 1
MW, showing the maturity of small- and medium-capacity heat pumps.
Even though the same heating capacity can be achieved by several
parallel units having smaller capacity, the single unit with large capacity
have fewer components, thereby offering less possibility upon failure
rate. A development trend for large-capacity heat pumps is obvious
based on relatively mature heat pumps with heating capacity lower than
1 MW. At the same time, the successful application of megawatt low and
moderate-temperature HPs has proven the possibility of large-scale
HTHP. A 10 MW centrifugal heat pump installed for steel plant waste
heat recovery and district heating shows the positive operation condi­
tion and economic benefits [123]. To bridge the gaps, it is important to
improve the ability to customize large-capacity HTHP components,
especially the compressors. Also, the cooling technology for both com­
pressors, motor, EEVs and other components are needed to be further
improved to ensure the safe operation in high temperature conditions.
Like the configurations in laboratory-scale HTHPs, single-stage and
double-stage vapor compression configurations are the most popular
layouts, due to the simple system structures. Therefore, increasing sys­
tem scale and improving system efficiency will help strengthen the
possibility of replacing industrial boilers.
In experimental researches, several units have achieved the high
efficiency with high temperature output and large temperature lift using
low-GWP refrigerants, but they were in laboratory scale. Some applied
large-scale HTHPs achieved relatively high efficiency but the tempera­
ture lift was small and high-GWP refrigerants were used.
Considering the state of the art of researches and application
circumstance, four predictive prospects were concluded: i) development
and application of low-GWP refrigerants (GWP<150); ii) promoting the
supply temperature of HTHP higher than 100 ◦ C; iii) improving the
system COP to breakthrough 4.0 under 40 ◦ C temperature lift; iv)
developing large-scale unit with heating capacity larger than 1 MW. As
is clear that there have been some cases possessing one to three features
of the four prospects. Then, the advanced HTHP achieving all the four
prospects will sweep into the lead, which can be called an “Ultra Heat
Pump”.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the key project of National Natural
Science Foundation of China (52036004) and National Key R&D Pro­
gram of China (No. 2016YFB0601200). The authors gratefully
acknowledge the financial support from the Research Council of Norway
and user partners of HighEFF (Centre for an Energy Efficient and
Competitive Industry for the Future, an 8-year Research Centre under
the FME-scheme). R.Z. Wang proposed the concept and guided the
whole research. Jiatong Jiang and Bin Hu drafted the whole manuscript,
Na Deng mainly revised the refrigerants part, Feng Cao mainly revised
the configuration part and Chi-Chuan Wang revised the full text.
References
[1] Committee on Climate Change. Net zero. 2019. Technical Report, https://www.
theccc.org.uk/publication/net-zero-technical-report/.
[2] 2018 China’s annual development report on building energy efficiency. Building
Energy Efficiency Center of Tsinghua University; 2020.
17
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
[3] Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT). Seven governmental
agencies jointly releasing the comprehensive implementation plan of improving
coal-fired boiler energy-saving and environmental protection performance. 2014.
October 29 (Chinese text), http://www.miit.gov.cn/n1146290/n4388791/c4
216991/content.html. [Accessed 19 September 2016].
[4] Li M, Liu H, Geng GN, Hong CP, Liu F, Song Y, et al. Anthropogenic emission
inventories in China: a review. Natl Sci Rev 2018;5(4):603.
[5] Tao Y, Xing G, Gao JJ, Tong YL, Wang K, Zuo PL, et al. Emission characteristics of
NOx, CO, NH3 and VOCs from gas-fired industrial boilers based on field
measurements in Beijing city, China. Atmos Environ 2018;184:1–8.
[6] Barnes J, Bhagavathy SM. The economics of heat pumps and the (un)intended
consequences of government policy. Energy Pol 2019;138:111198.
[7] Zhang B. Energy-saving technology analysis of gas-fired boiler heating system.
J Sci Technol Econ 2017;18:145.
[8] Zühlsdorf B, Bühler F, Bantle M, Elmegaard B. Analysis of technologies and
potentials for heat pump-based process heat supply above 150◦ C. Energy Convers
Manag 2019;2:100011.
[9] Yamazaki T, Kubo Y. Development of a high-temperature heat pump. IEA Heat
Pump Centre Newslett 1985;3(4):18–21.
[10] Song YC, Yang WZ, Wang ZG, Xiang XY. Indoor Analogue test for high
temperature heat pump and its industrial application. International conference on
future power and energy engineering; 2010.
[11] Yu XH, Zhang YF, Deng N, Chen CM, Ma LJ, Dong LP, et al. Experimental
performance of high temperature heat pump with near-azeotropic refrigerant
mixture. Energy Build 2014;78:43–9.
[12] Madsboell H, Weel M, Kolstrup A. Development OF a water vapor compressor for
high temperature heat pump applications. In IIR gustav lorentzen conference on
natural refrigeration international institute of refrigeration.
[13] Fleckl T, Hartl M, Helminger F, Kontomaris K. Pfaffl. Performance testing of a lab-
scale high temperature heat pump with HFO-1336mzz-Z as the working fluid. In:
European heat pump summit, nuremberg; october 20-21; 2015. p. 1–25.
[14] Noack R. Entwicklung einer Hochtemperatur-Wärmepumpe für
Nutztemperaturen über 120◦ C. In: Deutsche Kälte- und Klimatagung 2016,
Kassel;16-18 November; 2016.
[15] Huang M, Liang X, Zhuang R. Experimental investigate on the performance of
high temperature heat pump using scroll compressor. In: 12th IEA heat pump
conference, rotterdam; 14-17 may; 2017. p. 1–8.
[16] Zhang Y, Zhang YF, Yu XH, Guo J, Deng N, Dong SM, et al. Analysis of a high
temperature heat pump using BY-5 as refrigerant. Appl Therm Eng 2017;127:
1461–8.
[17] Liu ZS, Zhang XD, Gao B. Research on scroll compressors utilized in high
temperature drying heat pump area. Refrig Air Cond 2019;7:84–7.
[18] Deng N, Jing XY, Cai RC, Gao J, Shen CY, Zhang YF, et al. Molecular simulation
and experimental investigation for thermodynamic properties of new refrigerant
NBY-1 for high temperature heat pump. Energy Convers Manag 2019;179(JAN):
339–48.
[19] Zhang XD, Xu HM. Experimental performance of moderately high temperature
heat pump with working fluid R1234ze(Z). J Therm Anal Calorim 2020:1–11.
[20] Chamoun M, Rulliere R, Haberschill P, Peureux JL. Experimental and numerical
investigations of a new high temperature heat pump for industrial heat recovery
using water as refrigerant. Int J Refrig 2014;44:177–88.
[21] Wu D, Jiang JT, Hu B, Wang RZ. Experimental investigation on the performance
of a very high temperature heat pump with water refrigerant. Energy 2020;190:
116427.
[22] Reißner F. Development of a Novel High Temperature Heat Pump System,
Entwicklung eines neuartigen Hochtemperatur-Wärmepumpensystems. PhD
Thesis. Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg; 2015.
[23] Helminger F, Hartl M, Fleckl T, Kontomaris K, Pfaffl J. Hochtemperatur
Wärmepumpen Messergebnisse einer Laboranlage mit HFO-1336MZZ-Z bis 160◦ C
Kondensationstemperatur. In: 14. Symposium energieinnovation, TU graz; 10-12
februar; 2016. p. 1–20.
[24] Moisi H, Rieberer R, Verdnik M, Baumhakel A. Entwicklung einer R600
Hochtemperatur Wärmepumpe - simulation und erste Messungen. In: Deutsche
Kälte- und Klimatagung 2017, Bremen; 23 November; 2017. p. 1–22.
[25] Cao F, Ye ZL, Wang YK, Wang. Experimental investigation on the influence of
internal heat exchanger in a transcritical CO2 heat pump water heater. Appl
Therm Eng 2019;168:114855.
[26] Wemmers AK, van Haasteren AWMB, Kremers P, Van der Kamp J. Test results
R600 pilot heat pump. In: 12th IEA heat pump conference, rotterdam; 14-17 may;
2017. p. 1–9.
[27] Xu X, Hwang Y, Radermacher R. Refrigerant injection for heat pumping/air
conditioning systems: literature review and challenges discussions. Int J Refrig
2011;34(2):402–15.
[28] He YN, Cao F, Jin L, Wang XL, Xing ZW. Experimental study on the performance
of a vapor injection high temperature heat pump. Int J Refrig 2015;60:1–8.
[29] Wilk V, Hartl M, Fleckl T, Widhalm E, Ramler F, Adelberger G, et al.
Hochtemperatur-Wärmepumpe für Industrieanwendungen: prüfstandmessungen
und Systemsimulation. In: Deutsche Kälte- und Klimatagung, Kassel; 2016.
p. 16–8.
[30] Annex 35 IEA. Application of Industrial Heat Pumps, Final report, Part 1. Report
No. HPP-AN35e1. 2014.
[31] Arpagaus C, Bertsch SS. Experimental results of HFO/HCFO refrigerants in a
laboratory scale HTHP with up to 150◦ C supply temperature. In: 2nd conference
on high temperature heat pumps; 2019.
[32] Sarkar Jahar. Ejector enhanced vapor compression refrigeration and heat pump
systems—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16(9):6647–59.
J. Jiang et al.
[33] Zhou MY. Experimental research of a new steam heat pump system for recovering
industrialwaste heat [D]. Tianjin University; 2016.
[34] Zhu YH, Huang YL, Li CH, Zhang FZ, Jiang PX. Experimental investigation on the
performance of transcritical CO2 ejector–expansion heat pump water heater
system. Energy Convers Manag 2018;167:147–55.
[35] Hu B, Di W, Wang LW, Wang RZ. Exergy analysis of R1234ze(Z) as high
temperature heat pump working fluid with multi-stage compression. Front
Energy 2017;11(4):493–502.
[36] Wojtan L. Industrielle Abwärmerückgewinnung auf hohem Temperaturniveau. In:
News aus der Wärempumpen-Forschung, HTI Burgdorf; 22 Juni 2016. p. 1–34.
[37] Larminat DE, Arnou D, Sausse LE, Clunet F, Peureux JL. A high temperature heat
pump using water vapor as working fluid. In: IIR Gustav Lorentzen conference on
natural refrigeration. International Institute of Refrigeration; 2014. p. 1–8.
[38] Sang XH, Xu SW, Yu ZQ. Research on NH3 screw high-temperature heat pump
system with total heat recovery. Refrig Air Cond 2016;16(1):41–4.
[39] Bobelin D, Bourig A, Peureux J. Experimental results of a newly developed very
high temperature industrial heat pump (140◦ C) equipped with scroll compressors
and working with a new blend refrigerant. In: International refrigeration and air
conditioning conference. Purdue; 2012. p. 1–10. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu
/iracc/1299.
[40] Wang K, Cao F, Wang SG, Xing ZW. Investigation of the performance of a high-
temperature heat pump using parallel cycles with serial heating on the water side.
Int J Refrig 2010;33(6):1142–51.
[41] Šarevski MN, Šarevski VN. Thermal characteristics of high-temperature R718
heat pumps with turbo compressor thermal vapor recompression. Appl Therm
Eng 2017;117:355–65.
[42] Lee G, Lee B, Cho J, Ra HS, Baik YJ, Sin HK, et al. Development of steam
generation heat pump through refrigerant replacement approach. In: 12th IEA
heat pump conference, rotterdam; 14-17 may; 2017. p. 1–10.
[43] Bamigbetan O, Eikevik TM, Nekså P, Bantle M. Development of propanebutane
cascade high temperature heat pump: early test rig results. In: International
workshop on high temperature heat pumps. Copenhagen, Denmark; 2017.
[44] Bamigbetan O, Eikevik TM, Nekså P, Bantle M, Schlemminger C. Experimental
investigation of a prototype R-600 compressor for high temperature heat pump.
Energy 2019;169(FEB.15):730–8.
[45] Schlemminger C, Bantle M, Bamigbetan O, Foslie SS. Performance of high
temperature heat pump for simultaneous and efficient production of ice water
and process heat. In: The 25th IIR international congress of refrigeration; 2019.
[46] Li XQ, Zhang YF, Ma XL, Deng N, Li W. Performance analysis of high-temperature
water source cascade heat pump using BY3B/BY6 as refrigerants. Appl Therm Eng
2019;159:113895.
[47] Yan HZ, Hu B, Wang RZ. Air-source heat pump for distributed steam generation: a
new and sustainable solution to replace coal-fired boilers in China. Adv Sustain
Syst 2020;4(11):2000118.
[48] Merkel N, Bücherl M, Zimmermann M, Wagner V, Schaber K. Operation of an
absorption heat transformer using water/ionic liquid as working fluid. Appl
Therm Eng 2018;131:370–80.
[49] Wakim M, Rivera-Tinoco R. Absorption Heat Transformers: sensitivity study to
answer existing discrepancies. Renew Energy 2018;130:881–90.
[50] Kim J, Park SR, Baik YJ, Cang KC, Ra HS, Kim MS, et al. Experimental study of
operating characteristics of compression/absorption high-temperature hybrid
heat pump using waste heat. Renew Energy 2013;54:13–9.
[51] Wu W, Shi WX, Wang J, Wang BL, Li XT. Experimental investigation on NH3-H2O
compression-assisted absorption heat pump (CAHP) for low temperature heating
under lower driving sources. Appl Energy 2016;176:258–71.
[52] Badiei A, Akhlaghi Golizadeh Y, Zhao X, Shittu S, Xiao X, Li J, et al.
A chronological review of advances in solar assisted heat pump technology in
21st century. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020;132:110132.
[53] Chaturvedi SK, Abdel-Salam TM, Sreedharan SS, Gorozabel FB. Two-stage direct
expansion solar-assisted heat pump for high temperature applications. Appl
Therm Eng 2009;29(10):2093–9.
[54] Djuanda Pasek AD, Andian NP, Suwono A. Performance test of a solar-assisted
high temperature heat pump for steam generation. In: International conference
on fluid and thermal energy conversion; 2011. p. 492–9.
[55] Lee SJ, Shon BH, Jung CW, Kang YT. A novel type solar assisted heat pump using
a low GWP refrigerant (R-1233zd(E)) with the flexible solar collector. Energy
2018;149:386–96.
[56] Perkins J. Apparatus for producing ice and cooling fluids. 1834. Patent 6662, UK.
[57] McLinden MO, Huber ML. (R)Evolution of refrigerants. J Chem Eng Data 2020;65
(9):4176–93.
[58] Calm JM. The next generation of refrigerants – historical review, considerations,
and outlook. Int J Refrig 2008;31(7):1123–33.
[59] Yuan ZY, Peng TD, Ou XM. Scenario analysis on CO2 -equivalent emissions from
alternative mobile air conditioning refrigerants in China. Energy Proc 2017;142:
2617–23.
[60] Wang EH, Zhang HG, Fan BY, Ouyang MG, Zhao Y, Mu QH. Study of working
fluid selection of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) for engine waste heat recovery.
Energy 2011;36(5):3406–18.
[61] Zou HM, Li X, Tang MS, Wu J, Tian CQ, Butrymowicz D, et al. Temperature stage
matching and experimental investigation of high-temperature cascade heat pump
with vapor injection. Energy 2020;212:118734.
[62] Zhang SJ, Wang HX, Guo T. Experimental investigation of moderately high
temperature water source heat pump with non-azeotropic refrigerant mixtures.
Appl Energy 2010;87(5):1554–61.
[63] Zhang S, Wang H, Guo T. Performance simulation and experimental testing of
moderately high temperature heat pump using non-azeotropic mixture for
18
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
geothermal district heating. In: Asia-pacific power & energy engineering
conference. IEEE; 2010.
[64] Zhou F, Yang WW, Cao XQ, He YL. Theoretical study of three zeotropic mixtures
for high temperature heat pump. J Eng Thermophys 2015;36(4):703–8.
[65] Alhamid MI, Aisyah N, Nasruddin N, Lubis A. Thermodynamic and environmental
analysis of a high-temperature heat pump using HCFO-1224yd(Z) and HCFO-
1233zd(E). Int J Technol 2019;10(8):1585.
[66] Arpagaus C, Kuster R, Prinzing M, Uhlmann M, Elias Büchel, Frei S, et al. High
temperature heat pump using HFO and HCFO refrigerants - system design and
experimental results. In: 25th IIR international congress of refrigeration (ICR
2019); 2019.
[67] Mateu-Royo C, Mota-Babiloni A, Navarro-Esbr J. Semi-empirical and
environmental assessment of the low GWP refrigerant HCFO-1224yd(Z) to
replace HFC-245fa in high temperature heat pumps. Int J Refrig 2021;127:120–7.
[68] Kaida T, Fukushima M, Iizuka K. Application of R1224yd(Z) as R245fa alternative
for high temperature heat pump. In: 25th IIR international congress of
refrigeration (ICR 2019); 2019.
[69] Pearson A. High temperature heat pumps with natural refrigerants. IEA Heat
Pump Centre Newslett 2012;30(1):5–33.
[70] Bantle M, Tolstorebrov I, Eikevik TM. Possibility for mechanical vapor re
-compression for steam based drying processes. In: Proceedings of the first nordic
baltic drying conference. Trondheim; 2015.
[71] Tan HL, Wang ZQ, Jing YR. Application of ammonia to high-temperature heat
pump unit. Refrig Air Cond 2018;9:32–4.
[72] Liu Y, Groll EA, Yazawa K, Kurtulus O. Energy-saving performance and economics
of CO2 and NH3 heat pumps with simultaneous cooling and heating applications
in food processing: case studies. Int J Refrig 2017;73:111–24.
[73] Emerson. Vilter - single screw ammonia heat pumps. 2010. Brochure OTH002-
EN-1009.
[74] Kim MH, Pettersen J, Bullard CW. Fundamental process and system design issues
in CO2 vapor compression systems. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2004;30:119–74.
[75] Yang DF, Song YL, Cao F, Jin L, Wang XL. Theoretical and experimental
investigation of a combined R134a and transcritical CO2 heat pump for space
heating. Int J Refrig 2016;72:156–70.
[76] Snowman Group. Powerbox-SRM open-type heat pump. https://www.snowkey
_com/cn/product/powerbox_srm_open_type_heat_pump_90/c032a43839
2744d891706495a45a5b3c.html.
[77] Johnson C. SABROE HeatPAC HPX heat pumps. https://www.sabroe_com/en/
products/chillers-and-heat-pumps/heatpac-hpx-heat-pumps/.
[78] Wang SG, Tuo HF, Feng C, Xing ZW. Experimental investigation on air-source
transcritical CO2 heat pump water heater system at a fixed water inlet
temperature. Int J Refrig 2013;36(3):701–16.
[79] Minetto S, Cecchinato L, Brignoli R, Marinetti S, Rossetti A. Water-side reversible
CO2 heat pump for residential application. Int J Refrig 2016;63:237–50.
[80] Suong CO, Asanakham A. Selection of cascade heat pump refrigerant couple for
simultaneous heating and cooling. In: The 15th conference on energy network of
Thailand; 2019.
[81] Uusitalo A, Turunen-Saaresti T, Honkatukia J, Tiainen J, Jaatinen-Värri A.
Numerical analysis of working fluids for large scale centrifugal compressor driven
cascade heat pumps upgrading waste heat. Appl Energy 2020;269:115056.
[82] Bamigbetan O, Neks P, Eikevik TM, Bantle M. Evaluation of natural working
fluids for the development of high temperature heat pumps. In: The 12th gustav
lorentzen natural working fluids conference; 2016.
[83] Xiang C, Chang HW, Duan C, Wen K, Shu SM. Theoretical study on mixture
R13I1/R290/R600a for moderate and high temperature heat pump as alternative
for R134a. Acta Energiae Solaris Sin 2018;39(10):2760–6.
[84] Corberán JM, Segurado J, Colbourne D, Gonzálvez J. Review of standards for the
use of hydrocarbon refrigerants in A/C, heat pump and refrigeration equipment.
Int J Refrig 2008;31(4):748–56.
[85] Standards B, Refrigerating systems and heat pumps - safety and environmental
requirements - Part 1: basic requirements, definitions, classification and selection
criteria.
[86] Li TX, Guo KH, Wang RZ. High temperature hot water heat pump with non-
azeotropic refrigerant mixture HCFC-22/HCFC-141b. Energy Convers Manag
2002;43(15):2033–40.
[87] Zhang SJ, Guo WT. Evaluation of non-azeotropic mixtures containing HFOs as
potential refrigerants in refrigeration and high-temperature heat pump systems.
SCIENCE CHINA Technological Sciences; 2010.
[88] Liu NX, Shi L, Han LZ, Zhu MS. Moderately high temperature water source heat-
pumps using a near-azeotropic refrigerant mixture. Appl Energy 2005;80(4):
435–47.
[89] Wu D, Hu B, Wang RZ. Performance simulation and exergy analysis of a hybrid
source heat pump system with low GWP refrigerants. Renew Energy 2018;116:
775–85.
[90] Bamigbetan O, Eikevik TM, Nekså P, Bantle M. Theoretical analysis of suitable
fluids for high temperature heat pumps up to 125◦ C heat delivery. Int J Refrig
2018;92:185–95.
[91] Mateu-Royo C, Arpagaus C, Mota-Babiloni A, Navarro-Esbría J, Bertsch SS.
Advanced high temperature heat pump configurations using low GWP
refrigerants for industrial waste heat recovery: a comprehensive study. Energy
Convers Manag 2021;229:113752.
[92] Wu D, Hu B, Wang RZ. Vapor compression heat pumps with pure Low-GWP
refrigerants. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021;138:110571.
[93] Arpagaus C, Bless F, Uhlmann M, Schiffmann J, Bertsch SS. High temperature
heat pumps: market overview, state of the art, research status, refrigerants, and
application potentials. Energy 2018;152(JUN.1):985–1010.
J. Jiang et al.
[94] UNEP. Handbook for the Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone
layer. eleventh ed. 2017. p. 1–793.
[95] Myhre G, Shindell D, Bréon FM, Collins W, Fuglestvedt J, Huang J, et al.
Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. In: Climate change 2013: the
physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment
report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge, UK and
New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2013. p. 659–740.
[96] EU. Regulation (EU. No 517/2014 of the European parliament and of the council
of 16 April 2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases and repealing regulation (EC)
No 842/2006. 2014. L150/195-230.
[97] Zhang J, Zhang HH, He YL, Wen QT. A comprehensive review on advances and
applications of industrial heat pumps based on the practices in China. Appl
Energy 2016;178(sep.15):800–25.
[98] Xu ZY, Wang RZ, Yang C. Perspectives for low-temperature waste heat recovery.
Energy 2019;176:1037–43.
[99] Watanabe C. Trends in industrial heat pump technology in Japan, vol. 30. IEA
Heat Pump Newsletter; 2012.
[100] Jakobs R, Cibis D, Laue HJ. Status and outlook: industrial heat pumps. In:
Proceedings of the international refrigeration and air conditioning conference,
west lafayette; 2010. Paper 1081.
[101] A2A Milano - Canavese – 1 Unitop 50 FY ground water heat pump. Available
online: https://www.friotherm.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/E01-15_A2A-
Canavese.pdf.
[102] 5 Unitop® 50FY heat pump/chiller units simultaneously generate 90 MW heat
energy and 60 MW chilled water. Available online: https://www.friotherm.com/
wp-content/uploads/2017/11/katri_vala_e012_uk.pdf.
[103] He YN, Cao F, Jin L, Yang DF, Wang XL, Xing ZW. Development and field test of a
high-temperature heat pump used in crude oil heating. J Process Mech Eng 2017;
231(3):392–404.
[104] Liu CC, Wang ZF, Han W, Kang QL, Liu M. Working domains of a hybrid
absorption-compression heat pump for industrial applications. Energy Convers
Manag 2019;195:226–35.
[105] Jiang JT, Hu B, Wang RZ, Yu ZQ, Mao GL. Multi-function thermal system with
natural refrigerant for a wide temperature range. Appl Therm Eng 2019;162:
114189.
[106] Wu XK, Xing ZW, He ZL, Wang XL, Chen WQ. Performance evaluation of a
capacity-regulated high temperature heat pump for waste heat recovery in dyeing
industry. Appl Therm Eng 2016;93:1193–201.
[107] Umezawa S, Ueda K, Fukushima R, Amari H, Shimada H, Matsuhisa T.
Application study of a heat pump producing high temperature and high pressure
water for an industrial drying process. Trans Japn Soc Mech Eng 2012;78(787):
435–9.
[108] Zhang ZT, Zhang BG, Gu LB, Li L. Study of wood drying with two-stage
compression high temperature heat pump. Adv J Food Sci Technol 2013;5(2):
180–5.
19
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 161 (2022) 112106
[109] Zühlsdorf B, Bühler F, Mancini R, Cignitti S, Elmeggard B. High temperature heat
pump integration using zeotropic working fluids for spray drying facilities. In: IEA
heat pump conference; 2017.
[110] Jensen JK, Markussen WB, Reinholdt L, Elmegaard B. Exergoeconomic
optimization of an ammonia–water hybrid absorption–compression heat pump
for heat supply in a spray-drying facility. Int J Energy Environ Eng 2015;6(2):
195–211.
[111] Urbanucci L, Carles Bruno J, Testi D. Thermodynamic and economic analysis of
the integration of high-temperature heat pumps in trigeneration systems. Appl
Energy 2019;238(MAR.15):516–33.
[112] Lee G, Lee B, Wang E, Ra HS, Cho J, Baik YJ, et al. A study on the development of
development of high temperature heat pump for the generation of industrial
process steam and construction of demonstration site. In: Proceedings of the
Korean society of equipment engineering conference; 2018.
[113] Daghigh R, Ruslan MH, Sulaiman MY, Sopian K. Review of solar assisted heat
pump drying systems for agricultural and marine products. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2010;14(9):2564–79.
[114] Wang RZ, Wang LW, Cai J, Du S, Hu B, Pan QW, et al. Research status and trends
on industrial heat pump and network utilization of waste heat. J Refrig (Chin J)
2017;38(2):1–10.
[115] Wang J, Feng L, Palmer PI, Liu Y, Fang SX, Bösch H, et al. Large Chinese land
carbon sink estimated from atmospheric carbon dioxide data. Nature 2020;586:
720–3.
[116] Gruber N, Clement D, Carter BR, et al. The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2
from 1994 to 2007. Science 2019;363(6432):1193–9.
[117] Quéré CL, Takahashi T, Buitenhuis ET, Rdenbeck C, Sutherland SC. Impact of
climate change and variability on the global oceanic sink of CO2. Global
Biogeochem Cycles 2010;24(4):GB4007.
[118] World and China energy outlook in 2050. China: Petroleum Institute of
Economics and Technology; 2020.
[119] Honjo K, Lennart V. Current super heat pump energy accumulation systems, Heat
pumps for energy efficiency and environmental Progress. 1993.
[120] Mottal R. Heat pump technology and working fluids. In: XlXth international
congress of refrigeration, holland; 1995.
[121] Tang W, Wu P, Zhang Y, Cao XD. Analysis on the current situation and
development trend of China’s electrification level and electric energy substitution
under the background of carbon neutral. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 2021;661
(1):012019 (5pp).
[122] Yan HZ, Wang RZ, Du S, Hu B, Xu ZY. Analysis and perspective on heat pump for
industrial steam generation. Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research; 2021.
[123] Hu B, Liu H, Jiang JT, Zhang ZP, Li HB, Wang RZ. Ten megawatt scale vapor
compression heat pump for low temperature waste heat recovery: onsite
application research. Energy 2022;238:121699.