2.

1 ATOMS & MOLECULES

 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the subtopic, you should be able to:
 Explain the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses.
 Analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances and molecular fragments.
 Relate a mole to Avogadro constant.
 Determine empirical and molecular formulae using combustion data or composition
by mass.
Introduction
 From the last lesson we now know what an atom is and sub-atomic particles.
 Now there is need to know atomic mass, how it reacts and in which quantities.
 In order to address that we should familiarise ourselves to the carbon 12 scale.

2.1.1 The carbon 12 scale

 Mass of atoms, molecules and compounds are measured relative to carbon 12, Hence the
names relative atomic mass or relative isotopic mass etc.
 But why carbon 12?
 Carbon has two isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-13.
Def: Isotopes are elements with the same proton numbers but different neutron numbers.
 The carbon-12 isotope has been chosen as the standard element against which all other
elements are compared because:
a. It is the most abundant isotope of carbon constituting approximately 99% of the carbon isotopes.
b. At standard conditions of temperature and pressure, carbon-12 is a solid and stable element
making it easy to handle.
 The carbon 12 element is assigned an exact mass of 12 atomic mass unit (a.m.u) (the
carbon-12 scale).
 The atomic mass unit (a.m.u)
1
Def: It is defined as 12 of the mass of one carbon-12 element.

 1 𝑎. 𝑚. 𝑢 = 1.660539040 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
 Consider the arrangement of a carbon atom from the periodic table:

 From the periodic table, the atom of carbon has symbol C, 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6
electrons in its natural state.
 On the carbon-12 scale:
 Proton mass = 1.0074 a.m.u.
 Neutron mass = 1.0089 a.m.u.
 Electron mass = 0.0005 a.m.u.
 Therefore the total mass of carbon-12 atom is:
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 6 ×
Relative isotopic mass
Def: The relative isotopic mass of an isotope is the ratio of the mass of one atom of that
isotope relative to 1/12th of the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative isotopic mass = 1
× 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12

Relative atomic mass RAM

Def: The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element
relative to 1/12th of the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative atomic mass = 1
× 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12
1
 It is important to note that 12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom is equal to 1 a.m.u
 Hence the formula reduces to:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐴 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐵 ×
+ +. . .
% 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐴 % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐵
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐴𝑟 =
100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐴 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐵 ×
+ +. . .
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝐵
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
Method of determining relative atomic mass, Ar
 Determine the isotopes present in the sample using mass spectrometry.
 Determine relative abundances of each isotope in the sample from the mass
spectrum.
 Multiply the atomic mass of each isotope by its proportion in the sample.
 Add the results.
Example 2.1.1
A mass spectrometer used to analyse a sample of naturally occurring copper gave
these readings, 69.2% copper-63 and 30.8% copper-65. What is the relative atomic mass
of the element copper?
Solution
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
69.2 × 63 + 30.8 × 65)
=
100
= 63.616
= 63.6 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓.
Example 2.1.2
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45. it has two isotopes with mass numbers 35 and 37.
Calculate the relative abundances of each isotope.
Solution
Let x% be the abundance of the first isotope and the second will be (100-x)%
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑥 × 35 + 100 − 𝑥) × 37)
35.45 =
100
3545 = 35𝑥 + 3700 − 37𝑥
−155 = −2𝑥
𝒙 = 77.5%
Therefore Chlorine-35 has 77.5% and chlorine-37 has 22.5%

Relative molecular mass RMM

Def: The relative molecular mass of an element or compound is the sum of the relative
atomic masses of all the atoms in its molecular formula.
Relative formula mass
Def: The relative formula mass of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all
the atoms in its formula.
 How did we came to know about the mass of isotopes, atoms, etc?
 It was possible with the aid of a mass spectrometry.
Example 2.1.3
Use the periodic table to answer the following question
What is the relative molecular or formula mass of the following?
a. Ammonia, 𝑁𝐻3
b. Phenylamine, 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝐻2
c. Hexa-aqua cobalt pink, [𝐶𝑜 𝐻2 𝑂)6 ]2+
d. Sodium sulphate, 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4
Solution
a. Relative molecular mass, 𝑀𝑟 𝑁𝐻3 = 14 + 3 1 = 17𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
b. Relative molecular mass, 𝑀𝑟 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝐻2 = 6 12 + 7 1 + 14 = 93𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
c. Relative formula mass, 𝑀𝑟 [𝐶𝑜 𝐻2 𝑂)6 ]2+ = 58.9 + 6 2 1 + 16 = 166.9𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
d. Relative formula mass, 𝑀𝑟 (𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 ) = 2 23 + 32.1 + 4 16 = 142.1𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
 Mass spectrometry
 The mass spectrometer is an instrument used for measuring the masses of atoms and
molecules. It can also be used to measure the relative abundance of different
isotopes and to predict the structure of more complex molecules.
How a mass spectrometer works
1. Gaseous material released into ionization chamber
2. Particles bombarded with electrons and ionized, mostly to +1 ions (IONISATION) A
metal wire is heated until it starts emitting high energy electrons. These electrons hit
the particles, knocking more electrons off. Most of the particles are ionized to +1 ions
3. Ions accelerated to uniform speed by electric field (ACCELERATION). The positive
ions are attracted to the negative plate and accelerate towards it
4. Ions deflected by magnetic field; deflection depends on m/e ratio (DEFLECTION). The
heavier the particle, the less the deflection
5. Electric current measured as ions land on plate (DETECTION). The greater the
abundance of the isotope, the larger the current
 The degree of deflection depends on the mass and the charge; the greater the mass, the
less the deflection, and the greater the charge, the greater the deflection. It can be
shown that the deflection is inversely proportional to the m/e ratio.

 In most cases, however, the charge is +1, so the deflection depends essentially on the
relative mass of the species in the mass spectrometer. If the spectrometer is calibrated, the
masses of all the species can be directly measured.

 The greater the number of particles landing at a single point on the detector, the greater
the electric current and the larger the peak. Thus the relative abundance of different
isotopes can be measured.

 Since the position at which an ion appears on the detector depends on its mass, different
isotopes appear at different points on the detector. The magnitude of the peak gives the
relative abundance of the isotope.

 Thus the relative atomic mass of the element can be calculated from its mass spectrum.
 An example of a simple mass spectrum is shown below:
 Mass spectrum of Ne

 The peak at 20 is 20Ne+, and the peak at 22 is 22Ne+

 Calculating RAM
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative atomic mass = 1
× 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12
90 10
×20+ ×22
RAM = 100
1
100

12
×12

= 20.2
Or
Σ (percentage abundance of each isotope x mass of each isotope)
RAM = 100
90 ×20+10×22
= 100

= 20.2
 All relative atomic masses have been found using this method.
 Deducing relative molecular masses
 It is also possible to put molecules into the mass spectrometer. Because the conditions
inside a mass spectrometer are very extreme, the molecules often break up into
smaller pieces. This is known as fragmentation.
 The mass spectrum of a molecule can thus look quite complicated, below is a mass
spectrum of pentane:

Relative abundance

72

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
m/z
 Many of these peaks result from fragmentation of the molecule, but the peak with the
largest m/e ratio comes from the unbroken molecular ion, in this case C5H12+, and is
called the molecular ion peak. The m/e ratio of this peak (72) will be the relative
molecular mass of the molecule.

 The relative molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by looking at the peak in the
spectrum with the largest m/e ratio (i.e. the peak furthest to the right).

Fragmentation
 During fragmentation, the free radical molecular ion is broken up. As the molecular
ion contains an odd number of electrons, one of the species into which it fragments
will contain an even number of electrons (this will be a positive ion) and the other will
contain an odd number of electrons (this will be a free radical).
 Eg consider the case of ethane:

This is the free radical molecular This species keeps the
ion unpaired electron and is an
uncharged free radical
(not detected in mass
spectrometer)
This species loses
the electron and is
a positively
charged ion
(detected in mass
spectrometer)

 This process can be represented by the equation:

[C2H6]+·  [CH3]· + [CH3]+
 Only the charged species is detected as the neutral free radical is neither accelerated nor
deflected.
 The process of fragmentation can thus be represented by the following general equation:

R+·  X+ + Y·
 R+· is the molecular ion and is detected (assuming not all of them fragment)
 X+ is the fragment ion and is detected
 Y· is the fragment radical and is not detected
Stable ions
 Not all possible fragments are detected – some of the fragments form stable ions and these
are more likely to be formed.
 The most stable cations are carbocations (eg CH3+, CH3CH2+ and CH3CHCH3+) and acylium
ions (eg HCO+, CH3CO+, CH3CH2CO+). These are thus the fragments most likely to be
detected, and will give the most intense peaks in a mass spectrum.
 The main peaks in the mass spectrum of an organic compound will thus be the molecular ion
peak and the peaks corresponding to the most stable ions which can be formed from
fragmentation of the molecular ion.
Eg butanone: CH3CH2COCH3
 Expected in the mass spectrum of butanone would be:
m/z ratio Ion responsible Equation to show formation of ion
72 [CH3CH2COCH3]+·
15 [CH3]+ [CH3CH2COCH3]+·  [CH3]+ + [CH2COCH3]·
29 [CH3CH2]+ [CH3CH2COCH3]+·  [CH3CH2]+ + [COCH3]·
57 [CH3CH2CO]+ [CH3CH2COCH3]+·  [CH3CH2CO]+ + [CH3]·
43 [COCH3]+ [CH3CH2COCH3]+·  [COCH3]+ + [CH3CH2]·

 The real mass spectrum of butanone is shown below:

29

57
Relative abundance

43

15
27 44 72

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
m/z
 The most abundant peak is 43, followed by 72 and 29. The peaks at 15 and 57 can also
be accounted for. (It is rarely possible to account for all the peaks in a mass spectrum)
 THE MOLE CONCEPT
The Mole
Def: A mole is defined as the amount of any substance that contains the same number of
elementary entities (particles) as there are in 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope.
 The number of moles of any substance can be calculated as shown below:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠)
 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )

 Where:
 Mass represents the weight of the sample.
 Molar mass is the relative atomic mass (from periodic table) of the substance in 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙.
Example 2.1.5
1. How many moles are contained i n a sample of 2g of calcium, 𝐶𝑎?
2. Use the periodic table to predict the element that weighs 2.875g and contains
0.125moles?
Solution
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
1. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
2𝑔
=
40𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑎
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
2. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.875𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
0.125𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 23𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
The element is 𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 because its molar mass = 23𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙.
 The Avogadro number, 𝑳
Def: Defined as the number of particles in one mole of any substance.
 The number is a constant and has the value 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 to 3 s.f.
 Examples:
 1 mole of Ne contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑁𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
 1 mole of NH3 contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑁𝐻3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 but 4 × 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
 It is possible to find the number of particles on any given sample according to the
equation:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Moles of Gases
 All gases occupy equal volume at same conditions of temperature and pressure
(Avogadro’s law).
 For example: 22.4 dm3 of ammonia, oxygen, methane and ammonia all contain 1 mol of
gas at 1 atm and 0℃.
 Always check out for the following terms:
 Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p) which is 0℃ (273K) and 101.325kPa (1atm) respectively.
 Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) which is 25℃ (298K) and 101.325kPa (1atm) respectively.
 At s.t.p, 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4dm3 (22400cm3) or 22.4 litres.
 At r.t.p, 1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 (24000cm3) or 24 litres.
 At standard temperature and pressure, gases occupy less volume compared to room
temperature and pressure.
 This is because as temperature is increased the intermolecular forces holding the gases
together become less significant until the gas reach ideality.
 When the gas reaches ideal state, the intermolecular forces become negligible.
Example 2.1.8
Use the data booklet to calculate the volume of 1.505 × 1023 molecules of hydrogen at:
Standard temperature and pressure.
Room temperature and pressure.
Solution
Recall:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
Let the number of moles of hydrogen be x
𝑥 = 1.505 × 1023
1.505 × 1023
𝑥=
6.02 × 1023
𝑥 = 0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
22.4𝑑𝑚3
At s.t.p, 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.25𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 5.6 𝑑𝑚3
24𝑑𝑚3
At r.t.p, 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.25 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 6𝑑𝑚3
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

 Empirical formula is the simplest ratio of elements in a given compound.

 Molecular formula is a chemical formula that gives the total number of atoms of
each element in each molecule of a substance.
 There are mainly two methods of determining the empirical and molecular formula of
a compound:
1. Composition by mass.
2. Combustion data.
1. Composition by mass
 To determine the empirical formula of a compound, follow the procedure below:
1. Assume a basis of 100g for the sample e.g. a compound containing 57.5%C, 3.5%H and
39%F is assumed to have 57.5g of C, 3.5g of H and 39g of F respectively.
2. Write down the relative atomic mass of each element in the compound.
3. Convert the individual elemental masses into moles using the formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠) = 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
4. Determine the element with the least number of moles and divide all the other mole values
with this number to determine the mole ratios.
5. Check if the mole ratios are whole numbers, if they are not multiply by the smallest possible
factor that produces whole number mole ratios e.g. 1:0.33 may be multiplied by 3 to have
3:1 mole ratio.
6. To write the empirical formulas of the compound attach these whole number mole ratios to
the respective elements as subscripts.
 The molecular formula can then be deduced from the empirical formula using:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)𝑛
Example 2.2.7
An organic compound was analysed and /found to contain 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen,
and 53.3% oxygen, what is its empirical formula.
The relative molecular mass of the sample was found to be 180g/mol, calculate the molecular
formula of the compound. What is the name of the compound?
Solution
a. The empirical formula of the compound is calculated as follows:
Carbon, C Hydrogen, H Oxygen, O
Step 1 Assume a basis of 100g 40𝑔 6.7𝑔 53.3𝑔
Write down Ar of all elements 12𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 1𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 16𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Convert into elemental moles 40 6.7 53.3
= 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 6.7𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙
12 1 16
Divide by the smallest mole ratio 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙 6.7𝑚𝑜𝑙 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙
=1 =2 =1
3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙 3.33𝑚𝑜𝑙
mole ratios as integers 1 2 1
Attach numbers to elements 𝐶1 𝐻2 𝑂1

The empirical formula of the compound is 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂

b. The molecular formula is calculated as follows:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)𝑛
Also
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
180 = 𝑛 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂)
𝑛=6
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂)6
= 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒)
2. Combustion data analysis
 Combustion data analysis is the most common way of determining elemental
composition of organic compounds.
 The technique assumes complete combustion at room temperature and pressure
and has the general combustion formula written as:
𝑦 𝑦
 𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑔 + 𝑥 + 𝑂2 𝑔 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 𝑔) + 𝐻 𝑂 𝑙)
4 2 2

 Note that at room temperature all the other reactants or products are in gaseous
state except the water produced hence the volume of water is negligible i.e. 0𝑐𝑚3 .
Example 2.2.7
A chemist measured 20𝑐𝑚3 of a hydrocarbon that required 100𝑐𝑚3 oxygen gas for
complete combustion. Upon complete combustion, 60𝑐𝑚3 of carbon dioxide was
produced. Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.
Solution
Recall:
𝑦 𝑦
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑔 + 𝑥 + 𝑂2 𝑔 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙)
4 2
3 3 3
20𝑐𝑚 100𝑐𝑚 60𝑐𝑚 0𝑐𝑚3
If 1𝑐𝑚3 of 𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑔 is burnt in oxygen, 3𝑐𝑚3 of carbon dioxide would be produced i.e. 𝑥 =
3
Substituting for x,
𝑦
3+ =5
4
𝑦=8
The molecular formula of the compound is 𝐶3 𝐻8
 Assessment exercise 2.1: Atoms and molecules
1. Define the following terms:
a. Isotope
b. Relative atomic mass
c. Avogadro’s number [3]
2. Bromine has two isotopes, with mass numbers 79 and 81. Its relative atomic mass is often given as
80. What does that tell you about the relative abundance of the two isotopes? [2]
3. Deduce the relative atomic mass of Silicon, given the following isotopic information (28Si 92.21%,
29Si 4.70%, 30Si 3.09%). [2]
4. Deduce, giving reasons, the relative molecular mass of compound A, which has the following
mass spectrum: 29 [1]
Relative abundance 57

43

15
72

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
m/z
5. A compound contains C 62.08%, H 10.34% and O 27.58% by mass. Find its empirical formula and its
molecular formula given that its relative molecular mass is 58. [2]