Operational Procedures

AIRPORTS
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AIRSPACE
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 Collision Avoidance
The risk of an inflight collision exists for all pilots,
but you can take action to avoid this type of
accident. The pilot can contribute to collision
avoidance by being alert and scanning for other
aircraft. This is particularly important in the vicinity
of an airport.
 Visual Scanning
Vigilance shall be maintained by each person
operating an aircraft so as to see and avoid other
aircraft.

The most effective way to scan during day light is

through a series of short, regularly spaced eye
movements in 10° sectors. The FAA recommends
that your eye movements not exceed 10°, and that
you focus for at least one second on each
segment of the sky. Be sure that the scan pattern
you develop covers all of the sky that you can see
from the cockpit, both horizontally and vertically.

If there is no apparent relative motion between

another aircraft and yours, you are probably on a
collision course.
 Visual Scanning
Types of Visual Scanning

Center to side scan—Start at the windshield center

and scan to the left, focusing in each block. At the
end of the scan to the left, return to the center and
repeat the scan process to the right.

Side-to-Side Scan—Start at the windshield’s left

side and scan to the right, focusing in each block.
 Blind Spots and Aircraft Design
Like automobiles, have problems associated with
blind spots. In both high wing and low-wing
aircraft designs, portions of your view are blocked
by the fuselage and wings. This can make it
difficult to see conflicting traffic.

Prior to beginning the turn, you can check the area

for other aircraft by lifting the wing and looking in
the direction of the turn. The portions of your view
which are restricted depend on the design of the
airplane.
 Maneuvers in Terminal Area
Clearing turns, which usually consist of at least a
180° change in direction, allow you to see areas
blocked by blind spots and make it easier to
maintain visual contact with other aircraft in the
area.

Prior to starting any maneuvers, make clearing

turns and carefully scan the area for other aircraft.

Call out “clear” left, right, above, or below to instill

and sustain the habit of vigilance during
maneuvering.
 Aircraft Lights
The following lighting systems are intended to
reduce the potential of collision, by making the
aircraft more visible to other aircraft while in flight
and to ground traffic while maneuvering on an
aerodrome

• To make the aircraft more visible to other

aircraft,
• To improve pilot visibility during critical phases
of flight or
• To provide illumination for some other specific
purpose.

Navigation Lights (Position Lights)

Beacon (Red-Anti Collision Lights)
Strobe Lights (White-Anti Collision Lights)
 Aircraft Lights
Navigation Lights - Are sources of illumination on
an aircraft that provides information on aircraft’s
position, heading or status. It consists of a red light
on the left/port wing tip, a green light on the
right/starboard wing tip and a white light on the
aircraft tail.
 Aircraft Lights
Beacon Lights- The aircraft beacon lights are red
in color and either flash or rotate to provide a
pulsating warning light. The beacon is normally
turned on prior to engine start and turned off after
engines have been shut down.
 Aircraft Lights
Strobe Lights - When installed, strobe lights are
usually positioned near the trailing edge of the
wing tips and may also be installed on the tail of
the aircraft. Strobes are high intensity white lights
which flash at a regular interval. They are normally
turned on when entering an active runway for
takeoff and turned off when leaving the runway
after landing. Strobes can also be used to provide
additional visibility when crossing an active
runway during ground maneuvering.
Aircraft Lights
 Right of way Rules
To help avoid conflicting traffic situations, right-of- • If the aircraft are on a head-on collision course,
way rules have been established. both aircraft should give way to the right.

• An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over

all other aircraft.

• When two aircraft of the same category are

converging, the aircraft on the right has the
right of way, the aircraft to the left shall give
way because the aircraft • An overtaking aircraft must pass the slower
aircraft to the right and stay well clear.
 Right of way Rules
• The general rule regarding converging aircraft
of different categories is that the least
maneuverable aircraft usually has the right of
way over all other air traffic.
When two or more aircraft are approaching an
airport for the purpose of landing, the right-of-way
belongs to the aircraft at the lower altitude.

- A balloon has the right of way over any

other category of aircraft;
- A glider has the right of way over an Your right of way
airship, airplane, or rotorcraft.
My right of way
- An airship has the right of way over a
airplane, or rotorcraft.

• However, an aircraft towing or refueling other

aircraft has the right of way over all other
engine-driven aircraft.
 Minimum Safe Altitude
For safety reasons, the FARs specify minimum
altitudes that you must maintain during flight.
Maintaining minimum safe altitudes is required at
all times except during takeoffs and landings.
• The minimum safe altitude anywhere must
allow an emergency landing, following an
engine failure, without undue hazard to persons
or property on the surface.
• Over a congested area, you are required to fly
1,000 feet above any obstacle within a
horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of your aircraft.
• When flying over an uncongested area, you
must fly at least 500 feet above the surface.
Over sparsely populated or open water areas
you cannot fly within 500 feet of any person,
vessel, vehicle, or structure.
500
feet
500
feet
 Taxiing in Wind
Another safety concern that you will be
introduced to early in your flight training is the
effect of wind during taxi operations. Strong winds
passing over and around the wings and horizontal
stabilizer during taxi can actually lift the airplane.

• Generally, the most critical wind condition when

taxiing a high-wing, tricycle-gear air plane is a
quartering tailwind.

• When taxiing a tailwheel airplane, you should

position the ailerons the same as you do for a
tricycle-gear airplane. However, you should
hold the elevator control aft (elevator up) in a
headwind, and hold the elevator control
forward (elevator down) in a tailwind.
 VFR and IFR Cruising Altitudes

359 ͦ 0 ͦ 359 ͦ 0 ͦ

VFR VFR IFR IFR

Even Odd Even Odd
Thousand Thousand Thousand Thousand
+500 +500

180 ͦ 179 ͦ 180 ͦ 179 ͦ

 Wake Turbulence
Whenever an airplane generates lift, air spills over
the wingtips from the high pressure areas below
the wings to the low pressure areas above them.
This flow causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of air
called wingtip vortices, or wake turbulence.

• Wingtip vortices are created when an airplane

generates lift.
• The greatest vortex strength occurs when the
generating aircraft is heavy, slow, and in a clean
configuration.
• Wingtip vortices tend to sink below the flight
path of the aircraft which generated them. They
are most hazardous during light, quartering
tailwind conditions.
 Flight Over Hazardous Terrain
Although it depends on where you learn to fly,
mountain flying and flight over open water usually
are beyond the scope of private pilot training. To
safely operate over mountainous terrain or over
open water, you need to obtain specialized
training from an experienced instructor who is
familiar with the area over which the flight will be
conducted. Appropriate survival gear is an
absolute necessity. Although it can be a rewarding
experience, mountain flying, in particular,
introduces numerous hazards for the
inexperienced. Decreased aircraft performance at
high altitudes, turbulence, rapidly changing
weather, and difficulty in locating a forced landing
site are just a few of the challenges facing you on
a mountain flight
 Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
To ensure that it is clear as to who has control of
the aircraft, the FAA strongly recommends the use
of a three-step process when exchanging the
flight controls.
PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You have the flight
controls."
PILOT TAKING CONTROL: "I have the flight
controls."
• A visual check also is recommended to ensure
that the other pilot actually has the controls.
• There may be times when your instructor
desires to assume control of the aircraft from
you. If this is necessary, your instructor should
take the controls while informing you, "I have
the flight controls."

PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You have the flight

controls."

• The pilot passing the controls should continue

to fly until the pilot taking the controls
acknowledges the exchange by saying, "I have
the flight controls."
 Sterile Cockpit

Regulations prohibit flight crews from performing non-essential activities during the following
phases of flight: taxi (defined as "movement of an airplane under its own power on the surface of
an airport”), take-off, landing and all other flight operations conducted below 10,000 feet except
cruise flight.
 AIRPORTS
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 Types of Airports
There are two types of airports:

Towered and Nontowered.

These types can be further subdivided to:

• Civil Airports - airports that are open to the
general public.

• Military or Federal Government airports - airports

operated by the military, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of
the Federal Government.

• Private Airports - airports designated for private

or restricted use only, not open to the general
public.
 Towered and Non-Towered Airports
A controlled airport has an operating control tower
and is sometimes referred to as a tower airport.
Since all aircraft in the vicinity, as well as those on
the ground, are subject to instructions issued by air
traffic control (ATC), a two-way radio is required for
you to operate in the controlled airport environment.
At an uncontrolled airport, or nontower airport,
control of VFR traffic is not exercised. Although
you are not required to have a two-way radio,
most pilots use radios to transmit their intentions
to other pilots. You also are responsible for
determining the active runway and how to enter
and exit the traffic pattern.
 Traffic Pattern
An established procedure to ensure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport in an orderly manner.

Downwind

Base Crosswind

Straight out Departure

Final Upwind
 Wind Direction Indicators
Wind Tee

A Wind Tee is erected at certain airports to

indicate wind direction but not speed. When facing
into the wind, the wind tee swings with the wind,
making the letter “T” readable. The wind tee is not
as common as the wind sock and in some cases, a
wind sock and tee may be at the same location.
 Wind Direction Indicators
Tetrahedron

A tetrahedron is a wind direction indicator that

indicates which direction the wind is coming from.
However, wind speed isn’t indicated by
tetrahedrons.

It’s also vital to know that a tetrahedron works in

the opposite direction of a windsock, so don’t get
the two confused. A windsock is inflated by the
wind and points in the same direction as the wind,
but a tetrahedron points in the opposite direction.
Do not use it solely as a wind direction indicator,
but to use it in conjunction with a wind sock
 Wind Direction Indicators
Wind Sock

The wind sock is a good source of information

since it not only indicates wind direction but allows
the pilot to estimate the wind velocity and/or gust
factor. It will provide you with the present wind
conditions near the touchdown zone of the
runway. The wind sock extends out straighter in
strong winds and tends to move back and forth
when the wind is gusting.
 Wind Direction Indicators
Segmented Circle

At airports without an operating control tower, a segmented circle visual indicator system, if installed, is
designed to provide traffic pattern information. It is used to provide pilots with information about wind and
traffic pattern procedures. To form a segmented circle, a wind direction indicator, such as a tetrahedron, is
surrounded by traffic pattern indicators. When viewed from above, the base and final legs of the traffic
pattern are visually depicted by these traffic pattern signs, which align with the appropriate runway.
Noise Abatement Procedures
 Noise Abatement Procedures

A noise abatement procedure is a procedure used

by aircraft at an airport to minimize the impact of
noise on the communities surrounding an airport.
 Runway Layout
Runway – is defined as a rectangular area on a
land aerodrome prepared for the landing and
takeoff of aircraft.

Since airplanes are directly affected by wind

during takeoffs and landings, runways normally
positioned so that you can take off and land in the
direction of the prevailing wind.

The runway's magnetic direction is rounded off to

the nearest 10°, with the last zero omitted. For
example, runways oriented approximately 100° and
280° magnetic are designated by the numbers 10
and 28
 Visual Runway
Visual runways have no instrument approach procedure available. Visual runways are
marked with a dashed centerline and runway identification number.
 Non Precision Runway
Non-precision runways have at least one non-precision approach available. It often looks similar to visual
runways but features threshold and aiming point markings.
 Precision Runway
Precision runways feature at least one precision approach aid at either end of the runway, such as an
Instrument Landing System (ILS). Precision runways feature additional markings to assist pilots in
determining runway distance and landing areas.
 Runway Markings
Aiming Point
Runway Centerline
Touchdown Zone Marking

Runway Designator

Threshold
Runway Side Stripe Marking
Displaced Threshold

Blast Pad/Stopway
 Runway Markings
Runway Designator – Runway numbers and
letters are determined from the approach
direction. The runway number is the whole
number nearest one tenth of the magnetic Runway Centerline
azimuth of the centerline of the runway, measured
clockwise from the magnetic north. The letters,
differentiate between left (L), right (R) or center Runway Designator
(C), parallel runways, as applicable:
- For two parallel runways “L”,”R”
- For the three parallel runways “L”,“C”,“R”

Runway Centerline – The runway centerline

identifies the center of the runway and provides
alignment guidance during takeoff and landings.
 Runway Markings
Aiming Point - The aiming point marking serves as
a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These
two rectangular markings consist of a broad white Aiming Point
stripe located on each side of the runway
centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the Touchdown Zone Marking
landing threshold.

Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. - identifies the

touchdown zone for landing operations and are
coded to provide distance information in 500 feet
(150m) increments. These markings consist of
groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars
symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway
centerline.
 Runway Markings
Runway Side Stripe Marking - shows the edges of
the runway. They provide a visual contrast
between runway and the abutting terrain or
shoulders. Side stripes consist of continuous white
stripes located on each side of the runway
Runway Side Stripe Marking
Runway Threshold Marking - helps identify the
beginning of the runway that is available for
Runway Threshold Marking
landing. In some instances, the landing threshold
may be relocated or displaced.
 Runway Markings
Displaced Threshold

A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a

point on the runway other than the designated
beginning of the runway. Displacement of a
threshold reduces the length of runway available
for landings. The portion of runway behind a
displaced threshold is available for taxiing, takeoffs
in either direction, or landings from the opposite
direction. A displaced threshold is generally used
due to obstructions at the beginning of the
runway, such as buildings or trees.

On runways with a displaced threshold, the

beginning portion of the landing zone is marked
with a solid white line with white arrows leading up
to it.
 Runway Markings
Relocated Runway Threshold

When a portion of a runway is closed, the runway

threshold is relocated as necessary. When the
threshold is relocated, the closed portion of the
runway is not available for use by aircraft for
takeoff or landing, but it is available for taxi. When
a threshold is relocated, it closes not only a set
portion of the approach end of a runway, but also
shortens the length of the opposite direction
runway. Yellow arrow heads are placed across the
width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar.
 Runway Markings
Blast Pad / Stopway Area

an area where propeller or jet blast can dissipate

without creating a hazard to others. The stopway
area is paved so that, in the event of an aborted
takeoff, an aircraft can use it to decelerate and
come to a stop. It cannot be used for landing,
takeoff, or taxiing.
 Runway Markings
Runway Safety Area

The runway safety area (RSA) is a defined surface surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for
reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the
runway.
 Taxiway Markings
Taxiway Centerline

Normal Centerline. The taxiway centerline is a

single continuous yellow line, This provides a
visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated
path.

Enhanced Centerline - used to warn you of an

upcoming runway. It consists of yellow dashed
lines on either side of the normal solid taxiway
centerline and the dashes extend up to 150 feet
prior to a runway holding position marking.
Taxiway Markings
 Taxiway Markings
Taxiway Edge Marking

Continuous Markings. These consist of a

continuous double yellow line. They are used to
define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or
some other abutting paved surface not intended
for use by aircraft.

Dashed Markings. These markings are used when

there is an operational need to define the edge of
a taxiway or taxi lane on a paved surface where
the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is
intended for use by aircraft (for example, an apron).
Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a broken
double yellow line,
 Taxiway Markings
Taxiway Edge Marking

Taxi Shoulder Markings

Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes
provided with paved shoulders to prevent blast
and water erosion. Although shoulders may have
the appearance of full strength pavement, they are
not intended for use by aircraft and may be unable
to support an aircraft. Usually the taxiway edge
marking will define this area. Where conditions
exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may
cause confusion as to which side of the edge
stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway shoulder
markings may be used to indicate the pavement is
unusable.
Taxiway Markings
 Holding Position Markings
Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways.

These markings identify the locations on a taxiway

where aircraft MUST STOP when a clearance has
not been issued to proceed onto the runway.
Generally, runway holding position markings also
identify the boundary of the runway safety area
(RSA) for aircraft exiting the runway. When
instructed by ATC, “Hold short of Runway XX,”
the pilot MUST STOP so that no part of the aircraft
extends beyond the runway holding position Dash through the dash, stop at solid
marking. When approaching runways at airports
with an operating control tower, pilots must
not cross the runway holding position marking
without ATC clearance.
 Holding Position Markings
Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways.

These markings identify the locations on runways where

aircraft MUST STOP. These markings are located on
runways used by ATC for Land And Hold Short
Operations and Taxiing operations. For taxiing operations,
the pilot MUST STOP prior to the holding position
markings unless explicitly authorized to cross by ATC.
The holding position markings are placed on runways
prior to the intersection with another runway, or some
designated point. Pilots receiving and accepting Dash through the dash, stop at solid
instructions “Cleared to land Runway XX, hold short of
Runway YY” from ATC must either exit Runway XX prior to
the holding position markings, or stop at the holding
position markings prior to Runway YY.
Holding Position Markings
 Holding Position Markings
Holding Position Signs and Markings for an
Instrument Landing System (ILS) Critical Area

When instructed to “hold short of Runway (XX) ILS

critical area,” you must ensure no portion of the
aircraft extends beyond these markings.

The instrument landing system (ILS) broadcasts

signals to arriving instrument aircraft to guide
them to the runway. Each of these ILSs have
critical areas that must be kept clear of all
obstacles in order to ensure quality of the
broadcast signal. At many airports, taxiways extend
into the ILS critical area.
Holding Position Markings
 Holding Position Markings
Holding Position Markings for Intersecting
Taxiways

Holding position markings for intersecting taxiways

consist of a single dashed line extending across
the width of the taxiway. They are located on
taxiways where ATC holds aircraft short of a
taxiway intersection. When instructed by ATC,
“Hold short of Taxiway XX,” the pilot MUST STOP so
that no part of the aircraft extends beyond the
holding position marking. When the marking is not
present, the pilot MUST STOP the aircraft at a point
which provides adequate clearance from an
aircraft on the intersecting taxiway.
Holding Position Markings
Airport Signs
 Airport Signs
Mandatory instruction sign – red background with white text

Location sign - black with yellow inscription and a yellow border, no arrows. They are used to identify a
taxiway or runway location, to identify the boundary of the runway, or identify an instrument landing system
(ILS) critical area.

Direction sign - yellow background with black inscription. The inscription identifies the designation of the
intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an intersection.

Information sign - yellow background with black inscription. These signs are used to provide the pilot with
information on areas that cannot be seen from the control tower, applicable radio frequencies, and noise
abatement procedures. The airport operator determines the need, size, and location of these signs.

Destination sign - yellow background with black inscription and arrows. These signs provide information on
locating areas, such as runways, terminals, cargo areas, and civil aviation areas.

Runway distance remaining sign - black background with white numbers. The numbers indicate the
distance of the remaining runway in thousands of feet.
 Holding Position Markings
Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.

Surface painted holding position signs have a red

7R-25L
background with a white inscription and
supplement the signs located at the holding
position.
 Taxiway Markings
Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs - have a
yellow background with a black inscription, and
are provided when it is not possible to provide
taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when
necessary to supplement such signs. These
markings are located adjacent to the centerline
with signs indicating turns to the left being on the
left side of the taxiway centerline, and signs
M11
indicating turns to the right being on the right side
of the centerline.
 Taxiway Markings
Surface Painted Location Signs haves a black
background with a yellow inscription. When
necessary, these markings are used to

TL7
supplement location signs located along side the
taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the
designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is
located. These markings are located on the right
side of the centerline.