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Fossil fuel

A fossil fuel[a] is a hydrocarbon-containing material such as coal,

oil, and natural gas,[2] formed naturally in the Earth's crust from
the remains of dead plants and animals that is extracted and
burned as a fuel. Fossil fuels may be burned to provide heat for use
directly (such as for cooking or heating), to power engines (such as
internal combustion engines in motor vehicles), or to generate
electricity.[3] Some fossil fuels are refined into derivatives such as
kerosene, gasoline and propane before burning. The origin of fossil
fuels is the anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms,
containing organic molecules created by photosynthesis.[4] The
conversion from these materials to high-carbon fossil fuels
typically require a geological process of millions of years.[5]

In 2022, over 80% of primary energy consumption in the world

and over 60% of its electricity was from fossil fuels.[6] The large-
scale burning of fossil fuels causes serious environmental damage.
Over 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions due to human activity
in 2022 was CO2 from burning them.[7] Natural processes on
Earth, mostly absorption by the ocean, can remove only a small
part of this CO2. Therefore, there is a net increase of many billion
tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year.[8] Although
methane leaks are significant,[9]: 52 the burning of fossil fuels is the
main source of greenhouse gas emissions causing global warming
and ocean acidification. Additionally, most air pollution deaths are
due to fossil fuel particulates and noxious gases. It is estimated
that this costs over 3% of the global gross domestic product[10] and
that fossil fuel phase-out will save millions of lives each year.[11][12]
The main fossil fuels (from top to
Recognition of the climate crisis, pollution and other negative bottom): natural gas, oil, and coal
impacts caused by fossil fuels has led to a widespread policy
transition and activist movement focused on ending their use in
favor of sustainable energy.[13] Because the fossil-fuel industry is so heavily integrated in the global
economy and heavily subsidized,[14] this transition is expected to have significant economic
impacts.[15] Many stakeholders argue that this change needs to be a just transition[16] and create
policy that addresses the societal burdens created by the stranded assets of the fossil fuel
industry.[17][18]

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International policy, in the form of United Nations sustainable development goals for affordable and
clean energy and climate action, as well as the Paris Climate Agreement, is designed to facilitate this
transition at a global level. In 2021, the International Energy Agency concluded that no new fossil fuel
extraction projects could be opened if the global economy and society wants to avoid the worst
impacts of climate change and meet international goals for climate change mitigation.[19]

Origin
The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized
remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and
pressure in Earth's crust over millions of years was first
introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia
[Alchymia]" and later by Mikhail Lomonosov "as early
as 1757 and certainly by 1763".[21] The first use of the
term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German
chemist Caspar Neumann, in English translation in Since oil fields are located only at certain places
1759.[22] The Oxford English Dictionary notes that in on Earth,[20] only some countries are oil-
the phrase "fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means " independent; the other countries depend on the
[o]btained by digging; found buried in the earth", oil-production capacities of these countries.
which dates to at least 1652,[23] before the English
noun "fossil" came to refer primarily to long-dead
organisms in the early 18th century.[24]

Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large quantities under anoxic
conditions millions of years ago began forming petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic
decomposition. Over geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under
further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high temperature and pressure caused the
organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in oil
shales, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as
catagenesis. Despite these heat-driven transformations, the energy released in combustion is still
photosynthetic in origin.[4]

Terrestrial plants tended to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous
period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.
Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable
resources because they take millions of years to form and known viable reserves are being depleted
much faster than new ones are generated.[25][26]

Importance
Fossil fuels have been important to human development because they can be readily burned in the
open atmosphere to produce heat. The use of peat as a domestic fuel predates recorded history. Coal
was burned in some early furnaces for the smelting of metal ore, while semi-solid hydrocarbons from
oil seeps were also burned in ancient times,[29] they were mostly used for waterproofing and
embalming.[30]

Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century.[31]

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Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of

petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable
resource.[32] Natural gas deposits are also the main source of
helium.

Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional

crude oil, and oil sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand
and clay, began to become more important as sources of fossil fuel Net income of the global oil and gas
in the early 2000s.[33] Oil shale and similar materials are industry reached a record US$4
sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high- trillion in 2022.[27]
molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude
oil when heated (pyrolyzed). With additional processing, they can
be employed instead of other established fossil fuels. During the
2010s and 2020s there was disinvestment from exploitation of
such resources due to their high carbon cost relative to more
easily-processed reserves.[34]

Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and

watermills provided the energy needed for work such as milling
flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while burning wood or peat After recovering from the COVID-19
provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at pandemic, energy company profits
first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industrial increased with greater revenues
Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal from higher fuel prices resulting
gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal from the Russian invasion of
combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly Ukraine, falling debt levels, tax
increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from write-downs of projects shut down in
fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, Russia, and backing off from earlier
also require fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in plans to reduce greenhouse gas
generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical emissions.[28] Record profits
industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in the sparked public calls for windfall
construction of roads. taxes.[28]

The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels
in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation.[35][36] The
development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth; it
has been estimated that almost half of the Earth's population are currently fed as a result of synthetic
nitrogen fertilizer use.[37] According to head of a fertilizers commodity price agency, "50% of the
world's food relies on fertilisers."[38]

Environmental effects
The burning of fossil fuels has a number of negative externalities – harmful environmental impacts
where the effects extend beyond the people using the fuel. These effects vary between different fuels.
All fossil fuels release CO2 when they burn, thus accelerating climate change. Burning coal, and to a
lesser extent oil and its derivatives, contributes to atmospheric particulate matter, smog and acid
rain.[39][40][41]

Climate change is largely driven by the release of greenhouse gases like CO2, and the burning of fossil
fuels is the main source of these emissions. In most parts of the world climate change is negatively
impacting ecosystems.[44] This includes contributing to the extinction of species and reducing
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people's ability to produce food, thus adding to the

problem of world hunger. Continued rises in global
temperatures will lead to further adverse effects on
both ecosystems and people; the World Health
Organization has said that climate change is the
greatest threat to human health in the 21st
century.[45][46]

Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric

acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both
natural areas and the built environment. Monuments
and sculptures made from marble and limestone are
particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium
carbonate.
The Global Carbon Project shows how additions
to CO2 since 1880 have been caused by different
sources ramping up one after another.

Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly

uranium and thorium, which are released into the
atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium
and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide
from burning coal.[47] It is estimated that during 1982,
US coal burning released 155 times as much
radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile
Island accident.[48]

Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom

ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide
variety of applications (see Fly ash reuse), utilizing, for
example, about 40% of the United States
production.[49] Global surface temperature reconstruction over
the last 2000 years using proxy data from tree
In addition to the effects that result from burning, the rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly
harvesting, processing, and distribution of fossil fuels observational data is in red, with all data showing
also have environmental effects. Coal mining methods, a 5 year moving average.[43]
particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining,
have negative environmental impacts, and offshore oil
drilling poses a hazard to aquatic organisms. Fossil fuel wells can contribute to methane release via
fugitive gas emissions. Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including air and
water pollution. Coal is sometimes transported by diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is
typically transported by tanker ships, requiring the combustion of additional fossil fuels.

A variety of mitigating efforts have arisen to counter the negative effects of fossil fuels. This includes a
movement to use alternative energy sources, such as renewable energy. Environmental regulation
uses a variety of approaches to limit these emissions; for example, rules against releasing waste
products like fly ash into the atmosphere.[41]

In December 2020, the United Nations released a report saying that despite the need to reduce
greenhouse emissions, various governments are "doubling down" on fossil fuels, in some cases
diverting over 50% of their COVID-19 recovery stimulus funding to fossil fuel production rather than
to alternative energy. The UN secretary general António Guterres declared that "Humanity is waging
war on nature. This is suicidal. Nature always strikes back – and it is already doing so with growing

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force and fury." He also claimed there is still cause for hope, anticipating the US plan to join other
large emitters like China and the EU in adopting targets to reach net zero emissions by
2050.[50][51][52]

Illness and deaths

Environmental pollution from fossil fuels impacts humans
because particulates and other air pollution from fossil fuel
combustion cause illness and death when inhaled. These health
effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness,
aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung
function. The poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and
people with preexisting respiratory disease and other ill health are
Deaths caused as a result of fossil
more at risk.[54] Global air pollution deaths due to fossil fuels have
fuel use (areas of rectangles in
been estimated at over 8 million people (2018, nearly 1 in 5 deaths
chart) greatly exceed those resulting
worldwide)[55] at 10.2 million (2019),[56] and 5.13 million excess
from production of renewable
deaths from ambient air pollution from fossil fuel use (2023).[57] energy (rectangles barely visible in
chart).[53]
While all energy sources inherently have adverse effects, the data
show that fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas
emissions and are the most dangerous for human health. In
contrast, modern renewable energy sources appear to be safer for human health and cleaner. The
death rates from accidents and air pollution in the EU are as follows per terawatt-hour (TWh):

Greenhouse gas
Nos. of deaths
Energy source emissions
per TWh
(tonnes/TWh)

Coal 24.6 820

Oil 18.4 720

Natural gas 2.8 490

Biomass 4.6 78–230

Hydropower 0.02 34

Nuclear energy 0.07 3

Wind 0.04 4
Solar 0.02 5

[58]As the data shows, coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass cause higher death rates and higher levels of
greenhouse gas emissions than hydropower, nuclear energy, wind, and solar power. Scientists
propose that 1.8 million lives have been saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power.[59]

Phase-out
Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels to zero, to
reduce deaths and illness from air pollution, limit climate change, and strengthen energy

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independence. It is part of the ongoing renewable energy

transition, but is being hindered by fossil fuel subsidies.

Just transition
Just transition is a framework developed by the trade union
movement[61] to encompass a range of social interventions needed
to secure workers' rights and livelihoods when economies are
shifting to sustainable production, primarily combating climate
change and protecting biodiversity. In Europe, advocates for a just
transition want to unite social and climate justice, for example, for Bloomberg NEF reported that in
coal workers in coal-dependent developing regions who lack
2022, global energy transition
employment opportunities beyond coal.[62] investment equaled fossil fuels
investment for the first time.[60]
Divestment

Fossil fuel divestment or fossil fuel divestment and

investment in climate solutions is an attempt to reduce
climate change by exerting social, political, and
economic pressure for the institutional divestment of
assets including stocks, bonds, and other financial
instruments connected to companies involved in
extracting fossil fuels.

Fossil fuel divestment campaigns emerged on college

and university campuses in the United States in 2011 As of 2021, 1,300 institutions possessing 14.6
with students urging their administrations to turn trillion dollars have divested from the fossil fuel
endowment investments in the fossil fuel industry into industry.[63]
investments in clean energy and communities most
impacted by climate change.[64] In 2012, Unity College
in Maine became the first institution of higher learning to divest[65] its endowment from fossil fuels.

By 2015, fossil fuel divestment was reportedly the fastest growing divestment movement in
history.[66] As of July 2023, more than 1593 institutions with assets totalling more than $40.5 trillion
in assets worldwide had begun or committed some form of divestment of fossil fuels.[67]

Industrial sector
In 2019, Saudi Aramco was listed and it reached a US$2 trillion valuation on its second day of
trading,[68] after the world's largest initial public offering.[69]

Economic effects

Air pollution from fossil fuels in 2018 has been estimated to cost US$2.9 trillion, or 3.3% of the global
gross domestic product (GDP).[10]

Subsidies

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Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil

fuels. They may be tax breaks on consumption, such as
a lower sales tax on natural gas for residential heating;
or subsidies on production, such as tax breaks on
exploration for oil. Or they may be free or cheap
negative externalities; such as air pollution or climate
change due to burning gasoline, diesel and jet fuel.
Some fossil fuel subsidies are via electricity generation,
such as subsidies for coal-fired power stations.

Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce the

health risks of air pollution,[70] and would greatly
reduce global carbon emissions thus helping to limit Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel
climate change. [71] As of 2021, policy researchers pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in
estimate that substantially more money is spent on constant US dollars.
fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful
agricultural subsidies or environmentally harmful
water subsidies.[72] The International Energy Agency says: "High fossil fuel prices hit the poor
hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-
off segments of the population."[73]

Despite the G20 countries having pledged to phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies,[74] as of 2023
they continue because of voter demand,[75][76] or for energy security.[77] Global fossil fuel
consumption subsidies in 2022 have been estimated at one trillion dollars;[73] although they vary each
year depending on oil prices, they are consistently hundreds of billions of dollars.[78]

Lobbying activities

The fossil fuels lobby includes paid representatives of corporations involved in the fossil fuel industry
(oil, gas, coal), as well as related industries like chemicals, plastics, aviation and other
transportation.[79] Because of their wealth and the importance of energy, transport and chemical
industries to local, national and international economies, these lobbies have the capacity and money
to attempt to have outsized influence on governmental policy. In particular, the lobbies have been
known to obstruct policy related to environmental protection, environmental health and climate
action.[80]

Lobbies are active in most fossil-fuel intensive economies with democratic governance, with reporting
on the lobbies most prominent in Canada, Australia, the United States and Europe, however the
lobbies are present in many parts of the world. Big Oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Shell, BP,
TotalEnergies, Chevron Corporation, and ConocoPhillips are among the largest corporations
associated with the fossil fuels lobby.[81] The American Petroleum Institute is a powerful industry
lobbyist for Big Oil with significant influence in Washington, D.C.[82][83][84] In Australia, Australian
Energy Producers, formerly known as the Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration
Association (APPEA), has significant influence in Canberra and helps to maintain favorable policy
settings for Oil and Gas.[85]

In 2022, the Guardian criticized the presence of major fossil fuel companies at global forums for
decision making, like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,[86] Paris Climate Agreement
negotiations,[86] the Plastic and other international forums. The lobby is known for exploiting

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international crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic,[87] or the 2022 Russian invasion of
Ukraine,[88][89] to try to roll back existing regulations or justify new fossil fuel development.[87][88]
Lobbyists try to retain fossil fuel subsidies.[90]

See also
Abiogenic petroleum origin – a proposal that petroleum is not a fossil fuel
Bioremediation
Carbon bubble
Eco-economic decoupling
Environmental impact of the energy industry
Fossil Fools Day
Fossil Fuel Beta
Hydraulic fracturing
Liquefied petroleum gas
Low-carbon power
Peak coal
Peak gas
Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
Shale gas

Notes
a. The term has been considered a misnomer because it does not actually originate from fossils, but
from organic matter.[1]

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Further reading
Barrett, Ross; Worden, Daniel (eds.), Oil Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press,
2014.
Bob Johnson, Carbon Nation: Fossil Fuels in the Making of American Culture. Lawrence, KS:
University Press of Kansas, 2014.

External links
Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker (https://globalenergymonitor.org/oil-and-gas/global-fossil-infras
tructure-tracker/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191210235316/https://globalenergymon
itor.org/oil-and-gas/global-fossil-infrastructure-tracker/) 10 December 2019 at the Wayback
Machine
Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (https://energyandcleanair.org/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fossil_fuel&oldid=1200303534"

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