REVIEW:

1. The Big Bang Theory

2. Fred Hoyle and Georges Lemaitre
3. Timeline of the Big Bang Theory
4. Terminologies
a. nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
b. nucleosynthesis
c. stellar nucleosynthesis
d. supernova nucleosynthesis
Physical Science

Chemistry – deals with the study of matter and its composition, structure, properties, and reactions.

Matter – is anything that occupies space and has mass. Electron cloud

Atom Nucleus
- it is the basic unit of matter.
Nucleons
- It has mass.
1. Protons
- 3 sub-atomic particles 2. Neutrons
1. Protons – positively charged, mass (1.67262 x 10 ) Electrons
-27
2. Electrons – negatively charged, mass ( 9.10938 x 10 )
-31
3. Neutrons – neutral, mass (1.67262 x 10 )
-27
- 2 fundamental forces
1. Electromagnetic force
2. Strong nuclear force
3 Types of radiation

1. Alpha particles – During the Alpha decay, an alpha particle is released. An alpha particle
consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
- Alpha radiation has a low penetration power.

2. Beta particles – During the Beta decay, a beta particle is released. A beta particle is an
energetic, high speed electron or positron.
- Beta radiation has a higher penetration power than alpha particle.

3. Gamma rays – During the Gamma Ray decay, the electromagnetic radiation is released as
gamma rays. Unlike the alpha and beta particles, gamma rays are photons that are considered
as a form of light with the highest amount of energy.
- Gamma rays have the highest penetration power among the three radiation types, which
makes it the most dangerous if its source is outside the body.
Identity of the Element

Atomic Number
- defines the identity of the atom
- the number of protons in the atom
- The symbol for the atomic number is Z.
If the atom has one proton, then it is the element hydrogen having the atomic number 1. If
one adds another proton inside the hydrogen atom, it becomes the helium atom. If the number
of protos becomes three, it now has the properties of the element lithium.

This is the current basis of arranging the elements in the periodic table, modifying the
original version of Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist and inventor.
Origin of the Elements

The elements in the latest version of the periodic table shows the current list of elements
found in nature and in our present-day universe.

The first 92 elements are found in nature, except for technetium and promethium, which are
synthetic or man-made elements.

The rest of the elements with atomic number greater than 92 is also artificially prepared in
the laboratory.

• Georges Lemaitre and Edwin Powell Hubble, a Belgian astrophysicist and American
Astronomer observed that new stars are formed leading to the theory that the universe is
expanding. Young stars like our Sun mostly contain hydrogen and helium. Older stars, on the
other hand, contain other heavier elements and less hydrogen and helium.
Origin of the Elements

The first atom formed after the Big Bang is the lightest element, hydrogen (H). It has one
proton and one electron. These atoms were gravitationally attracted to one another and
condensed into huge clouds. As a result of the gravitational pressure, the centers of these huge
clouds grew extremely hot (up to a million degrees). At this very high temperature, it was
surmised that the condition led to the fusion of hydrogen nuclei which led to the formation of
Helium (He).

When the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom changes, a different element is
formed. Remember that the number of protons defines the identity of the element. The fusion of
hydrogen atoms into helium signals the birth of a star. Helium, being denser than hydrogen,
stays in the gas core while the fusing hydrogen atoms remain in the outer part of the star.
Isotopes and Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion – the combination of nuclei into heavier nucleus

The nucleus of helium contains two protons. However, there exist some elements with the
same number of protons, but different mass numbers. These are called isotopes.

Isotopes – are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

A
Isotopes can best described using the notation

where: X - is the symbol of the element

Z
X
A - is the mass number (the sum of the number of protons and neutrons)
Z - is the atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus)
For example:

Protium Deuterium Tritium

Most Abundant Rare Very Rare

Nuclear Particles
Isotope
Relative Abundance in
Symbols of Number of Number of Isotope Name
Nature (%)
Hydrogen Protons (Z) Neutrons ( n0 )
1
1 0 hydrogen-1 or protium 99.9885
1H
2
1H or D 1 1 hydrogen-2 or deuterium 0.0115
3
1H or T 1 2 hydrogen-3 or tritium very rare
 Isotopes differ in the number of neutrons present in the nucleus. For helium (He), the most
common and stable isotope has a mass number of 4. This means that aside from two protons,
4
this isotope of helium isotope contains a total of four nucleons, it is denoted as 2He , and
commonly represented as helium-4. The nucleus of helium-4 is also called an alpha particle ( 42α).
An alpha particle is emitted through a radioactive decay process of an unstable atom.

Nuclear Particles
Isotope
Relative Abundance in
Symbols of Number of Number of Isotope Name
Nature (%)
Helium Protons Neutrons
4
2He
2 2 helium-4 99.99863
3
2He
2 1 helium-3 0.000137
2
2He 2 0 helium-2 Trace amount
Relative Abundance – refers to the percentage of the isotope existing in nature.
Nuclear Reactions
- are reactions that involve nucleus or nuclei of atoms. In writing the equation of nuclear reactions,
the reactants on the left side and the products on the right side are separated by an arrow. The notation
for isotope AZX is used in this equation to represent the elements.
Some isotopes of elements are radioactive, meaning their nucleus undergoes spontaneous
disintegration with the emission of a particle in the form of radiation. This radioactive decay also forms
new elements that are usually more stable than the element where they came from. For particles in
nuclear reactions, refer to the table below for their symbols and corresponding mass number and
atomic number.
Particles involved in nuclear reactions.
Name Symbol Charge Mass (g)
4 -24
2α
Alpha (helium nucleus) 2+ 6.645 x 10
0 0 -28
-1β or -1е
Beta (electron) 1 9.109 x 10
0 0 -28
Beta (positron) β or 1+ 9.109 x 10
1 1е
0
0γ or γ
Gamma 0 0
1ρ -24
Proton 1 1+ 1.672 x 10
1 -24
Neutron 0n
0 1.674 x 10
Balancing Nuclear Reactions

In balancing nuclear equations, the protons and neutrons are represented. The general rule
in nuclear reactions is that the sum of the superscripts (mass numbers) in the reactants should be
equal to the sum of the superscript in the products. The mass number (A) and the atomic
number (Z) or the nuclear charge must be conserved.

Law of conservation of mass – states that mass or matter cannot be created nor destroyed.

Note: In the nuclear reaction equation, the number of protons and the number of neutrons in
both reactant side (before the arrow in the chemical reaction) and the product side (after
the arrow) should be equal. This balanced mass on both sides of the chemical equation is
in observance with the law of conservation of mass.
Example

1. Write the equation of the nuclear fusion of deuterium and helium-3 emitting a proton. Indicate how
this nuclear fusion shows the law of conservation of mass. What new element is formed? What
isotope of the new element is formed?

Solution: 2 3 1
1H + 2He ____ + 1ρ

2 3 4 1
1H + 2He 2He + 1ρ

The total mass number and atomic number are 5 and 3, respectively. Since a proton is emitted that
has both a mass number and an atomic number of 1, subtracting this from the reactant side yields a
mass number and atomic number of 4 and 2 for the new element, respectively. Based on the atomic
number, the new element is the isotope helium-4. Take note that nuclear reactions with low atomic
numbers usually emit radiation.

The new element formed is helium, particularly the isotope helium-4.

Example

2. Write the nuclear fusion of tritium and deuterium that emits neutron. Indicate how this nuclear
fusion shows the law of conservation of mass. What new element is formed? What isotope of the
new element is formed?

Solution: 3 2 1
1H + 1H ____ + 0n

3 2 4 1
1H + 1H 2He + 0n

As shown in the equation, since the reaction emits a neutron, then the new element has a mass
number of 4 and atomic number of 2.

The new element formed is helium (He), particularly the isotope helium-4.
Example

3. What particle is emitted by the spontaneous decay of the radioactive isotope radium-226?

Solution:
226 222
88 Ra 86 Ra + ____

A and Z must always be balanced. Mass number (A) 226 = 222 + 4

Atomic number (z) 88 = 86 + 2

Using the table in slide no. 13 (Particles involved in nuclear reactions), the particle with atomic
4or 4
number 2 and mass number 4 is the alpha particle, thus the particle emitted is 2 α .
2He
4
2α
226 222
88 Ra 86 Ra + _____
Exercises:

A. Write the nuclear equation for each reaction.

11
a. emission of positron from 6C

b. beta decay of molybdenum-99

c. emission of an alpha particle

from 185 W, followed by gamma
emission