GeoScienceWorld

Lithosphere
Volume 2022, Article ID 5658756, 20 pages
https://doi.org/10.2113/2022/5658756

Research Article
Permian Remelting and Maturity of Continental Crust
Revealed by the Daqing Peraluminous Granitic Batholith,
Inner Mongolia

Jialiang Li,1 Jingao Liu ,1 Chen Wu,2 and Di-Cheng Zhu1

1
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing),
Beijing 100083, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System and Resources Environment, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Jingao Liu; jingao@cugb.edu.cn

Received 18 November 2021; Accepted 4 March 2022; Published 24 March 2022

Academic Editor: Shengsi Sun

Copyright © 2022 Jialiang Li et al. Exclusive Licensee GeoScienceWorld. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
License (CC BY 4.0).

The Phanerozoic granites in northeast China bear key information for studying the tectonic evolution and crustal growth or
reworking in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). The Daqing granitic batholith widely outcrops as a high-level intrusion
in the Xing’an-Mongolia Orogenic Belt, southeastern CAOB. Three types of enclaves in granites have been identified: (1) mafic
magmatic enclaves (MMEs), (2) volcanic xenoliths, and (3) biotite-rich enclaves. The batholith is mainly composed of
peraluminous biotite granite and granodiorite with SiO2 = 63:95 − 69:48 wt.%, A/CNK = 1:15 − 1:27, and 2.54 to 4.30 wt.% of
normative corundum. They exhibit remarkable enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs; K, Rb, Th, and Pb) and
depletion in high field strength elements (HFSEs; Nb, Ta, and Ti), P, Eu, and Sr, as well as relatively enriched Sr-Nd isotopes
(ð87 Sr/86 SrÞi = 0:70530 − 0:70576, εNd ðtÞ = –0:1 − +0:2). Zircon U-Pb dating suggests that this batholith was emplaced in the
Early Permian (ca. 283-282 Ma), consistent with a period of intensive magmatic activities in northern Inner Mongolia. The
Nb/Ta ratios of MMEs (17.6-20.1) are higher than those of the host granites (11.4-12.5), together with the reaction rims where
biotite crystals cluster around the amphibole cores, suggesting magma mixing between mantle- and crust-derived melts.
Zircons from a biotite-rich enclave define a protolith age of ca. 320 Ma and an anatectic age at ca. 281 Ma. Whole-rock Sr-Nd
isotopic modelling and zircon Hf isotopes reveal that the batholith was mainly produced by remelting of newly accreted
continental crust with minor addition of mantle-derived materials. The geochemical compositions imply that their precursor
magmas originated from a relatively high crustal level (<5 kbar) with crystallization temperatures ranging from 800 to 850°C.
We suggest that the Daqing peraluminous granitoids were derived from partial melting of newly accreted crustal materials at a
relatively shallow crustal depth, associated with a ridge subduction-related heat source. Such mantle-derived magmas through a
slab tear window resulting from ridge subduction provide not only the heat for the widespread crustal remelting and therefore
maturity but also juvenile materials for crustal growth.

1. Introduction [1–3, 6–16]. Peraluminous granitoids are generally thought

Peraluminous granites are common in orogens on Earth and
can provide a promising perspective for deciphering the for-
mation and evolution of continental crust [1–6]. Lots of
efforts have been devoted to a better understanding of the
rock petrogenesis and tectonic environments by the aid of
petrologic, geochemical, and experimental investigations
to be the products of crustal anatexis during the postcolli-
sional period when lithosphere is thinned for active rifting
[17]. Typical cases include peraluminous granites (e.g., the
leucogranite) in the Massif Central of the Hercynian Belt
[18] and the Himalayan orogenic belt (e.g., [19–22]).
Detailed studies in the Cordilleran peraluminous granitoids
[23–26] and the Lachlan S-type granites [3, 5, 6, 10, 12,

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 2 Lithosphere
27–29] imply that peraluminous granites can also be gener-
ated in subduction-related tectonic settings. Compared to
collision-related peraluminous granites, subduction-related
counterparts usually show a wider range of SiO2, higher
FeOT and MgO, and more depleted isotope compositions
than potential crustal sources and generally have mafic mag-
matic enclaves (MMEs) [2]. The pivotal question is whether
these characteristics of the MMEs mirror the involvement of
mantle-derived materials (e.g., [10, 12]) or originate from
ineffective removal of restites [1, 30].
The Xing’an-Mongolia Orogenic Belt (XMOB) of the
southeastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) was
constructed by convergent processes between the active
southern margin of the South Mongolia terranes to the
north and the northern margin of the North China Craton
to the south (Figures 1(a) and 1(b); [31–41]). It mainly con-
sists of ophiolite blocks/fragments, Paleozoic to Mesozoic
volcanic-sedimentary sequences and sedimentary strata,
and igneous plutons of varying compositions and ages from
the Early Paleozoic to Mesozoic [33, 34]. It is strikingly char-
acterized by the massive generation of juvenile crust in the
Phanerozoic [42–45]. Especially, in this region, there are
voluminous Late Paleozoic granitic intrusions with depleted
Nd-Hf isotopic signatures [46–54]. Most of them contain
hornblende and are geochemically characterized by metalumi-
nous compositions, thereby are generally thought to be I-type
granitoids [46, 47, 49, 51, 53]. Geochronological and geochem-
ical studies demonstrate that these granitic plutons were
mainly emplaced in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian
and originated from juvenile sources with some assimilation
of ancient materials [46, 47, 49, 53, 55]. However, the S-type
granites do occur in the region, and they generally formed in
a postorogenic setting during the Mesozoic (e.g., [42]). Paleo-
zoic S-type peraluminous granites in XMOB however have
been rarely studied previously (e.g., [52, 54]). In this contribu-
tion, we conducted a comprehensive study on the representa-
tive Late Paleozoic peraluminous granitoids and relevant
enclaves in northern Inner Mongolia by means of petrology,
whole-rock major- and trace-element and Sr-Nd isotopic
analyses, zircon U-Pb geochronology, and zircon Hf isotope
analysis. Our study aims at revealing their origin and charac-
terizing crustal growth and maturity in the accretionary oro-
genic belts.
2. Geological Setting and Samples
The northeast-trending XMOB extends for more than
2000 km, from southern Mongolia through Inner Mongolia
to the Great Xing’an Range of northeast China (e.g.,
[31, 33, 34, 38–41]).
The XMOB is mainly composed of three subunits from
south to north, that is, the Southern Accretionary Orogen,
the Solonker Suture Zone, and the Northern Accretionary
Orogen (Figure 1(b); [33]). The Southern Accretionary Oro-
gen between the North China Craton and the Solonker
Suture Zone is characterized by an Early Ordovician to Early
Silurian (ca. 488-438 Ma) subduction-accretion complex and
arc-related igneous rocks [32, 33, 39, 41, 67]. The Northern
Accretionary Orogen consists mainly of the Early Paleozoic
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Hutag Uul block in southern Mongolia [68], Late Cambrian
to Late Silurian (ca. 498-420 Ma, [33]) subduction-accretion
complexes associated with some accreted Precambrian
blocks (e.g., Xilinhot complex) [41, 47], and Carboniferous
to Early Permian arc rocks [46, 50, 51, 53, 61, 64, 69]. The
final closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in the Late Permian
to Early Triassic resulted in formation of the Solonker Suture
Zone [31, 32, 34, 39, 46, 70–72].
Proterozoic metamorphic complexes occur discontinu-
ously along a NEE direction in the study area, which consists
of amphibole plagioclase gneiss, biotite granitic gneiss, and
mica schist, and are considered as Precambrian basement
[41, 73, 74]. Paleozoic strata are dominated by Carbonifer-
ous sedimentary and Permian volcanic-sedimentary strata,
both of which are generally overlain by Mesozoic-Cenozoic
volcanic-sedimentary strata and intruded by Mesozoic intru-
sions (Figure 1(c); [73]). Recent zircon U-Pb ages and geo-
chemical data from the Early Permian volcanic rocks in
the Xi Ujimqin area, i.e., Dashizhai Formation, show a
bimodal distribution in terms of composition, with mag-
matic emplacement occurring at ca. 305-274 Ma [2, 50,
64, 69, 75, 76]. Granitoid plutonism developed extensively
in the study area from the Carboniferous to Jurassic
(Figure 1(c)). An ENE-trending Late Carboniferous calc-
alkaline granitoid belt is distributed in the northwest part
of the study area [55, 59] that is considered as the northeast-
ward extension of the Baolidao arc rocks in Sunidzuoqi [46,
47, 53]. Especially, the Late Carboniferous S-type peralumi-
nous granites (333-322 Ma) were also reported in this belt
[52]. To its southeast, the Early Permian to Jurassic granitoids
are predominant [51, 54, 61, 63] and usually occur as batho-
liths with several exposed areas more than 100 km2
(Figure 1(c)). Additionally, some subigneous rocks with dis-
tinct geochemical features also formed in northern Mongolia,
such as the fore-arc basalts and boninites in the Diyanmiao
area (336-328 Ma; [77]), the ophiolitic melanges in the
Hegenshan-Xi Ujimqin areas (318-295 Ma; [35, 69, 78]), the
MORB to OIB-type basaltic rocks in the Daqing-Xi Ujimqin
areas (315-274 Ma; [66, 79]), and adakites, high Mg diorites,
Nb-enriched basalts, and associate rocks in the Xi Ujimqin
area (295-280 Ma; [36]).
The Daqing pluton intruded into the Carboniferous
to Permian volcanic-sedimentary strata, and the pluton
itself was subsequently intruded by Jurassic granitoids
(Figure 1(c)). The rocks of the Daqing pluton include
granodiorite and biotite granite (Figures 2(a)–2(c)) that
typically show a fine- to medium-grained granitic texture.
These rocks are composed of plagioclase (45-55%), quartz
(15-25%), K-feldspar (10-20%), and biotite (5-12%)
(Figures 2(d) and 2(g)). Accessory minerals contain apatite,
zircon, and Fe-Ti oxides. Three types of enclaves were iden-
tified in the host granitoids, including MMEs, biotite-rich
enclaves, and volcanic xenoliths. MMEs are rounded
(mostly 1-10 cm in diameter; Figures 2(b) and 2(c)). They
consist of amphibole, biotite, and plagioclase with little
quartz and Fe-Ti oxides (Figure 2(e)). Plagioclase is euhe-
dral and amphibole is anhedral with a light-brown color.
Some display clear reaction rims with the host granitoid,
where amphibole core is surrounded by the red-brown
 Lithosphere 3

Figure 1: (a) Simplified geological sketch map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) showing the main tectonic subdivisions
(modified after [44]). The location of Figure 1(b) is indicated as a rectangle in Figure 1(a). (b) Simplified tectonic map of the
southeastern CAOB showing the main tectonic subdivisions and the location of Figure 1(c) (modified after [33, 34, 39, 40]). Light gray
zone represents the Northern Accretionary Orogen and the Hutag Uul block, whereas the dark gray zone represents the Southern
Accretionary Orogen [33, 34]. (c) Simplified geological map of the Xi Ujimqin area (modified after [56]). Data sources: [34, 51, 52,
54–66]; this study.

biotite crystal cluster (Figure 2(f)). These are indicative of
the reaction between MMEs and the K-rich peraluminous
melts. Biotite-rich enclaves occur as rounded blocks of 5-
10 cm in diameter in the interior of the batholith
(Figure 2(b)). They are similar to the host granitoids in
mineral assemblage but have variable size and high vol-
ume of red-brown biotite with a few quartz and feldspar
crystals (Figure 2(h)). Volcanic xenoliths occur locally in
the outer edge of the batholith, probably being trapped
from the top of the magma chamber. They are generally
angular, of varied size (~20-30 cm in diameter), and show
sharp contact with the host granitoids (Figure 2(c)). In
addition, the volcanic xenoliths contain similar mineral
assemblages with the wall rock volcanics in the upper
crust, indicating that the Daqing pluton is a high-level
intrusion [80].
3. Analytical Methods
3.1. Zircon U-Pb and Hf Isotope Analyses. Zircon U-Pb dat-
ing was analyzed by laser ablation inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry in the Mineral Laser Microprobe
Analysis Laboratory (Milma Lab), China University of Geos-
ciences, Beijing (CUGB), following the methods described in
Zhang et al. [81]. Zircon 91500 was used as the external stan-
dard for correcting elemental fractionation and mass discrim-
ination for U-Pb analyses. Zircon standard GJ-1 was analyzed
as unknown samples that were inserted between 91500 and
samples. The weighted mean 206Pb/238U age for GJ-1 was
598:5 ± 4:0 Ma (2SD, n = 12), which is within error of the rec-
ommended value [82]. U-Pb data off-line reduction followed
those procedures detailed in Andersen [83], Ludwig [84],
and Liu et al. [85].
In situ Hf isotope analyses were determined by multi-
collector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer
(MC-ICP-MS) coupled with a NewWave 193UC excimer
laser ablation system in the Milma Lab, CUGB. The detailed
analytical processes were described by Wu et al. [86]. During
these analyses, the 176Hf/177Hf of the Plešovice standard zir-
con was 0.282483 ± 20 (2SD, n =12), within the error identi-
cal with the recommended value of 0.282482 ± 13 (2SD)
reported by Sláma et al. [87].
3.2. Whole-Rock Geochemical Analyses. Major elements were
analyzed using XRF in the Institute of Geology and Geo-
physics, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing. Analytical

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 4 Lithosphere

Biotite granite
Granodiorite MME

MME

Biotite-rich enclaves

(a) (b)

Granodiorite
Biotite granite

Kf
Miarolitic Bt
cavity
Qz Pl

Volcanic xenolith
1.0 mm

(c) (d)

MME

Bt Bt
Amp Qz
Bt
Ap Bt

Ap Pl

Reaction rims between

MME and granodiorite
0.2 mm 1.0 mm

(e) (f)

Biotite granite
Qz
Pl
Pl
Biotite granite

Bt Biotite-rich enclaves
Bt

Bt Bt

Pl
Qz
1.0 mm 1.0 mm
(g) (h)

Figure 2: Field occurrence (a, b, and c) and photomicrographs (d, e, f, g, and h) of the host granitoids and enclaves from the Daqing
batholith, northern Inner Mongolia. Amp = amphibole; Bt = biotite; Kf = K-feldspar; Pl = Plagioclase; Qz = quartz; Ap = Apatite.

precisions are better than 2%. Trace elements were done on and Mineral Resources (Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry-
a high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spec- RIG lab), CUGB. Precision for all trace elements was esti-
trometry at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes mated to be 10% and accuracy is better than 5% for most

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 Lithosphere 5

0.047
283 Ma 280 Ma 281 Ma
20DQ-01
+7.7 Granodiorite 292
20DQ-01
Granodiorite
0.046
280 Ma +5.6
288
+6.7 +7.9
280 Ma +6 . 9 281 Ma
280 Ma 284
0.045

Pb/238U
20DQ-07
Biotite granite
280

206
+8.2 +7.3
282 Ma +8.8 0.044
+8.7 +5.3
276
–13.5 +7.2
20DQ-12
Biotite-rich
272
enclave 0.043
Mean = 282 ± 2 Ma
320 Ma 287 Ma 281 Ma 282 Ma 268 MSWD = 0.26, n = 14
U-Pb spots Hf spots 100 𝜇m
0.042
0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.41
207
Pb/235U
(a) (b)

0.055 0.054
20DQ-07 20DQ-12
Biotite-rich enclave 330
Biotitegranite
0.053 330 0.052

0.051 0.050
310
310
Pb/238U

Pb/238U

0.049 0.048
206

290
206

0.047 0.046
290

0.045 0.044
270
0.043 270 Mean = 283 ± 2 Ma 0.042 Mean = 281 ± 2 Ma
MSWD = 0.45, n = 14 MSWD = 1.7, n = 12
0.041 0.040
0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
207
Pb/235U 207
Pb/235U
(c) (d)

Figure 3: (a) Representative CL images of zircons. Concordia diagrams of U-Pb zircon data: (b) Granodiorite; (c) Biotite granite; and (d)
Biotite-rich enclave.

elements based on repeated analysis (n = 6) of the standard zircon dating using LA-ICP-MS. The zircon crystals are all
materials (GSP-2 and AGV-2). euhedral to subhedral and show clear oscillatory zoning in
Whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic compositions were con- Cathodoluminescence (CL) images and high Th/U values
ducted using Thermo-Finnigan Neptune plus MC-ICP-MS (typically > 0:1; Figure 3(a); Table DR1). These features are
in the RIG lab, CUGB. The treatment processes followed consistent with an igneous origin [88]. Thus, the U-Pb
Li et al. [50] and reference therein. Instrumental mass frac- zircon ages represent the timing of crystallization of these
tionation was corrected using 86 Sr/88 Sr = 0:1194 and 146 Nd/ magmatic rocks.
144
Nd = 0:7219, respectively. The average measured 86Sr/88Sr The two granitoid samples (DQ-01 and DQ-07) yield
ratio of the NIST SRM987 standard and 143Nd/144Nd ratio identical weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of 282 ± 2 Ma
of the Alfa Nd standard were 0:710246 ± 14 (2SD, n = 15) (MSWD = 0:26) and 283 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 0:45), respec-
and 0:512420 ± 14 (2SD, n = 15), respectively. These values tively (Figures 3(b) and 3(c)). One analysis (spot_05) on zir-
are consistent with the long-term values of 86Sr/88Sr con from sample DQ-07 gives an older 206Pb/238U age of
(0:710250 ± 27, 2SD) and 143Nd/144Nd (0:512423 ± 23, 323 ± 3 Ma, interpreted as zircon inheritance. For the biotite-
2SD) obtained in this lab. rich enclave sample (DQ-12), the analyses of twelve zircons
yield a mean 206Pb/238U age of 281 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 1:7) that
4. Results is identical within error to the ages of the two host granitoid
samples mentioned above. Also, one inherited zircon of DQ-
4.1. Geochronology. Three samples (DQ-01, DQ-07, and 12 has a 206Pb/238U age of 320 ± 2 Ma (Figure 3(d)) that is
DQ-12) collected from the Daqing pluton were selected for the same as the inherited zircon (spot_05) of DQ-07.

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 6 Lithosphere

18 6

16 Foid
Syenite 5
14 ries
e se
honit
hos
Na2O+K2O (wt.%)

12 Syenite 4 S
Foidolite e
alin ies

K2O (wt.%)
Alk line e ser
10 Foid
u
e
art onite a l k a -al kalin
Monzodiorite Monzo Q nz Sub calc
-nite mo 3
Hig
h-K
8 Foid Monzo
Gabbro -diorite
Granite
6 2
Monzo series
-gabbro aline
K ca lc-alk
4 Mid-
Gabbroic 1
Granodiorite
2 Olivine Gabbro diorite Diorite
Low-K tholeiite series
gabbro
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 40 50 60 70 80
SiO2 (wt.%) SiO2 (wt.%)
(a) (b)
3.0 1.0
I-S line
2.5 0.9
Ferroan
FeOT/(FeOT + MgO)
peraluminous
2.0 0.8
metaluminous
A/NK

1.5 0.7

Magnesian
1.0 0.6
peralkaline

0.5 0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
A/CNK SiO2 (wt.%)
(c) (d)

Granodiorite (282 Ma) MMEs

Biotite granite (283 Ma) Early Permian S-type granites
Biotite-rich enclave (281 Ma) Early Permian I-type granites

Figure 4: (a) Total alkali (K2O+Na2O) vs. silica (SiO2) (TAS) diagram [90]; (b) SiO2 versus K2O [91]; (c) A/CNK versus A/NK [A/
CNK = molecular Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O + K2O), A/NK = molecular Al2O3/(Na2O + K2O)] [92]; and (d) FeOT/(FeOT + MgO) vs. SiO2
diagram [93]. Data for Early Permian S- and I-type granites are from Li et al. [51], Liu et al. [56], and Wang et al. [54], unless specified.

4.2. Whole-Rock Geochemical and Zircon Hf Isotopic Data. (1.99-2.30 wt.%) (Figure 4(b)). MMEs have relatively low
Whole-rock major- and trace-element, Sr-Nd isotopic, and SiO2 (61.01-62.59 wt.%) and high Fe2O3T (7.19-8.22 wt.%).
zircon Hf isotopic data for the Daqing pluton (including As illustrated in the chondrite-normalized rare earth ele-
granodiorites, biotite granites, biotite-rich enclaves, and ment (REE) diagram (Figure 5(a)), all the Daqing pluton
MMEs) are provided in Tables DR 2, 3, and 4, respectively. rocks show strong light REE (LREE) enrichment relative to
The granitoid samples are characterized by moderate to high the heavy REE (HREE), while in the primitive-mantle-
SiO2 (63.95-69.48 wt.%), Al2O3 (14.70-15.93 wt.%), K2O normalized trace element diagram (Figure 5(b)), they are
(3.39-4.06 wt.%), and K2O/Na2O ratios (1.0-1.2) and enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs; e.g., Rb
medium total alkaline concentrations (Na2 O + K2 O = 6:16 and U) and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs;
-7.47 wt.%), plotting predominantly in the granodiorite field e.g., Nb, Ta, and Ti).
(Figure 4(a)). These rocks are typically high potassic calc- The Daqing pluton rocks show limited variations in
alkaline, peraluminous (A/CNK = 1:15 to 1.27; where A/ whole-rock (87Sr/86Sr)i (0.70530-0.70576) and εNd(t) (–0.1
CNK refers to the molar ratio of Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O to +0.2) isotopic compositions (Figure 6(a)). The previously
+K2O)) and these samples straddle from magnesian to dated zircons have initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282744-
ferroan fields in the FeOT/(FeOT + MgO)-SiO2 diagram 0.282845, with corresponding εHf(t) values of +5.2 to +8.8
(Figures 4(b)–4(d)). Normative corundum ranges from (Figure 6(b)). The 323 Ma zircon grain from biotite granite
2.54 to 4.30 wt.%, similar to typical S-type granites [89]. (DQ-07) gives an initial 176Hf/177Hf of 0.282821 (εHf ðtÞ =
Biotite-rich enclaves display similar concentrations of major + 8:8). For the biotite-rich enclaves from the host biotite gran-
elements and A/CNK (1.13-1.20), except for lower K2O ites (Figure 6), they also have similar isotopic compositions

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 Lithosphere 7

1000 1000

100 100

Rock/Primitive Mantle
Rock/Chondrite

10 10

1 1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta K La Ce Pb Pr Sr P Nd Zr Hf Sm Eu Ti Gd Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

(a) (b)
Granodiorite (282 Ma) MMEs
Biotite granite (283 Ma) Early Permian S-type granites

Biotite-rich enclave (281 Ma) Early Permian I-type granites

Figure 5: (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns and (b) primitive mantle- (PM-) normalized spider diagrams. The chondrite and PM
values used for normalization are from Sun and McDonough [94].

10 20 Early permian Late Carboniferous

Early Permian basalts gabbro basalts
DM
15
5 Late Carboniferous S-type granites
10
Early Permian rhyolites
Triassic granitoids
CHUR 5
0
εHf (t)

Early Permian
Late Carboniferous rhyolites
εNd (t)

0
Ma

I-type granites Late Carboniferous CHUR

nt

I-type granites Late Carboniferous

–5
le a

S-type granites
–5
rra y

–10
–10
Proterozoic gneisses –15

–15 –20
0.702 0.704 0.706 0.708 0.710 0.712 0.714 0.716 0.718 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350
(87Sr/86Sr)i Age (Ma)
(a) (b)

Granodiorite (282 Ma) Late Carboniferous S-type granites

Biotite granite (283 Ma) Early Permian I-type granitoids
Biotite-rich enclave (281 Ma) Triassic granitoids

Figure 6: (a) εNd(t) versus (87Sr/86Sr)i, and (b) Zircon εHf(t) versus U-Pb age for the Daqing plutons. Also shown is the hyperbola of simple
mixing between underplated basalt, as represented by sample XL04-32 [64] and the lower-crustal rock, as represented by the average
compositions (the solid star) of the five Proterozoic gneiss samples (Sr = 242:2 ppm, Nd = 12:1 ppm, ð87 Sr/86 SrÞi = 0:709428, εNd ðtÞ = −7:65)
[74]. Data for the Triassic granitoids, Early Permian volcanic rocks, gabbros and I-type granites, Late Carboniferous basalts, I-type and S-type
granites, and Proterozoic gneisses in the area compiled from Chen et al. [46, 47], Liu et al. [74], Zhang et al. [64], Wang [95], Hu et al. [49],
Shi et al. [53], Li et al. [51], Wang et al. [54], and [52, 59, 69, 79].

(i.e., whole-rock ð87 Sr/86 SrÞi = 0:70528, εNd ðtÞ = +0:1, and zir- 5. Discussion
con initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282749-0.282843, with εHf(t)
values of +5.3 to +8.7). In contrast, the 320 Ma zircon grain 5.1. Early Permian Magmatism to North of the Solonker
gives a much lower initial 176 Hf /177 Hf = 0:282194 (εHf ðtÞ = Suture Zone. Our new zircon data indicate that the Daqing
− 13:5), dramatically different from the inherited zircon of pluton formed in the Early Permian, with 206Pb/238Pb
DQ-07. mean ages of ~283-282 Ma (Figure 3). The Qianjinchang

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 8 Lithosphere
peraluminous granitic batholiths were dated previously,
giving comparable zircon U-Pb ages (283-271 Ma; [54,
56, 63]). This along with previous studies in this area
(see below) suggests that the Early Permian was an impor-
tant period of magmatism to north of the Solonker Suture
Zone [32, 34, 39, 40, 51]. The occurrence of one ca.
323 Ma inherited zircon detected from the Daqing biotite
granite indicates that Late Carboniferous rocks were
involved in the formation of the Early Permian granitoids.
Previous studies revealed that there are several types of
Early Permian igneous rocks formed along the northern
side of the Solonker Suture Zone, including the ~301 Ma
quartz diorites, granodiorites (281-274 Ma), ~273 Ma mon-
zogranites, ~270 Ma migmatites, and~276 Ma A-type gran-
ites in the Linxi-Xilinhot areas (Table 1; [34, 51, 55, 58,
61, 63, 79, 96]). The age span of 300-270 Ma is also con-
temporary with the Dashizhai Formation bimodal volcanic
rocks (305-274 Ma; Table 1; [50, 60, 64, 75, 76]) and the
Baya’ertuhushuo gabbros (275-274 Ma) to the northeast
of the study area [79]. Detrital zircons from Permian to
Triassic sedimentary rocks in the region also show a dom-
inant age mode (280-270 Ma; [97, 98]), probably origi-
nated from Early Permian arc magmatism to the north
of the Solonker Suture Zone. These observations demon-
strate a prolonged Early Permian magmatic “flare-up”
occurring in the XMOB. The Daqing peraluminous granit-
oids were emplaced during this peak magmatic activity
(~280 Ma; [35, 50]), possibly resulting from partial melting
of crustal materials at a middle-high level owing to a high
geothermal gradient.
5.2. Temperature-Pressure Conditions of the Daqing Pluton
Formation. Geochemical compositions can be used to
probe the physicochemical conditions and the source-
region characteristics of magma [21]. Compositions of
the Daqing granitoids were derived from dehydration-
melting of various kind of crustal rocks at low pressure
(<5 kbar; Figures 7(a) and 7(b)), consistent with the com-
positions of these granitoids plotted in the Qz-Ab-Or
phase diagram (Figure 7(c)). The occurrence of the miaro-
litic cavity also indicates that the pluton formed in a low-
pressure setting (Figure 2(c)). Thus, the primary magma of
Daqing granitoids originated from the middle-high crustal
level (<15-20 km; [21]). The crystallization temperature of
these peraluminous granitic magmas can be estimated by
methods of zircon saturation thermometer and Ti-in-
zircon thermometer [99–101]. Of note, those zircon grains
having obviously high-Ti contents have been precluded. In
addition, a recommended value (αTiO2 = 0:6) has been
used in the Ti-in-zircon thermometer given the activity
of TiO2 in rutile-free granitoids [100]. Calculating Ti-in-
zircon temperatures for the 283-282 Ma zircons gives a
mean value of 812 ± 32°C (N = 30). An average zircon sat-
uration temperature of 814 ± 18°C (N = 9) is acquired from
whole-rock compositions of the host granitoids (Table DR
2). Thus, the Daqing peraluminous granitoids crystallized
mainly at approximately 800-850°C, similar to the estima-
tion of the crystallization temperatures of the other coeval
granitoids (Figure 7(d); [51, 54, 56]).
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by guest
5.3. Remelting of Upper Continental Crust in the Early
Permian. The Daqing pluton rocks have high potassium
contents, strongly peraluminous (Figures 4(b) and 4(c)),
and normative corundum (2.54-4.30 wt.%), which mark the
key features of peraluminous S-type granites [2, 89]. Granitic
gneisses and metasediment enclaves appear universal in
granites of crustal origin and can be restites of their sources
or xenoliths entrained from wall rocks by magmas ascending
to the surface [1, 9, 80, 103]. Volcanic xenoliths have been
observed in the Daqing batholith and contain similar min-
eral assemblages with the wall-rock volcanics in the upper
crust (Figure 2), which suggests that Daqing granites are a
high-level intrusion. Biotite-rich enclaves in the Daqing plu-
ton have variable biotite contents and may be the residues of
partly melted source rocks (Figures 2(c) and 2(h)). How-
ever, biotite-rich enclaves are geochemically felsic and lack
refractory mineral phases (Table DR2 and Figure 2(h))
and therefore do not seem to be the residues [9, 80].
Nevertheless, zircons from the biotite-rich enclaves
document a magmatic protolith age of 320 ± 2 Ma and a
subsequent anatectic event at 281 ± 2 Ma. This 320-Ma
protolith age is consistent with the 323 ± 3 Ma inherited
zircon from the host granitoids. Similar ~320 Ma inherited
zircons are also observed in the S-type Qianjinchang granitic
batholith [54] and I-type Bedashan and Shahutong granitic
plutons [51]. Furthermore, the lack of inherited zircons in
the biotite-rich enclaves and host granites as well as the
other granitic batholith is all indicative of “hot” granites
[101]. These, combined with the 333-317 Ma granitic rocks
[50, 52] and the ~320 Ma peak in detrital zircons from
sedimentary rocks [97, 98], suggest the presence of
Carboniferous granitoids in the upper crust in this region.
The ca. 281 Ma anatectic age in the biotite-rich enclaves is
identical within error with the crystallization age of the host
granitoids (ca. 283-282 Ma). CL images display that the
protolithic zircons of biotite-rich enclaves are strongly melt-
corroded and recrystallized, and their zircon Hf isotopic data
exhibit strongly enriched zircon Hf isotopes (Figures 3(a)
and 6(b)), indicating that they originated from midcrustal
levels either within or somewhat above the sources of the
host granitoids (e.g., [104]). This confirms the timing of the
anatectic event of the continental crust at 283-281 Ma and
an important relationship between remelting of ~320 Ma S-
type peraluminous granitoids and generation of the Daqing
peraluminous granitoids. That is to say, the biotite-rich
enclaves must be restites from partial melting of the upper
continental crust. This is also supported by evidences
containing zircon Hf isotopes, whole-rock geochemical,
and Nd isotopic compositions: (1) The Nd-Hf isotopic
compositions of the Daqing peraluminous granitoids
overlap those of the biotite-rich enclaves in this study and
Late Carboniferous S-type granitoids (εNd ðtÞ = −0:3 − +2:8)
in the study area [52] (Figure 6); and (2) The striking
enrichment in Th, U, and Pb and depletion in Nb, Ta, Ti, Sr,
and Eu (Figure 5) suggest that the primary magma of the
Daqing pluton is characteristic of the melts originated from
upper crust [105]. The Daqing peraluminous granitoids have
high CaO/Na2O (>0.3) and low Rb/Sr and Rb/Ba ratios
(Figures 7(e) and 7(f)), implying that they were produced by
by guest
Table 1: Summary of geochronological and geochemical data for the Early Permian magmatism to north of the Solonker Suture Zone.
Lithosphere

Sample no Pluton/formation Rock suite Locality Geochemistry Petrogenetic type Ages (Ma) References
11XL-5.2 Beidashan Granodiorite ca. 50 km northwest High-K calc-alkaline, metaluminous to 277 ± 3
I-type granite [51]
11SH-3 Shahutong Granodiorite of Linxi weakly peraluminous 275 ± 3
XL04-35 Dashizhai Basaltic andesite ca. 25 km northeast Low-K tholeiite Bimodal volcanic 281 ± 3
[64]
XW04-40 Dashizhai Rhyolite of Xilinhot High-K calc-alkaline rocks 279 ± 3
ZL45-1 Baya’ertuhushuo Gabbro ca. 50 km northwest N-MORB-type 275 ± 2
MORB with arc signature [79]
ZL45-2 Baya’ertuhushuo Gabbro of Zhaluteqi gabbro 274 ± 2
ca. 10km southeast
MX Xilinhot Alkaline-feldspar granite High-K calc-alkaline, weakly peralkaline A-type granite 276 ± 2 [61]
of Xilinhot
XW01-b7 Xi Ujimqin Granodiorite 274 ± 1
ca. 20km south
XW03-b7 Xi Ujimqin Biotite granite High-K calc-alkaline, peraluminous S-type granite 282 ± 1 [56]
of Xi Ujimqin
XW09-b6 Xi Ujimqin Biotite granite 271 ± 1
PM102-25 Qianjinchang Quartz diorite Medium-K calc-alkaline, metaluminous I-type granite 301 ± 1
D4013 Qianjinchang Biotite granodiorite High-K calc-alkaline, peralkaline 283 ± 1
ca. 25 km south
Shoshonitic, metaluminous to weakly S-type granite [54]
PM102-15 Qianjinchang Biotite syenogranite of Xi Ujimqin 280 ± 1
peraluminous
PM102-30 Qianjinchang Diorite dykes Middle-K calc-alkaline, metaluminous I-type granite 280 ± 2
ca. 40 km northeast

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S10T Huhede Granodiorite Medium-K calc-alkaline,weakly peraluminous Adakite 295 ± 2 [36]
of Xi Ujimqin
05FW155 Qianjinchang Granodiorite 274 ± 1
ca. 30 km south High-K calc-alkaline,
05FW161 Qianjinchang Granodiorite I-type granite 275 ± 2 [63]
of Xi Ujimqin metaluminous to weakly peraluminous
05FW162 Daqingmuchang Monzogranite 274 ± 4
HT06-1 Dashizhai Rhyolite 275 ± 1
ca. 20km south Bimodal volcanic
HTM03-1 Dashizhai Rhyolite High-K calc-alkaline 278 ± 1 [60]
of Xi Ujimqin rocks
JG21-43-18 Dashizhai Rhyolite 274 ± 1
NM10-30 Dashizhai Rhyolite 279 ± 3
NM10-37 Dashizhai Rhyolite 292 ± 3
NM13-88 Dashizhai Rhyolite ca. 30km northeast Medium-K calc-alkaline to the shoshonitic Bimodal volcanic 282 ± 2
[76]
NM13-91 Dashizhai Rhyolite of Sunidzuoqi rocks 286 ± 2
NM13-113 Dashizhai Rhyolite 281 ± 3
NM10-43 Dashizhai Andesite Low-K tholeiitic to medium-K calc-alkaline 289 ± 5
9
 10 Lithosphere

Figure 7: (a) Al2O3 + FeOt + MgO + TiO2 versus Al2O3/(FeOt +MgO + TiO2); (b) CaO+ Al2O3 versus CaO/Al2O3 [21]; (c) CIPW-
normative Qt-Ab-Or diagram with low pressure melt compositions at 1, 5, and 10 kbar [102]. (d) Plot of A/CNK and temperature
calculated by zircon saturation thermometry [99]; (e) Plots of Al2O3/TiO2 versus CaO/Na2O; (f) Rb/Sr versus Rb/Ba; The Himalayan
leucogranites [20, 22] and the Lachlan S-type granites [12]. The LP stands for reaction at low pressure (≤5 kbar) and the HP represents
the reaction at high pressure (12-15 kbar).

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 Lithosphere
partial melting of plagioclase-rich and clay-poor psammitic
sources [22]. However, the spatial-temporal relationship
between the Daqing peraluminous granitoids with ca.
320 Ma orthogneiss restites and ca. 323 Ma wall-rocks (e.g.,
volcanic xenoliths and biotite-rich enclaves; Figures 2(b)
and 2(c)) indicates that the Late Carboniferous S-type
peraluminous granitoids (333-323 Ma; [52]) were the main
source for the Daqing peraluminous granitoids. It
dramatically differs from the Lachlan S-type granites that
were tightly associated with sedimentary country rocks and
high-grade metasedimentary enclaves from midcrustal levels
(e.g., [104]). As mentioned above, Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic
compositions of the Late Carboniferous granitoids are
consistent with the Daqing peraluminous granites (Figure 6).
In short, remelting of the upper continental crust, consisting
of Late Carboniferous granitic rocks and minor clay-poor
sediments, was the main process to form the Daqing
peraluminous granitoids.
5.4. Magma Mixing and Contribution of Mantle Component.
Several mechanisms have been proposed to interpret the ori-
gin of MMEs in granitoids, including (a) restites [103, 106];
(b) accumulation of early formed minerals [107–109]; and
(c) magma mixing (e.g., [48, 110, 111]). The MMEs in the
Daqing granitoids are spindle shaped, or ellipsoidal, and
exhibit typical magmatic textures (Figures 2(a), 2(b), 2(e),
and 2(f)). The lack of metamorphic textures, for instance
the metacrystal texture [80], suggests that the MMEs are
not restites (e.g., [106, 112]). The random distribution of
these enclaves and the lack of cumulate textures in the
MMEs (Figures 2(a) and 2(b)) indicate that they are unlikely
to be cumulates of the host granitoids [113, 114]. Of note,
the MMEs show reaction rims with the host granodiorites
(i.e., red-brown biotite crystals cluster around the amphibole
cores) (Figure 2(f)), suggesting the reaction between the
MMEs and K-rich peraluminous magmas [2]. The MMEs
and host granitoids in the Daqing batholith have Nb/Ta
ratios of 17.6-20.1 and 11.4-12.5, respectively, which are in
accordance with the Nb/Ta ratios of primary mantle or
chondrite reservoir (17.5) and continental crust (11-13),
respectively [94, 115]. The igneous microtextures and acicu-
lar apatites in the MMEs imply a quenching process of hot
basaltic magmas injected into relatively cool granitic melts
(Figures 2(e) and 2(f); [116, 117]). Furthermore, the pres-
ence of coeval mafic rocks and subduction-related I-type
granitoids near the study area indicates contemporary
mantle-derived magmatism (Figures 1(c) and 6; [50, 51,
54, 64, 66, 75, 76, 79]). Therefore, the MMEs in the Daqing
granitoids most likely are the derivate of mantle-derived
basaltic magma intruding partially crystallized crust-
derived felsic magma [110].
Resembling the Lalchan S-type granites, the Daqing per-
aluminous granitoids have lower Al2O3/TiO2 ratios than the
Himalayan leucogranites (Figure 7(e)), which can be
ascribed to decomposition of biotite rather than muscovite
at relatively high temperatures [21, 22]. This is consistent
with the high crystallization temperature (800-850°C;
Figure 7(d)) of the host granitoids and biotite as the only
mafic mineral (Figure 2). Of note, it is difficult for the conti-
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11
nental crust to reach such a high temperature for
dehydration-driven melting of biotite without additional
heat energy. For the Daqing peraluminous granitoids,
mantle-derived magma underplating may provide both heat
and material [21]. The restite model cannot interpret the
overall higher FeOt and MgO contents than experimental
melts from metagreywacke, thereby causing the Daqing
granitoids staying away from the metagreywacke field but
plotting within the amphibolite field (Figures 7(a) and
7(b)). The MMEs provide convincing evidence of invasion
of mantle-derived magmas into the Daqing peraluminous
melts, similar to peraluminous granites of mixing origin
worldwide [2, 6, 10, 12, 89, 111]. For whole-rock Sr-Nd iso-
topic modelling, the 280 Ma Xi Ujimqin tholeiite [64] and
Proterozoic gneisses [74] were chosen as the two compo-
nents (mafic magma and ancient crustal material, respec-
tively) because of the close temporal-spatial relationship
with the Daqing granitoids, and an input of approximately
50% juvenile mantle-derived parental magma is needed
(Figure 6(a)). However, incorporation of such a large pro-
portion of mafic magmas cannot lead to the observed high
SiO2 contents of the Daqing pluton. Instead, juvenile crustal
materials (Late Carboniferous I-type and S-type granites)
under the Baolidao arc (Figure 6(a); [46, 47, 52, 53, 95])
may have supplied large amounts of materials for the gener-
ation of the Daqing granites. It must be emphasized that the
melting proportions of the Late Carboniferous S-type gran-
ites are more likely than those of the I-type granites based
on their peraluminous characteristics and melting depth.
Thus, the Daqing pluton can be mainly formed by remelting
of the newly accreted continental crust with minor involve-
ment of the mantle-derived magmas. These characteristics
resemble the coeval Early Permian volcanic rocks and I-
type granites but are different from the Triassic granitoids
with relatively higher εNd(t) values in the area (Figure 6(a);
[51, 64]), indicating more contribution of old crustal compo-
nents in these Early Permian peraluminous magmas; zircon
Hf isotopes show the same scenario (Figure 6(b)). In addi-
tion, some Early Permian granitoids in the study area exhibit
higher zircon δ18O values (6.29-8.13‰) than normal mantle
zircon O isotopic values (δ18 O = 5:3 ± 0:3‰), further indi-
cating significant contribution of supracrustal materials [51].
In a word, the Daqing peraluminous granitic batholith
represents remelting of the upper continental crust that is
dominated by the Carboniferous granitic rocks and minor
sediments owing to the addition of heat and material from
mantle-derived magmas.
5.5. Petrogenetic Type: I-, S-Type Granite, or Others? Based
on previous studies, the peraluminous, silica-rich rocks
could be produced by (a) dehydration-triggered melting of
quartz amphibolite [118]; (b) differentiation of less alumi-
nous phase from metaluminous melts [119, 120]; (c)
water-saturated or volatile-absent melting of alumina-rich
metagreywacke and/or metapelite [11, 13, 15, 21, 121, 122],
and (d) partial melting of mixing between basaltic rocks
and metasediments [2, 89, 118].
Compared to quartz-amphibolite-derived melts in previ-
ous studies [118], the Daqing peraluminous granitoids are
 12 Lithosphere

500

Rb (ppm) 1000

100

Ba (ppm)
100 Hb
Pl Hb Pl
Kf
Kf Bt
Bt

10 10
10 100 500 10 100 500
Sr (ppm) Sr (ppm)
(a) (b)
45 12
ign A
40 10 eo ddi
us tio

(Fe2O3T+MgO+TiO2) (wt.%)
co n
mp of
on
35 8 en
t
Zr/Hf

30 6

25 4

20 2

15 0
60 63 66 69 72 75 60 63 66 69 72 75
SiO2 (wt.%) SiO2 (wt.%)
(c) (d)

Granodiorite (282 Ma) MMEs

Biotite granite (283 Ma) Early Permian S-type granites
Biotite-rich enclave (281 Ma) Early Permian I-type granites

Figure 8: Fractional crystallization vector diagrams (a) Rb-Sr and (b) Ba-Sr; (c) SiO2 versus Zr/Hf [124] and (d) Fe2O3T + MgO + TiO2 [89]
for the Daqing peraluminous granitoids in northern Inner Mongolia.

K2O rich and CaO poor. Compared with highly fractionated
I-type granites [119, 120, 123], the Daqing granitoids have a
relatively narrow range of SiO2 (64.0-69.5 wt.%) and high
K2O contents, K2O/Na2O ratios (>1.0), and A/CNK >1.1
(Figure 4). The weakly negative trends of MgO, Fe2O3T,
TiO2, Al2O3, total alkali contents (K2O + Na2O), and P2O5
versus SiO2 seem to be caused by fractional crystallization
of a small amount of plagioclase, biotite, apatite, and Fe-Ti
oxides for the Daqing granitoids, as supported by the trace
element Sr-Ba-Rb covariations (Figures 4(a), 8(a)–8(b), and
9). However, the field relationships, geochronological data,
and geochemical features do not support that these S-type
granitic plutons originated from a common primary magma
chamber by variable extents of fractional crystallization. Fur-
thermore, the decrease of Zr/Hf ratios and (Fe2O3T + MgO
+ TiO2) for peraluminous granitoids with increasing SiO2
cannot be ascribed to a closed-system fractionation process
(e.g., [89, 124]) but may indicate source heterogeneity or
magma mixing (Figures 8(c) and 8(d)). Like S-type granites,
irregular variations of CaO, K2O, Mg#, and Rb (not shown)
over SiO2 contents for the Daqing peraluminous granitoids
cannot be simply attributed to progressive partial melting
or differentiation process but may indicate heterogeneity of
source region, ineffective separation of restites, selective carry-
ing of peritectic minerals like garnet [125], or mixing of mafic
melt with crust-derived felsic magma. However, the Daqing
granitoids are short of the Al-rich minerals (e.g., muscovite,
cordierite, garnet, and sillimanite). Instead, biotite is the only
mineral phase that is strongly peraluminous and marks the
peraluminous signature in the Daqing pluton (Figure 2). As
mentioned above, the Daqing peraluminous granitoids mainly
originated from melting of the newly accreted crust with
minor mixing of mantle-derived materials. Furthermore, syn-
chronous “hot” I-type granites were also emplaced in the study
area and have similar Nd-Hf isotopic compositions (Figures 4
and 6; [51, 54]), suggesting that the melting ratios of the Late
Carboniferous I-type granites are more than those of the S-
type granites. Therefore, we argue that the Daqing peralumi-
nous granitoids are better classified to be transitional between
I- and S-type granites.

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 Lithosphere 13

2.5 1.6

MgO 1.4 TiO2

2.0
1.2

1.5 1.0

0.8
1.0 0.6

0.4
0.5
0.2

0.0 0.0
CaO Al2O3
2.5
16.0

2.0
15.5
1.5
15.0
1.0

14.5
0.5

0.0 14.0
Fe2O3T P2O5
0.30
8.0
0.25

6.0
0.20

0.15
4.0

0.10
2.0
0.05

0.0 0.00
60 63 66 69 72 75 60 63 66 69 72 75
SiO2 SiO2

Granodiorite (282 Ma) MMEs

Biotite granite (283 Ma) Early Permian S-type granites
Biotite-rich enclave (281 Ma) Early Permian I-type granites

Figure 9: Harker diagrams showing variation of other major element oxides versus SiO2 for the Daqing granitoids, MMEs and biotite-rich
enclaves.

5.6. Geodynamic Implications. During the Paleozoic, tec-
tonic evolution of the XMOB was controlled by the
Paleo-Asian Ocean between the South Mongolia terranes
and the North China Craton [31, 32, 39, 41, 46, 51, 70].
By the end of the Carboniferous, the XMOB constituted
a vast complex that accreted along the southern margin
of the South Mongolia terranes, as a result of the north-
ward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean [40, 44, 51,
70, 78, 126]. In the Late Carboniferous to the latest Early
Permian, the Paleo-Asian Ocean still appeared to the south
of the active continental margin of the South Mongolia
[34, 39, 46, 50, 51, 70, 75]. The collision between North
China Craton and the South Mongolia terranes in the
Middle Permian led to the final closure of the Paleo-
Asian Ocean and termination of accretionary orogenesis
in the CAOB [50, 51, 98].

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 14 Lithosphere

Early Permian Ridge subduction

Northern Accretionary Orogen

Paleo-Asian Ocean

Upwelling asthenosphere
through a slab window

Continental crust Xilinhot A-type granites

Continental lithosphere Linxi I-type granites
Accretion prism Dashizhai bimodal volcanic rocks
Oceanic crust
Baya’ertuhushou gabbroic intrusions
Oceanic lithosphere
Melts from subducted slab
Xi Ujimqin boninite-adakite-
Fluids from subducted slab
high-Mg diorite-Nb-rich basalt
Daqing S-type granites

Figure 10: Schematic diagram illustrating underplating of upwelling asthenosphere through a slab window into the Baolidao arc during
ridge subduction and melting of continental crust to generate different types of granites, including the Daqing granitoids.

The Late Carboniferous Baolidao arc-accretion complex
in the Northern Accretionary Orogen has long been
regarded as an Andean-type active continental margin
marked by calc-alkaline magmatic activity [39, 46, 47, 53,
78]. Early Permian magmatic rocks mainly contain bimodal
volcanic rocks, A-type granites and rift-type basalts in the
region, indicating an extension-related environment [61,
64, 66, 79]. Based on the geochronological data and the geo-
chemical features of the granitoids, boninites, adakites, high
Mg diorites, Nb-enrich basalts and diverse mafic rocks, three
tectonic models, i.e., ridge subduction [50, 75], slab break-off
[42, 127], and slab rollback [51, 128], have been proposed to
interpret the evolutionary history of northern Inner Mongo-
lia in the Early Permian. The S-type peraluminous granites
with ages of 283-271 Ma formed in this important period.
Various natural cases and complicated geological histories
make it difficult to investigate geodynamic implications of
subduction-related peraluminous granitoids, as reflected by
diverse proposed models [2–4, 89, 129]. For example, some
researchers favored that intrusion of hot basaltic magmas
into thinned back-arc crust associated with repeated, long-
term slab rollback and back-arc extension can promote
melting of preexisting sediments deposited in the back-arc
basin to form subduction-related peraluminous granitoids
in the circum-Pacific orogens [3, 4]. Based on coupled
petrological-thermomechanical modelling, Gorczyk et al.
[124] suggested that the Late Paleozoic peraluminous granit-
oids in central Chile were formed by local heating of conti-
nental crust by asthenosphere upwelling at the boundary
between the accretionary prism and continent in the nascent
subduction. Recently, Chen et al. [2] interpreted that 516-
505 Ma peraluminous granites in the North Qilian were pro-
duced by melting of crustal materials with the addition of
minor mantle-derived magmas during subduction initiation.
In the following discussion, our results provide new con-
straints and in combination with other geological character-
istics shed light on the Early Permian tectonic evolution in
the region.
Episodic slab rollback model for the origin of Daqing
peraluminous granitoids is unlikely the case in the XMOB
because the boninite-adakite–high-Mg diorite–Nb-enriched
basalt suites (328-280 Ma) and ophiolites (360-293 Ma) in
northern Inner Mongolia suggest a young, hot, and buoyant
oceanic crust subducting under the southern Mongolian
continental margin during Early Permian time [35, 36, 77,
78]. Other geodynamic models, such as subduction initia-
tion, slab break-off, and crustal thickening during continen-
tal collision and post-collisional collapse [2, 8, 22], cannot
explain the genesis of the Daqing peraluminous granitoids
owing to the age constraints. The ages of the Daqing batho-
lith emplacement are younger than the ages of subduction
initiation-related fore-arc basalts and boninites (336-
328 Ma, [77]), but contemporaneous with the N-MORB-
type gabbros, OIB-type basalts, A-type granites, Dashizhai
bimodal volcanic rocks, subduction-related I-type granit-
oids, adakite–high-Mg diorite–Nb-enriched basalt suites in

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 Lithosphere
the northern Inner Mongolia region (Table 1; [36, 50, 51, 60,
61, 64–66, 75, 76, 79]), indicating a genetic relationship
between mantle upwelling during active ridge subduction
and formation of the Daqing peraluminous granitoids
(Figure 10) (see more details below).
A spreading ridge subduction-slab window model was
first proposed by Windley et al. [121] who suggested that
ridge-trench interaction was probably one of the most fea-
sible tectonic processes in the CAOB, similar to the modern
American Cordillera, from eastern Alaska to the Antarctic
Peninsula, where ridge subduction and induced slab tear
windows were considered as a chief mechanism responsible
for variations in igneous and tectonic conditions along the
Andean active continental margin [130–134]. Above the
slab tear windows, arc magmatism is interrupted and
replaced by a broader intraplate magmatism [134]. In cer-
tain cases, partial melting of young oceanic crust in the slab
window edges forms magmas of adakite and associated
rocks [135]. Li et al. [50, 75] suggested that the Late Car-
boniferous to Early Permian ridge subduction and induced
slab windows caused anomalous thermal, chemical, and
physical effects on the surrounding mantle and upwelling
asthenosphere and triggered partial melting of the mantle
in the southern Mongolian continental margin. This tec-
tonic process promoted massive mantle-derived magmas
underplating through a slab window and triggered exten-
sive melting of subducted oceanic crust, mantle, and overly-
ing crust to generate corresponding igneous rocks, i.e.,
adakites and associated rocks, diverse mafic rocks, bimodal
volcanic rocks, and A-, I-, and S-type granites in this region
(Figure 10; [34, 36, 50, 51, 54, 61, 64–66, 75, 76, 79]; this
study). Moreover, mafic rocks of 318-295 Ma Hegenshan-
Xi Ujimqin ophiolites show MORB-, OIB-, and IAB-like
compositional characteristics [35, 69, 78], similar to basalts
formed by ridge subduction in the Alaska [136] and Taitao
peninsula [137]. The Paleozoic peraluminous granites in
the central Chile and Chinese Altai may be the natural
cases, which suggest about 30-80% melting of continental
crust during ridge subduction based on the geochemical
and numerical modelling [25, 89, 129]. As the Daqing
granitic batholith was the mixed product of large continen-
tal crustal-derived materials and minor mantle-derived
magmas, it is thus reasonable to deduce that large-scale
melting of continental crust was facilitated by the upwelling
mantle during ridge subduction (Figure 10). This is also
supported by the occurrence of the MMEs, which are the
products of the mixing between mantle- and crust-derived
magmas [110]. In addition, these Early Permian granitoids
in northern Inner Mongolia show the transition from I-
to S-type granites, weakly negative to positive εNd(t) values
(−0:4 − +3:1) (Figure 6(a)) and positive zircon εHf(t) values
(+5:2 − +10:7) (Figure 6(b)) ([51, 54]; this study), recording
obvious crustal growth and maturity in a continental arc
setting. Ridge subduction thus may have resulted in exten-
sive underplating of mantle-derived magma owing to
asthenosphere upwelling through slab tear windows, which
could have provided not only sufficient heat for the wide-
spread crustal melting and maturity but also significant
juvenile materials for the crustal growth.
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15
6. Conclusions
(1) Zircon U-Pb dating suggests that the Daqing pera-
luminous granitoids were emplaced in a period of
283-282 Ma, coeval with the mafic rocks and slab
melt-related magmatism (adakite–high-Mg diorite–
Nb-enriched basalt) in the XMOB
(2) Petrology, whole-rock geochemical and Sr-Nd iso-
topic compositions, and zircon Hf isotopes all sug-
gest that the Daqing peraluminous granitoids are
largely produced by melting of the overlying conti-
nental crust with minor underplating or injection
of mantle-derived basaltic magma
(3) In addition to the orogenesis, large-scale melting of
the continental crust can also occur in the oceanic
subduction processes. As the ridge subduction, local
extension of the overriding continental plate owing
to asthenosphere upwelling through slab windows
to generate mantle-derived magma, which then trig-
gered extensive remelting and maturing of the conti-
nental crust and provided juvenile materials for the
crustal growth
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available
at doi: https://10.6084/m9.figshare.17012465. The source
data are provided with this paper.
Conflicts of Interest
The author(s) declare(s) that they have no conflicts of
interest.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank Chen Rui for their help in the field
work and Ningyuan Qi and Haibo Ma for their help in
the measurements. This work was financially supported
by the 111 Project (B18048), the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (Nos. 41730214, 41790451),
and by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition
and Research Program (STEP) (2019QZKK0802). This is
CUGB petro-geochemical contribution no. PGC201589
(RIG-no. 17).
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary 1. Table DR1: zircon U-Pb analytical results
for samples from the Daqing peraluminous granitoids in
Xi Ujimqin, Northern Inner Mongolia.
Supplementary 2. Table DR2: major (wt.%) and trace-
element (ppm) concentrations of the Daqing peraluminous
granitoids in Xi Ujimqin, Northern Inner Mongolia.
Supplementary 3. Table DR3: whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic
compositions of the Daqing peraluminous granitoids in Xi
Ujimqin, Northern Inner Mongolia.
 16
Supplementary 4. Table DR4: zircon Hf isotopic composi-
tions of the Daqing peraluminous granitoids in Xi Ujimqin,
Northern Inner Mongolia.
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