Learners’ use of strategies for effective vocabulary learning JMOIR AND IS P NATION ~Vietoria University, Wellington aasTRacT “This paper is based on a sec of case stuclies of learners coping with the learning cof vocabulary on an intensive English program. Although the learners were all highly motivated, most of them engaged in learning behav outs that they knew ‘were not as beneficial as they could be or which wene againse whar they had leauned in clas. Ie is argued that che main cause for this was the learners not taking personal responsibilty for che learning and relating it to their own, long-term goals. Ie is also eupgested that some of cis behaviour was encouraged by cerca teaching and resting practices. Introduction In recent years, in line with a moze learner-focused view of education, chere has been increasing interest in language learners cherselves, and how they approach the task of learning, This learner-centred focus has had -wo significant effects con classroom reaching and curriculum planning. Fist in tesponse to the recognition that learners are irdividuals with unique learning needs, texchers and course designers are aimningto design courses and classroom materials with a specific group of learners in mind. A second effect of learner-centred education is the provision for learners to work more indepen- ently, both in and out of the language classroom, alowing learners more control over what is learned, and when and where that learning takes place This may be realised in a focus on learner strategies. Although there has cerainly been a trend cowards alearner-centred focus inwhole-clas instruction, in many institutions there azestill several aspects of| learningin a whole-clss environment chat require earner 0 engage in activities for tasks thar are imposed by the curriculurn, and so thereare a number of task- level decisions that must be made by learners within the classroom context. Since the ability to make strategic decisions about lecening at tasklevel is likely to be a determinant of effective learning, iis important t investigate the strat- egies that learners use to approach tasks for which some aspects, such as format and assessment, ae already predetermined by the curriculum. Studies of the vocabulary-learning strategies used by second- oF fo Janguage learners have shown that learners differ inthe range of strategies they{IMORANO ISP NATION use and in the effectiveness with which they apply these (Gu and Johnson 1996; Lawson and Hoghen 1996; Schmice 1997), There is also a large body of both first and second language research which demonstrates the effectiveness of particular strategies (Nation 2001). These include ‘simple’ strategies like the use of rehearsal, repetition, and instantiation, more complex strategies lise sword:part analysis, guessing from context clues, and a range of elaborative stracegies like the keyword technique. Teaches are now aware of many of these anditis not unusual to see such strategies taught and practised in English pro- ficieney courses and incorporated into course books (Dunmore 1989). ‘There are now increasingly elaborated and detailed taxonomies of vocab- lary learning strategies (Schmitt 1997), but some of these suffer from the lake ‘of an externally validated framework to check on how completely they cover the area. The present study draws on a model of syllabus design in an efore to rectify this omission. A syllabus design framework is chosen principally because the present study focuses on learners vocabulary-learning, stratcgy use in the context of an English proficiency course. The vocabulary component of this course can be viewed as a piece of syllabus design and learners’ beliefs and be~ haviour can be examined using the main parts of che syllabus design process as guide, namely gale, choice of contens,farmat and presentation, and mon- ‘toring and endluation of the learning (Nation 2000; Murdoch 1989). When ‘we place vocabulary strategy texonomies against such a framework, we find thac almost all che srategies focus on format and presentation, thacis srategies for understanding and remembering vocabulary. Schinitt (1997) calls these discovery and. consolidation strategies. With the small exception of Gu and Johnsons (1996) mezacognitve regulation category where knowing which words are imporcant to learn is mentioned, most taxonomies do not consider goal- seting and vocabulary-selection strategies, and strategies for evaluating and ‘monitoring progress in vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning goals ‘The goals ofa vocabulary learning program should include: 1 the learning of useful vocabulary which relates o the learner? language learning goals such as learning English for academic seudy, for social uses, ot for particular purposes such as reading newspapers or watching TV: 2. retaining the learning so that the vocabulary knowledge is stil available after the course ends, and 3 making the vocabulary available for meaning focused use both receptvely and productively 16 Prospect VoL 7, Next Apel 2002 LEARNERS USE OF STRATEGIES FOR EFECTMEVOCARULAR LEANING ‘To reach the firse goal leaners need to apply the strategy of appropriate choice, that is, choosing the most useful words to learn, and the strategy of appropriae focus, that i, deciding what to learn about chem, These ae both very important strategies because words differ considerably in their frequency and distribution (Nation 2001: Chapter 1) and there ate many aspects of knowledge involved in knowing a word (Richards 1976; Schmitt 2000). ‘To reach the second goa, long-term rerention ofthe vocabulary, iis neces- sary to use strategies char encourage deep processing of the vocabulary, for cxarmple, Schmicts (1997) memory straregies and cogsitiv strategies. Learners slbo need co ensure thar thet is spaced repetition and review which relate to Schmitt's meraconitvescategies. To reach the third goal, making vocabulary available for use, earners need to seek opportunities to use cheir learning. The study The study sought to answer the following questions ‘What beliefs and strategies do learners draw on t guide their vocabulary learning? Jn what ways are these belief& and strategies affected by the learners’ pur- posesin learning English, che navure ofthe couse, andthe learners’ previous ‘experience? “How effective are these strategies? ‘This study differs from other straregy studies i that ie uses a broader, ‘curriculumn-based view of strategies and uses interviews rather than surveys (Gu and Johnson 1996; Schmitt 1997;) and ‘think-aoud’ tasks (Lawson and Hoge 1996) to gather data. Like Lawson: and Hogben's seudy, che present study involves a measure of vocabulary learning. ‘The suudy examines the vocabulary-learning strategies of ten adule language learners in an intensive ESL course. The informants were interviewed in dhe hope of shedding some light on the learners steategy we and their beliefs about learning, All were studying on an English proficiency program, a full-time, twelve-week intensive course Focusing for the most parton academic English, Many of the international students in the course hoge to use a pass mark on ‘he course as proof of sufficient English proficiency to enter university and are highly motivated. ‘The vocabulary program followed by the informancs interviewed in this study was designed to increase learner awareness of what is involved in vocab- ulary learning, and to improve productive vocabulary. The program requires Prospea VaI7, Net Ape 200217| HOIR ANOS? NATION learners to study between 30 and 40 words oftheir own choosing each week, using 2 vocabulary notebook issued ol learners at the beginning ofthe course, Schmitt and Schmict (1995) describe the principles and advantages behind using a vocabulary notebook. The vocabulary notebook has columns to com- plete for each word, equiring information relating co pronunciation, meaning, grammatical use, collocations, a sentence containing the rarget word, and other items from the same word family: Progress in vocabulary learning is monitored through a weekly tes, in which learners are required ro demonstrate thir know- ledge ofthe words they have chosen to study. At the beginning of the program, students are given instruction in a number of wocabulary-learning, strategies, such as the key-word technique and the use of word cards. Learners are also pro- vided with information on how to choose vocabulary to seudy, and what is involved in knowing 2 word ‘The weekly tes that earners prepared for was conducted in the following way. Each leaner gave alist ofthe words they had studied to the ceacher. The teacher then wrote an abbreviation next co some of the words indicating what the learner had co do, C meant che learner had to write some collocations for the word, S meant that the learner had ro write a sentence P indicated hat the leaner had to break. i into pars, and so on. In cach learner sat their own personalised test. Ieis believed chat allowing learners ro select their own vocabulary o study ‘would be beneficial in ewo ways. First, sef-slecting vocabulary allows individ- tual learers to focus on vocabulary that meets their own needs and, second, it is belived tha seleting their own words would result in increased motivation to learn, [Data fortis study was taken from semi-structured interviews conducted with ten adule studencs, The interviews elicited informacion relating to the learners’ current vocabulary learning behaviour within the ESL program, and bolic about vocabulary learning. A short vocabulary cet was also devised co ‘measure the informant!’ Inowledge of words leamed in the vocabulary program three weeks prior to the interview. Most of the informants for chi study had a receptive vocabulary of berween 3000 and 5000 words, as measured by Nation's Vocabulary Levels Test (1990) at the beginning of the program. Table 1 povidesa brief profile ofthe students, who have all ben assigned pseudonyms Informed consent was obtained from all ren informants, and exch was pro- vided with an information sheet explaining the navure ofthe research and their expected role should they decide to participate in the project, They were also given the opportunity to discuss the project wich the researcher before data ‘were collected. LEARNERS USE OF STRATEGIES FOR EFECTIVEVOCABLRARY LEARNING ‘Table I:The learners involved in the study Country of Informant origin Agelgender Mohamed Bangdesh 32M ea Japan nom Name HongKong 4 F Haruko Japan mF Keo China we sandy Korea ue aa Somi OM dick Korea wm Dibble = Sian 4 Sune Korea ner Interview design ‘The interview schedule was designed primarily to eci information relating to the informants’ currene vocabulary-learing behaviour and theie beliefs about vocabulary learning, and was divided into three parts. ‘VOCABULARY LEARNING WITHINTHE PROGRAM ‘The first part ofthe interview schedule was intended t9 elicit information from cach of the informants relating to their approach to learning vocabulary within the context ofthe program. Although all informants were restricted roa certain ‘extent bythe confines of the vocabulary-leaming program, consisting of learn- ing notebook and weekly test twas believed that learners would have their own, approach to the learning tsk, adjusted to some extent according co their own needs. Questions inthis section of the interview schedule related to strategies of personal goal-setting, selection and grading of concent, methods and tech- niques, monicoring and evaluation. Iwas hoped that responses to these ques- tions would reveal the degre of learner: willingness to make decisions relating to each of these aspects of learning vocabulary in a way that promoted their leaming. (OTHER VOCABULARY LEARNING "The nex par ofthe interview related to informant vosabulary leaning ouside the couse Iwas believed that most informants would have some sort of system for learning vocabulary for their own use. Informants were asked to consider any direct avemprs to leatn new vocabulary and co cescribe any strategies or techniques they employed, This section of the interview also encouraged infor- ‘ants to consider the relationship between their s:rategies for vocabulary 18 Prospect WoLT7, Net Apel 2007 Prospect LI, Next Apa 200219JMORANDISP NATION learning and the systematic approach to vocabulary learning wsed in the course. In the second part ofthis section, informants were asked about their expet- ence of leaming vocebulary in past language course, in their home country, in New Zesland, and in other countries. Iewas hoped that knowledge of in- formants’ past vocabulary-learning experience might provide some insight into current belief and behaviour, BELIEFS ABOUT VOCABULARY LEARNING ‘The third section ofthe interview schedule related tothe informants’ personal beliefs about learning vocabulary in a second language. To some extent, most informants had already expressed theic belies about vocabulary learning in ‘comments made in previous parts ofthe interview, but ths section gave infor- rants the opportunity to expand on ideas and to reflect on their beliefs. Test design In order to testinformants retention of knowledge of words studied during the program, ashore test was devised. Due to the nature ofthe vocabulary-learning taskest for the program, iewas expected that informants would show & reason- able depth of knowledge of the icems chosen for the test. The test thus focused fon depth of knowledge of afew words, rather than breadth of knowledge - how ‘many words were known (Sokmen 1997: Wesche and Paribakhe 1990), An interview tesedesigned ro assess th informant’ depth of knowledge of the eryet tems, and their ability vo use chese words productively was therefore chosen asthe most appropriate measure of the informant’ retention of vocab- tulary items For each informan, ten words were selected at random from lise of words studied by chat informant three weeks prior to the interview. In formants were presented with thelist of words based on their individual lst, and were esked to give as much information as possible about exch word, even if uncertain of its meaning or usage. The researcher probed the informants knowledge of each icem. However informants were not pressured to provide snswers quieldy, buc were allowed time for reflection and recall. In those cases ‘where informants were completely unable to recognise che word in isolation, sample ventences were provided to prompc reall. As much as posible, sentences were created that gave sufficient context to aid recall of word knowledge, but ‘enough to allow informants to guess meaning, In some cases informants did antempt to guess the meanings of items presented in context, and where it ‘vas obvious tha the informants were guessing from context rather than recall- ing meaning, these answers were not included in che grading of che tess. Each learner chus met the researcher ewice ~ once for the vocabulary interview test and then three weeks are for the vocabulary-leaming beliefs and strategies interview. Lee us now look ac the findings of the second interview. 20 Pape VoLi7, Not Apri2002 | | | | | | I { { i | 1 | i | LEARNERS USE OF STRATEGIES FOR FECTIVEVOCABULARY LEARNING Analysing the strategy interviews Ir must be acknowledged that any mechodology requiring students to describe their own learning behaviour is open to charges of unrel ability. Iti also neces- sary to consider the possibilty that informants are ether nocsuliciendly aware of their own behaviour to offer an accurate description, or have a tendency to dizect their responses towards a perceived researcher expectation. One or (wo of the informants in cis study certainly demonstrated «tendency to describe their teachers instructions rather than their own learning behaviour. Flowever, ‘wherever possible, che researcher deflected such responsesand encouraged infor- ‘mants to think more carefully about cher acwual behaviour and personal belief, as is shown in the example below taken from Hiruko interview. Hi: Arche beginning ofthe coure J taught us about how todo that. Shes we should R: OK, thats what] i you should do, can you tell mewhat you anual do? Haugh). serually wally I dont doth. Seudene responses describing learning behaviour were also supported by examples from recent vocabulary tests and notebook werk in order to increase the reliability of the selEreport dara. ‘Analysis ofthe incerview transcripts revealed that most ofthe informants ‘were not using a range of vocabulary-learning strategies that would shape the program co fit their own needs. Moreover, vocabulary scores from the tests ‘conducted with these informants also revealed limited long-term retention oF ‘meaning and ability ro use items learned for the vocebulary component of the Program. ‘While mose of the interviews revealed a similar puwern of voeabulary- learning behaviour, one informant, Abdi, differed sigificandy in his approach 1 the tsk. Abdi demonstrated 2 high level of eesponsi ing, and s strong awareness of aspects of vocabulary aad of che vocabulary- learning strategies required to complete the task to mex his own needs. For this reason, Abdis behaviour is discussed separately. Before continuing with 2 description of how the lesners approached the task, itis important to stress that the learners spent a considerable amount of time studying vocabulary forthe program. Although the amount of ime varied from week to week, most informants believed they spent between five and six hous, and two informants, Haruko and Sandy, reportec spending up ¢o eight ‘or nine hours per week on this task. Interestingly, Abdi, the learner who was approaching the task most effecvely, reported spending sighiy ess ime on the task than the other learners, approximately four hours per week. It is clear that these leamers were investing 2 substantial amount of time in this vocabulary developmenc prograrn.Icis therefore importanc to find out for his own learn Prospedt Vol 7, Next April 200221 | | | |SHORANOISPNATION hhow these learners approached the task, and how effective their learning really was. Nine learners’ approaches to vocabulary learning Tet us look at the strategies the learners used following the sllzbus-design components of content, presentation and evaluation, SELECTION OF WORDS ‘The aspect of vocabulary learning in which the informants appeared to dem- onstrate the least ability co personalise was in the selection of words to beleamed cach week, and they often seleceed words that were of limited use or litle personal interest. Although some words were sclected from a wider range of sources, sich as newspapers, personal reading, television or radio, most of the informants selected vocabulary from texts presented in class and focused on academic or ‘dfficul’ words. For many of the informant, the process of selecting words ro study was quite random. 1 don't know this word —I dort know meaning ~s0 doa know useful o nt. Tur chow some words {do now before This very popula way for ws fe bss ‘Haruko Although, in rare cases, informants selected words because of particular personal interest, moscof the words chosen by che informants inthis study were selected purely because they were unknown. ‘Most informants also appeared to place lide value onthe selection of words to learn, selecting words quickly in order to allow time for finding out infor- ration about chem and memorising them for the weekly rest. 1 dont have no time to Finding the words. Jus open my book and then T just pick up the words Sandy For the most part, words selected by the informants were of low frequency and/ot limited distibucion, and informants themselves often believed the words chosen to be of limited use wo them personally, as is illustrated in this com- ‘ment from Haruko. | choose very big academic word, bu academic word is not useful. OF courte | should know that wore, but I chink I don use afer this cours. ASPECTS OF WORD KNOWLEDGE ‘Toa certain excenr, information about items to be learned is largely predeces- mined by che vocabulary workbook with which each student in this program 2 Prospect Vol 17, Net Aprr2002 LEARNERS USE OF STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVEOCABULARY LEARNING is expected to work. The need to find such information foreach target item is farther reinforced by the format of the weekly test. ‘Almose al informants showed a preoccupation with meaning often at the expense of other crucial aspects of word knowledge, and many of th informants believed that first language translacion of ems tobe karned was sufficient ro enable effective use of words. Several expressed ther lack of interest in depch of sword knowledge, stating that aspects of word knowledge such as collocations and other words in the same word family were only learned to fulfil course requiremens. 1 need meaning, and then | mus fil ie (vocabulary laeing notebook —R) with ‘everything. [find everything ~ collocstions and noun, aijeciv or something, and then fail word, Actually done need cae, but Ihave ro do because oF the es IF find a word by ml, juse meaning is ©.K. for me Sandy In Korea I never tried lie tha, ba here they demand mero memorisecellocaion for cht et. think ie noe useful to me. Tm noc ued cus collocston. Sun ae Just meaning is important for me. Collocation and wor! family ching not so important, because I'm not English-speaking people. Neralie This dismissal of word knowledge other chan meaning was cleatly articu- lated in many of the interviews, demonstrating a general lack of awareness as to how depth of vocabulary knowledge might contiibate to ability to use the items both productively and receptively. The informants also often failed to make a connection between depth of word knowledge and their inabiliy co use items communicatively, 25 is shown in these wo consemutive comments made by Jack in his interview. 1 done hk chose hings (grammatical information, collotion ex exe R) is jimportane Forme now. Mosy just Ge Korea meaning, his isbest way forme ‘Actually, mos seioue problem for me —I dont know hew to use that word. [ leaow meaning, but I cane uze that on. I dont know why. ‘The informants were also asked to provide. sentence using each target word for che weeldy test. Here again, the majority of the informancs demonstrated an unwillingness to adapt the learning ro their own gods by creating theic own sentences. In mast cases, sentences were copied from examples provided in Janguage-leaning dictionaries. Often sentences were copied exactly, or short- ened slightly to make chem easier to remember. Proxpact Vol 17, Next Apra 200223[OR ANDIS NATION have o find a sentence because of est. copy exactly because that is 2 perfect sencence. IFT change it. usualy i a wrong sentence, oe ty Usually (I) get sentence from the dictionary. I dink disionary is useful for me, and [can tas the dietionary. Sun se ‘This approach to learning the target words seemed to have a negative effect ‘on some informants ability © use che items communicatively. For example, in the case of one of her rested words, Sandy was unable to provide an example ‘of an item in use, because she could noc remember the sample sentence she had ‘memorised for the test. By copying a ‘perfect’ sentence from the dictionary, she hhad limited her own expectations of her ability to use new vocabulary. Sandy seemed utterly aghast at the thought of creating new sentences containing the target word, even when she had demonstrated 2 reasonable level of understand ing of the word. LEARNING AND MEMORISING WORDS 1 Strategies Rote learning or ‘memorising’ was the most common consolidation strategy used by nine of the ten informants interviewed for chis study. All informancs spenca considerable amount of time reading over the information recorded in vocabulary learning notebooks, or copyingit out several times into larger note books. Tiare of the nine informants also sel-tesied vocabulary, by covering second-language translations or definitions while reading through thelist. ‘Aktbough all students had been instructed on the wse of various strategies for learning vocabulary a the beginning of the program, most of those interviewed. had veered away ffom using chese new strategies, preferring to rely on the tried and tested strategy of rote learning, In some cases, the informants had valid “arguments for avoiding the use of new vocabulary learning strategies, sis shown in the comments of these ewo learners discussing the key-word technique. Someone sud, you know, find asimibar word in my own language, sre sound, tohelp remember and | red do that, Afer tha, consequently my Englthpro- ‘unciaon become very sang. dont know, maybe it depend onthe people, the sedeng, bu. in my ese enh hale or ne. Tooke do het anymore Masa | think ee good technique for deeply remember, bt for this est Ihave lied time. To make good cllocation wordt find good picture is take time. If partc- ular wane to remember special words, maybe Twould lik co ry this idea, but not often .. tales slong time: Haruko 24 aspect VoL 7, Nox Apr 2002 LEARNERS USE OF STRATEGIES FOR EHECTVEVOCABULARY LEARNING cis dear from these comments thar these leaeness have at least considered strategies other than memorising to help them learn che words each week, but hhave decided not to use them. 2. A limited time frame (One recurrent theme when discussing learning the items chosen for vocab- ulary development was che idea that the words were only learned inthe shore term, Many references were made to time constrains in elacion to the test, and in one casei was explicitly stared thac i was only necessary to remember the swords fora shore time. 1 just memorise shat ist, eading and wring es ery = we have to remember that fr jut one day Sandy ‘While this example is peshepsaltele execeme and not representative ofthe whole group, learning behaviour such as ‘cramming’ on ehe morning of the ‘weeldy test indicates that many of these informants were concemed mostly about remembering the words for the test, rather thanas long-term goal. This is Further demonstrated by the general failure co revise items after the test. REVISION OF WORDS (Of che nine informants, not one regularly revised words leamed in previous weeks, alchough some recognised the importance of rvsion and believed lack ofc co be contributing to ther inability to commit aew words t longetezm ‘memory. The most common reason cite for lure to revise tems was lck of time. Informancs were busy with other aspects of the program and vocabulary revision became less ofa priority. ‘After the tes am tying ro remember and use these wos, a because i dont use this Word I cart remember and the word become rey. Bu fer finiehing the ces. each week there is homework for learning nese 30 words don get tie wo look 2 this previous learning words. Mohamed Some of the informants believed that teachers should allocate class time ro revision of vocabulary, and to follow up vocebulary development by requiring learners to use the new words in writing or speaking, SELF-EVALUATIONAND MONITORING ‘Many ofthe learners believed that they were nor learning vocabulary effectively in this part ofthe program. It was believed chat many of the words had been forgotten, and that they had limieed ability co use those words communicatively. Prospect VoL 17, No.l Apri 200225"This perception was shown to be truc in the results of the tests. Many of the informants attributed their low retention of vocabulary they had studied to che actual words they selected. Several commented that che words were noe useful or relevant to their own lives. Others complained that the words could not be used, making retention of meaning dificult. [thinks aot ery weil bens we are memoris for tet Sometimes We Forget ‘we choose words that are not very common and we forget Debbie I donetike sudy vocabulary chis rl, because these word not useful, Nor useful for something you tlk with someone. I dont use dhese words its just for seudy or reading voeablary Fis. Kae Interestingly, although selection ofthe words to learn was the aspect ofthe vocabulay-learning process over which the informants had most control none of these nine informanes had made any attempt to alter their methods of selec- ing vocabulary in light of chee dissatisfaction with the effects oftheir current behaviour. This failure to alter learning behavious, even when itis clearly resog- rise’ char the system is noc working fo them, is pethaps the clearest indication that these earners are not taking responsibilty for their own learning, or using the task to meet their own needs Tc could be argued thac the learners have adapted well to the situation they axe in, in chat they are working hard, Focusing on immediate goals, and picking up on cues from the teachers. However, this adapration has only limited short- «etm benefits and is cerainly nor what the teachers hoped for, and one of the practical goals ofthis study was co provide data for formative evaluation of the vocabulary component of the course so chat there were longe-