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Contents
FOREWARD Section -1 Architecture ................................................ 2
Dear Aspirants, Indus Valley Civilization ........................................... 2
Mauryan Period ....................................................... 5
Every one of our student aims to get their dream Gupta Age ................................................................ 8
job and seeks the right tools that helps them Architecture Of South India ....................................... 12
complete their career defining tests. We aim to Chola Temple Architecture .................................... 12
be one of the main tool to help an aspirant
Regional Schools Of Architecture .......................... 13
become the one they aspire to be. AKS IAS thrives
Architecture Of Medieval India ................................. 14
to be the best step a student takes towards
Indo-Islamic Style Of Architecture ......................... 14
his/her goal and we do achieve it nearly every
Sultanate Period .................................................... 15
time. Our publishing unit is one of the essential
means to serve our intentions through AKS IAS Architecture Of Modern India ................................... 16
Material and various imprinted and forthcoming Section - 2: Paintings, Music, Dance, Theatre And
titles. Puppetry .................................................................... 17
Paintings................................................................. 17
This Exclusive book has been prepared and Indian Music........................................................... 21
compiled keeping in mind the needs of those, who Indian Dances......................................................... 24
are looking for a focused and intensive approach, Folk Dances ............................................................ 27
who wish to streamline their preparation strategy Indian Theatre........................................................ 28
for the various competitive examinations. Puppetry ................................................................ 29
Section - 3: Philosophy In India, Language And
AKS IAS Academy's - committed team has Literature ................................................................... 30
prepared this book following certain norms to Schools Of Philosophy............................................ 30
ensure non-partisan treatment of the subject, a The Buddhist School Of Philosophy ....................... 32
dedicated effort to help you prepare best to crack Jain School Of Philosophy ...................................... 36
the Examinations. Explaining each and every detail
Charvaka School Of Philosophy ............................. 38
required. This all-inclusive volume will facilitate
Language .................................................................... 38
the aspirants to amass a complete and detailed
Classification Of Indian Languages ........................ 38
understanding of the concerned subject.
Literature ................................................................... 40
We wish you the best for your Test preparation! Vedic Literature ..................................................... 40
M.S.Shashank Buddhist Literature ................................................ 41
Founder & CEO Jain Literature ........................................................ 42
Dravidian Literature ............................................... 42
Medieval And Modern Literature .......................... 44
Section - 4: Miscellaneous ......................................... 46
Tribes Of India ........................................................ 46
Martial Arts ............................................................ 49
• These types of houses had wells, bathrooms • The inscriptions found on most sources are
and were mostly ventilated suggesting a high typically very short, with an average of about 5
degree of urban opulence. signs per source. These signs are 'logo-syllabic'
meaning that each sign represents a syllable
Seals (or a word).
• Seals were primarily made Steatite (terracotta, • The Dholavira 'signboard' is an inscription that
copper, gold, ivory, agate, chert and faience contains 10 pictographs. It indicates a 'civic use
were also used) in a mostly square shape of writing' but it cannot indicate that urban
(other shapes like circular, rectangular or literacy among Harappans was very high.
triangular).
• It has been said that the most common use of Bronze figurines
these seals were commercial, though the seals • The casting of bronze using lost wax technique
could have been used as amulets (dead bodies was known and many figurines built in this
with seals on top of them were found; these fashion were found. The 'dancing girl' of
seals also had holes in them for inserting Mohenjo-Daro and the bronze bull found in
string) or as identification signs. Kalibangan are famous examples.
• Some seals had mathematical impressions on • The 'dancing girl' of Mohenjo-Daro is also
them suggesting that these might have been known as the world's oldest bronze sculpture.
used for educational purposes as well. It is a small four inch statue depicting a girl
• Generally the seals depicted pictures of wearing only ornaments and an amulet across
animals like bull, goat, buffalo, tiger and her neck.
elephant, while the inscriptions contained not • Her body stance, where one leg is slightly bent
more than ten to twenty symbols. and the body is curved in the opposite
• Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement as compared direction, is called the tribhanga' posture.
to Mohenjodaro, almost exclusively devoted
to craft production, including bead-making, Terracotta Figures
shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and • These were sculptures made using fire-baked
weight-making. clay. These are found mostly in Dholavira in
• Un-inscribed seals were found in Rakhigarhi. Gujarat and Kalibangan areas and are
numerically lesser than Bronze figurines.
Script • Terracotta figurines were generally in the form
• The script is sometimes written in the of miniature wheel-carts, toys, animal
boustrophedon style; to write the first line figurines etc. The best-known terracotta
from right to left and the next line from left to figurines are of the Mother Goddess and the
right and so on, probably containing the name mask of the horned deity.
and title of the owner, • The mother goddess figurines are popular and
• Interestingly, the Harappan script does not found in many Indus Valley sites. It depicts a
demonstrate an evolution over time but woman adorned with necklaces and headgear.
instead it seems that the script came to be in However, these were very crudely built and
use in a fully developed state. facial expressions were poorly recreated.
• The finding of a common script in many sites
of the Harappan cultural zone indicates a
degree of high cultural integration.
• The complete disappearance of the Harappan
script after 1700 BC indicates a strong
connection between urbanization and writing.
As the urbanization declined the writing
declined along with it.
• The use of jade in bead-making was absent in for sermons of the emperor addressed to the
the early Harappan age. public.
• 'Stoneware bangles' is a unique Harappan ➢ They are composed of four segments - a
craft. These bangles were red, grey-black and base in the form of the long shaft (often a
had letters inscribed on them. monolith), on it a Capital (usually bell-
shaped and inspired from Iran), above it
MAURYAN PERIOD the abacus (either circular or rectangular)
and finally on top the figurines of animals.
➢ For example, Bull Capital at Rampurva, Lion
ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE MAURYAN
pillar at Vaishall and the Allahabad pillar
PERIOD
without a capital.
Major changes occurred during the 4th
➢ An elephant capital was found at Sankisa
century BC in the social and political atmosphere
(UP) which symbolises the birth of Buddha.
of ancient India due to the advent of Buddhism
• Mauryan stupas are burial mounds. Originally,
and Jainism. At this time, the Mauryan Empire was
burial mounds were used in the Vedic age but
at the helm and under its patronage, a lot of
it gained popularity only after Buddhists
architectural wonders were designed and built for
started using the practice.
both political as well as religious reasons.
➢ After Buddha's death, nine such stupas
were erected (Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Key features
Rajagriha, Kushinagar, Pava, Ramagrama,
• Mauryan art was typically 'dignified and
Pippalivana, Allakappa and Vethapida)
aristocratic court art' where great emphasis
where the first eight contained the relics
was laid on the
of Buddha and the last one contained the
• of animals.
pot, which was used to keep Buddha's
• Post-Mauryan art on the other hand, 'reflected relics.
popular tastes and patronage'. This type of art ➢ A stupa is made using unburnt brick inside
was generally relief art and themed around a and burnt bricks outside. The surface is
narration of stories or tales. covered with plaster.
• Two important changes employed by builders ➢ The important architectural parts of a
were the adoption of stone as a primary raw stupa are -chatras (cone at the top), toran
material for major buildings and the heavy (gateway), medhi (circular terrace),
usage of wood to build houses and palaces. vedikas (stone railings), sopanas
• Economically, the architecture of the period (staircases) and pradakshina potho
can be differentiated as either with or without (passageway around the stupa).
royal patronage. For example, royal patronage
was extended to palaces, pillars and stupas but Stupa
was not extended to the rock-cut caves and • Stupa, Buddhist commemorative monument,
ordinary homes. usually houses sacred relics associated with the
Buddha or other saintly persons.
Important Styles of Architecture • Tradition has it that after the great demise of
• The Mauryan capital, Pataliputra, had a palace Lord Buddha, Emperor Ashoka decided to
built of polished wood as had been noted by construct a large number of stupas throughout
Megasthenes. his dominion in memory of the Master and
➢ Another palace at Kumrahar was enshrine in them relics such as pieces of bones,
mentioned by Megasthenes in his book teeth, hair etc., over which the Stupas were
Indika as more splendid than the palaces of constructed.
Iran. • Stupas are classified into three types:
• Mauryan pillars built of mostly sandstone were ➢ Sarika Stupa-raised over body relics.
used as symbols of the bearing state, of
victories in war and as communication tools
➢ Paribhojika Stupa-raised over the articles, quarters and are the earliest examples of rock-
like the bowl, the sanghati, etc. cut caves in India.
➢ Uddeshika Stupa-built as • The Barabar caves (oldest rock cut caves in
commemorative monuments. India) are a set of 7 rock-cut-carves dating back
• The Indian conception of the stupa spread to the third century BC. These are located on
throughout the Buddhist world and evolved the twin hills of Barabar and Nagarjuni (Bihar).
into such different-looking monuments as the These are also known as Lomas Rishi Cave,
bell-shaped dagaba ("heart of garbha') of Sudama Cave and Vishwamitra Cave. The
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the terraced temple of caves were assigned by Kinig Ashoka to monks
Borobudur in Java, the variations in Tibet, and of Ajivika sect.
the multistoried pagodas of China, Korea, and
Japan. Mauryan Sculpture
• Sanchi stupa, in Madhya Pradesh, built by
Ashoka is the most famous and one of the • Mauryan sculpture can be best seen in the
oldest stupas. Amaravati stupa, in Andhra decoration of the stupas.
Pradesh, is the most famous stupa of South • The stupas were decorated with sculptures
India. called Yaksha and Yakshini and these were
religious objects to Buddhists, Jains and Hindus
Features of Stupa alike.
• Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid • The Yaksha sculpture of Manibhadra (originally
with blocks of stone or bricks. On this from Parkham Village, Mathura) is a famous
foundation, a hemispherical dome (Anda) was example of a Yaksha dety which is a colossal
raised. sculpture built around the 3 century BC.
• On the truncated top of the hemisphere, a ➢ The deity probably was poised with the
Harmika is placed, surrounded by a railing. hands lifted up to depict the Abhay
• The stupa is enclosed by a Vedika. At Bharhut, Mudra.
Sanchi and Amaravati the Vedika consists of • Silappadikaram (a Tamil literature) mentions
upright pillars with three transverse bars Yakshini and says that all the Jain Tirthankars
known as the such had a Yakshini image.
• Toranas were ceremonial gateways around the • Didarganj Yakshini was found in Didarganj,
stupas. Bihar.
• Medhi was a pedestrian path for devotees to
wave in homage to the Pottery
• Stupa. Medhi was approached by double • Pottery of the Mauryan period is termed as
staircase Sopona. A path of circumambulation PGW (Painted Grey Ware) and NBPW
(Pradakshinapath) runs around the stupa at (Northern Black Polished Ware), NBPW had a
the ground at a level within the railing. lustrous black finish and were used as
decorative or luxury wares
• PGW is characterized by its fine texture,
smoothness and evenly coloured surface. Its
colour ranges from soft grey to strong grey and
was made from very high-quality clay
➢ Since PGW only forms about 3 to 10%
of the total pottery unearthed, it has
been said that it was the pottery of the
elites.
Mauryan Cave Architecture • NBPW is typically associated with the
• Rock-cut caves, mainly containing viharas, Mauryan Period. The pottery termed as
were used by Buddhist and fain monks as living NBPW is actually a misnomer; because it is
found not only in North India but also • The Gandhara School grew under influence the
elsewhere and some of them are also not of the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
black or polished.
• NBPW was first discovered at Tabla in The Mathura School of Art
1913. Now over 1500 sites have been • This school of art flourished in the areas
identified with this pottery around the banks of the river Yamuna in the
period roughly from the 1" century AD to the 3
SCHOOLS OF ART IN THE POST-MAURYAN AGE century AD and was contemporaneous with a
The Gandhara School of Art second important school of Kushana art, i.e.,
• This school is also called the Greco-Buddhist Gandhara in the northwest.
school of art. • The rise of the Mahayana system of Buddhism
• While the early Buddhist artists used symbols during the Kushana rule provided golden
to represent the presence of the Buddha, opportunity to the Buddhist images and icons
beginning with the Kushanta rule, the Suddha • Instead of looking at Greek sculptures for
in the Gandhara School was represented in inspiration, the Mathura sculptors developed
human form their own distinct style of work. They found
• It flourished in the north-western part of enough material from Buddhist Jataka stories
Indian subcontinent (modern-day Peshawar to and from the life-events of Gautama Buddha.
Afghanistan) where the invading Greeks • In Buddhist art, the Buddha is depicted with a
brought with them the Greek (Hellenistic) and larger halo than in the Gandhara school and
the Roman style of sculpting influencing the two prominent Bodhisattvas were built known
local style as Padmapani (holding the lotus) and
• In its interpretation of Buddhist legends, the Vajrapani (holding the thunderbolt).
Gandhara School incorporated many motifs • The Mathura sculptors primarily used red
and techniques from classical Roman art, sandstone quarried in the nearby mines of
including vine scrolls, cherubs bearing Sikri.
garlands, tritons, and centaurs. The basic • This school of Art did not stop only with
iconography however, remained Indian Buddhist images. The artists carved out images
• Sculptures were made initially on stone and from traditional Brahmanical and Jaina faith.
later on Stucco, both greys in colour They also constructed stone railings, female
• When Buddha is depicted in a standing pose, figures and decorative stone panels with floral
he stands barefoot with one leg slightly bent designs.
sideways He is dressed in a robe that covers • Besides religious sculptures, the artists also
both of his shoulders and while his left-hand carved secular statues according to need. The
clutches onto the robe, his right-hand poses finest example of this art is seen in the life-size
the Abhay mudra. statue of Kushana Emperor Kanishka.
• Buddha's long hair is knotted on top of the
head in a knot known as the ushnisha The Amaravati School of Art
• Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain • This school of art flourished in South India
transparent drapery covering both shoulders, (Andhra region) in the areas surrounding the
and the halo around the head has very little banks of the river Krishna under the patronage
ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha of Satavahana Kings.
images continue to depict folds of the drapery • This school of art is famous for the reliefs
in the Buddha images and the halo around the (sculpture carved on a surface) and these
head is profusely decorated reliefs are considered one of the world's best
• When Buddha is depicted in a sitting pose, he narrations on sculpture.
is depicted either in the Dharmachakra Mudra • These reliefs were carved upon the
(teaching pose) or the Dhyana Mudra characteristic green-white limestone found in
(meditative pose)
Ajanta caves
• These caves were made as Viharos and
Chaityas during the period 200 BC to 650 AD.
• It was built by cutting the rocks of the inhydr
of the Sahyadri ranges and forming a
horseshoe shape around the Wangorah river
The inscriptions in these caves are Buddhist
Inscriptions made under the patronage of
Harishena, a Vakataka ruler,
• These caves.comprise Chaitya halls or shrines,
dedicated to Lord Buddha and Viharas or
monasteries, used by Buddhist monks for
meditation and the study of Buddhist
teachings.
• The walls were originally covered in paintings,
but today there are only nine surviving images,
the most famous being the Bodhisattva
Padmapani.
• Avalokiteshvara's painting can be found to the
left on the main shrine. According to
Mahayana doctrine, Avalokiteshvara
postponed his ascension into Buddhahood
until he assisted every being in achieving of Tara
Nirvana.
• Both the Chinese traveler Fa Hien and Hieun
Tsang mention the Ajanta caves in their
writings.
Other Important Caves
Number and Type of Period Name and Location of Features and aspects
Caves Caves
Bagh Caves Around All 9 caves were Built in the
Near the bank of Bagh 6thcentury AD Buddhist. architectural likeness
river, Madhya Pradesh of the Ajanta Caves.
Some of the cave
paintings made here
belongs to the Gupta
age.
st
Junagadh Caves, Gujarat Between 1 to 3 groups of numerous Baba Pyare Caves,
4th century AD Buddhist caves. Khapra Kodia Caves
and Uparkot Caves A
30-50 ft high citadel in
UparKot to mark the
prayer hall.
Nasik Caves (Pandu Between rd
3 23 Buddhist Caves. Built under the
Leni), Maharashtra century BC to 2 nd Hinayana sect. There
century AD are no images of the
Buddha Buddha is
represented by motifs
and symbols, for
example - footprints
and throne.
Mandapeshwar Caves 8th century AD Originally a It has sculptures of
(Montperir caves), Brahmanical cave it Nataraja, Brahma and
Maharashtra was later changed Vishnu.
into a Christian cave.
pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the Prasad shikhara. These generally move
sanctum. upwards in a slope flowing in a straight line
• The placement of an image in a temple is • Valabhi-these come with rectangular bases
carefully planned: with roots having vaulted chambers.
➢ For instance, river goddesses (Ganga and
Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance The Khajuraho School
of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple. • Built by Chandela kings, also called Chandela
➢ Dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually school.
found on the gopurams of Dravida • Both interior and exterior walls were lavishly
temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic decorated, erotic sculptures were carved
images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious inspired from Vatsyayana's Kamasutra,
planets) and yakshas are also placed at • Basic material used was sandstone, temples
entrances to guard them. generally had three chambers called the
➢ Various elements of ornamentation such garbhagriha, mandapa and ardha-mandapa,
as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, most temples were north or east facing.
amalaka, kalasha, etc. are used in distinct • The common style followed was the
ways in a temple. Panchayatan style, temples were built on a
high platform. For example, Lakshman Temple
Nagara Style and Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at
Nagara style of temples began to be built Khajuraho.
from the 5th century onwards. It is marked by the
Panchayatan style. The most important The Solanki School
characteristics of this style are the use of multiple • Built by the Solanki rulers, located in Gujarat
shrines to surround the main shrine. The Nagara and Rajasthan. Walls of the temple were plain
school is further subdivided into - Odisha school, without any carvings, the mandapa is
Khajuraho school and Solanki school. connected with the garbhagriha both from the
inside and outside.
The Odisha School • Arched gateways called 'toranas' were built
• Lavishly decorated exterior walls, interior walls and water tanks called surya-kund were built
are simple and plain, pillars absent from the near temples (these were stepped with
verandah, use of iron girders to make the roof, staircases).
temple built on square platform, temples • Materials used were sandstone, soft marble
protected by boundary walls, shikharas are and black basal and temples were generally
called 'rekhadeuls', mandaps are called east facing. For example, Modhera Sun Temple
'jagmohanas'. in Gujarat.
• For example, Sun Temple at Konark (also called
Black Pagoda), Jagannath Temple at Puri and Sculpture of the Gupta-Age
Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar. Based around the region of Sarnath, the
Gupta Age saw the following characteristics
development in the tradition of sculpture:
• The main building material became sand-stone
(cream coloured).
Typos & Shikharas • The sculptures were always dressed and
• Rekha Prasad (Latina) shikhara - these have a lacked nudity in any form.
square base upon which the walls curve inside • The halo behind the Buddha was immaculately
and meet at a point on top. decorated. Best example is this Sultanganj
• Phamsans-these were built with a bigger base Buddha, which stands 7.5 feet tall
but were shorter in height than the Rekha • The faces of the sculptures were more
rounded and not oval like the earlier Mathura
• The antarala connected the assembly hall with ➢ The flowing hair locks of Shiva are symbolic
the garbhagriha of the river Ganges.
• Sculptures of Mithun, Yakshas and Dvarpal ➢ Shiva is decorated with male and female
were built in the entrance. earrings on either ears depicting the fusion
• Water tanks were built inside the temple of both male and female in one body,
boundary. which is known as ardhanarishvara.
• The shake around the arm of Shiva signifies the
Chola Sculpture ‘kundalini power’, which can be aroused to
The oldest of these Nataraja sculptures gain true consciousness.
belonged to the time of the early Chalukya reign • Shiva is circled by a ring of lights, which depicts
(which was unearthed at the Ravana phadi cave in the never-ending cycles of time and age.
Alhole), it was fully developed only under the
Cholas. REGIONAL SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE
Nayaka School
Chola Metal Sculpture
• Best known for the Meenakshi temple, this
• Chola metal sculpture is famous for its school flourished in the 16 to 18 century under
aesthetics and technical expertise. Unlike the the Nayaka rulers.
metal hollow sculptures of North India, these
• Salient features:
were solid. However, to build both these types
➢ huge corridors called Prakarns were built,
of sculptures the same lost wax method was
➢ there were passageways on the roofs,
used.
➢ the largest gopurams (gateways) were
• The metal used was an alloy of five metals - built for example the Meenakshi temple
copper, gold, silver, lead and tin. has the largest gateway in the world and
• The iconography followed in these sculptures ➢ the temple walls were carved with intricate
resembles the earlier images on stone carvings.
sculptures.
• The images on these sculptures were clothed Vesara School (Chalukya style)
with ornaments and became a part of religious • It was a combined style between the Nagara
rituals held in the temples. and the Dravidian styles and it flourished
• The most common theme was the image of under the Chalukya kings.
Lord Shiva as the Nataraja. • Salient features:
• In the Shiva temples of South India, a separate ➢ great interest was given to the
Natana-Sabha was built to place the Nataraja construction of the vimana and the
sculpture. Best example is the temple at mandapa,
Chidambaram. ➢ the passageways were spacious,
• Nataraja sculptures were built in two ➢ Temples were covered with intricate
expressions-a pacified Shiva and an angry carvings.
Shiva.
• Shiva's 'dance of bliss' is known as Ananda
Tandava. Lord Krishna and the Nayanar saints
(Alvar saints) as well as a few Buddhist themes
were also portrayed.
• Nataraja sculpture
➢ Shiva stands on a small dwarf, which is the
symbol for the ego and ignorance
exhibited by the Individual.
Hoysala School
ARCHITECTURE OF MEDIEVAL
• Built under the Hoysala kings, this style of INDIA
temple Building flourished around Mysore
(Halebid, Sringeri and Belur) from about 1050 The establishment of Islamic rule in Delhi
AD to 1300 AD. by the 12th century AD triggered a massive change
• The major characteristics of this school were: in architecture styles. This change was an
➢ soft stone called Chlorite schist was amalgam of the local styles and the Persian style
used bought by the invaders This style of architecture is
➢ the temples were decorated with called the Indo-Islamic style of architecture.
sculptures,
➢ shikharas were built atop every temple Indo-Islamic Style of Architecture
chamber,
➢ a pillared hall was built around which Characteristics of the Indo-Islamic Style of
shires of the temples were placed, Architecture
➢ all temples were built on a raised • This style of architecture emphasized on the
platform called Jagati and availability of space by building massive halls,
➢ the staircases and the walls of the courtyards and gardens. As opposed to the old
temples were in a zigzag pattern. Hindu style of architecture which was
• The famous Nandi Bull sculptures were built congested, this style created spaciousness
under this school. • The arcuate style of architecture came into
prominence, which relied on the building of
arches and domes over buildings.
• The famous minars were introduced, which Dynasty in India. This style of architecture is
were built to surround the mosques or the called the Mamluk style after the word
mausoleums. Mamluk meaning slave. The work on the minar
• Pietra-dura: On the walls of the buildings continued under litutmish and completed
calligraphy was used for decoration instead of under Feroze Shah Tughlaq.
the old tradition of making sculptures. • Alai Darwaza: Built by Ala-ud-din Khilji under
• For purposes of decoration of the walls, the the style called the Seljuk style of architecture.
Arabesque style of drawing geometric vegetal It is the gateway that leads to gateway that
images was used. This style was characterized leads to the Qutb Minar.
by the drawing of plant stems and leaves that • Tughlaqabad and Firozabad: Towns built
sprout continuously while splitting at regular under the Tughlaq dynasty. Building material
intervals to form secondary stems, which again was primarily the grey sandstone with both
meets the primary stem on the base. arches and lintels being used to design the
• Geometry was another theme that this style entrances. The batter style of building sloping
worked deeply with. The result was the walls to strengthen buildings was first
creation of buildings that exude a feeling of introduced.
symmetry and proportion. • Lodi Gardens: Built by Sikandar Lodi, this style
• This style of architecture completely avoided of architecture introduced the concept of the
the use of animal and human figurines or double dome built to strengthen the structure
images in its designs. and to lower the ceiling height inside the
• The buildings instead had jaali designs which dome. Importantly, only tombs were built
allowed the sunlight to enter the building under the Lodi dynasty.
premises. The use of jaali designs was brought
on by the importance of light in the Islamic Mughal Architecture
religion. Mughal architecture was the pinnacle of
• In the rear wall of the prayer-hall, the centre is Indo islamic style and many great buildings were
occupied by a recess or alcove, called mihrab; built during this period. The reign of Shah Jahan
and indicates the direction of prayer (qibla). can be considered the peak of development
• The gardens built under this style followed the because after his reign ended architecture of the
Charbagh style in which a squarely shaped Indo-Islamic style declined.
garden was divided further into four more
gardens. Agra Fort
• The foresightening technique was also used • Work on the fort was commissioned by Akbar
which allowed the inscriptions to appear of the and it contained the Jahangiri Mahal and the
same size from any place within the building. Sheesh Mahal. Later on, Shah Jahan added the
• The buildings built under this style were Moti Masjid, Diwan i-aam and the Diwan-i-
constructed with mortar, brick and lime khas buildings. The fort has gardens built in the
plaster whereas the earlier Trabeate style used Charbagh style.
stone as its building material.
Fatehpur Sikri
• It was built by Akbar as a new capital city and
Sultanate Period it showcases a fusion between the Persian and
Hindu styles of architecture.
• During the Sultanate period from 1206 AD to • The buildings inside the city are the Buland
1526 AD, the Islamic style was rigorously Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Salim Chisti's tomb,
followed and improved upon. Some of the Jodha Bai's palace and the Ibadat Khana.
major constructions of this period are: • Salim Chisti's tomb is known for the intricate
• Qutub Minar: Work on the minar was started jall work while the Buland Darwaza was one of
by Qutb-ud-din Albak, the founder of the Slave
the most Imposing structures built in the technique were all used. The gardens were
Mughal period. styled in the Charbagh fashion and water
bodies were used for decorating the premises
Taj Mahal of the building.
• Built by Shah Jahan in the memory of his late • Shah Jahan also went on to build the famous
wife Mumtaz Mahal (Arzuman Bano Begum) it Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Red Fort, the
is the finest and grandest example of Mughal Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and the city of
architecture. Shahjahanabad. He is also credited with
• All the techniques and styles developed in the building one of the finest thrones in human
preceding years were employed in the building history known as the Peacock Throne.
of the Taj Mahal. NOTE: Shalimar Garden in Kashmir was built by
• The styles of jaali, calligraphy, pietra dura, Jahangir
carvings over marble and the foresighting
• The technique and process of making Indian Jataka, the dying princess and Bodhisattva
wall paintings which has been discussed in a Padmapani.
special chapter of the Vishnudharmottara • Along-side these Buddhist paintings there are
Purana, a Sanskrit text of the 5th or 6th also a few Brahmanical figures of iconographic
century AD. interest. Indra, a Hindu divinity, is depicted
flying amid clouds together with celestial
Prehistoric Paintings nymphs holding musical instruments.
The earliest paintings in India can be seen
in the caves of Bhimbetka, Mirzapur, Hosangabad Bagh Paintings.
and Panchmari with bold lines and generally • There are 9 caves at Bagh (near Gwalior) on the
depicting animals like bison, beers and tigers etc. banks of River Bagh (a tributary of Narmada).
The site of the Bhimbetka Paintings was The 4th cave Rangmahal has got the maximum
discovered by V.S. Wakanker of Vikram University, number of paintings.
Ujjain in 1957. • Stylistically, both Bagh and Ajanta belong to
There were three major phases of the same form, but Bagh figures are more
prehistoric paintings: tightly modelled, and are stronger in outline.
• Upper Paleolithic Period: Paintings were They are more earthly and human than those
usually in white with dark red and green lines at Ajanta.
depicting large animals like bison, rhinoceros NOTE: The earliest Brahmanical paintings so
and tiger. far known are the fragments found in Badami
• Mesolithic Period: Figures and animals, caves, belonging to 6th century A.D. The
usually in Red, are smaller but they lose their paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami
proportion and naturalism. Hunting was a represent the classical tradition of the North
common theme. and the Deccan at its best.
• Chalcolithic Period: Green and yellow colours
were used and paintings were of battle scenes Sittanavasal Paintings
with men riding elephants and horses with • Sittanavasal means 'the abode of great saints'.
spears, bows and arrows. This place is situated at Puddukota in Tanjore
and has Jaina paintings. These caves were built
Gupta Age Paintings by Mahendravarman and his son
Vatsyana's Kamasutra shows the skills Narshimavarman.
involved in painting and the types of brushes used • The contours of these paintings are firmly
by the painters during the Gupta age. Most drawn dark on a light red ground. On the
famous paintings of this age are found at these ceiling of the Verandah is painted a large
places: decorative scene of great beauty lotus pool
with birds, elephants, buffaloes and a young
Ajanta Paintings man plucking flowers.
• These mural paintings are mostly associated
with the Jatakas, a collection of stories, Ellora
recording the previous births of the Lord • A number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples
Buddha. were excavated between the 8th and 10th
• Fresco wall paintings with murals done in centuries AD from the living rock. The most
Tempera style. A plaster consisting of stone impressive of these, the Kailashnath temple is
powder, cow dung and rice straw was used. a free-standing structure which is in fact a
Main colours used are ochre, red, green, blue, monolith.
white and black, • There are several fragments of paintings on
• The most famous paintings are of Apsara, the ceiling of the different parts of this temple
Black Princess, Shaddanta Jataka, Mahajanaka and on the walls of some associated Jain cave
temples.
NOTE: The works of painters of the courtiers and local vegetation, scenes of pleasure-loving
the provincial officers are styled as "Popular princes, Raga Raginis and Barahmasa are
Mughal" or 'Provincial Mughal paintings. This style famous. The human figures are short with
of painting has all important characteristics of the sharp noses and narrow eyes wearing typical
Imperial Mughal painting but is inferior in quality. Bundi hats.
Some notable examples of the Popular Mughal • Jaipur School: It is generally believed that a
painting are a series of the Razm-nama, a series of school of painting originated at Amber, and
the Rasikapriya and a series of the Ramayana. later shifted to Jaipur. There is a fairly large
number of portraits of the Jaipur rulers and
Rajasthani/Rajput School of Paintings miniatures on other subjects which can
• It flourished under the Rajput rulers of definitely be assigned to the Jaipur School.
Udaipur, Chittor, Mewar, Chavanda, Bikaner, • Marwar School: A large number of miniatures
Jaipur, and Jodhpurand Bundi. It reflected the comprising portraits, court scenes, series of
ideas and ideologies, tastes and emotions of the Ragamala and the Baramasa, etc. were
Rajput princes. executed from the 17th to 19th centuries at
• The themes were mainly based on Hindu several centres of painting like Pall, Jodhpur
traditions and mythology along with scenes of and Nagaur etc. in Marwar
battles, riding and hunting. • Shekhawati: No other place in India has such a
• A.K. Coomarswamy's 'Rajput Paintings' put this targe concentration of high quality frescoes.
school of painting on the map of Indian and This region is called the Open Art Gallery of
World art history. Rajasthan.
• Rise of vernacular movements led to the
development of Hindu miniature paintings. Decconi Schools (1560-1800 AD)
The Bhakti movement and Hindu renaissance • In the Deccan, painting continued to develop
have been depicted in these paintings. Independently of the Mughal style in the
• Mewar School: Prominent centres were beginning. However, later in the 17 and 18
Udaipur and Nathdwara, with both religious centuries, it was increasingly influenced by the
and secular paintings which were popular Mughal style.
among common man. • Ahmednagar: The earliest examples of the
• Kishangarh School: There is a lake at Ahmednagar painting are contained in a
Kishangarh which appears in many of its volume of poems written in praise of Hussain
paintings. Radha and Krishna are the main Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar (1553-1565) and
subjects with gold colour being liberally used his queen. This manuscript is known as the
in paintings. Nihal Singh was the main painter Tarif-in-Hussain Shahi.
who painted 'Bani-Thani' called 'the Mona Lisa • Bijapur: Here the painting was patronised by
of India'. Ali Adil Shah I (1558-80) and his successor
• Bikaner School: Mostly the paintings are based Ibrahim II (1580 1627). The encyclopedia of
on the themes of Ramayana, Mahabharata this school is known as the Najum-al-ulum
and Krishna legends. Bikaner miniature and (Stars of Sciences). There is influence of the
wall paintings have been done in light colours. Lepakshi mural painting on the female types.
In human figures, lips are tight, the eyes are The profuse use of gold colour, some flowering
half-open, chin is small, wrists are thin and plants and arabesques on the top of the throne
chests are underdeveloped. are derived from the Persian tradition.
• Kota School: Under Raja Umed Singh, • Golconda: The earliest paintings identified as
paintings with Mughal influence sprang up. Golconda work are a group of five charming
The important pictures are mainly portraits of paintings of about 1590 painted in the period
princes and hunting scenes. of Muhammad Qull Qutb Shah (1580-1611)
• Bundi School: These paintings also have been Golconda. Other to outstanding examples of
influenced by the Mughal School. Paintings of
the Golconda painting are "Lady with the Myna realization, which were then recorded and
bird". incorporated into Buddhist scripture.
• Hyderabad: Painting in Hyderabad started
with the foundation of the Asafuji dynasty by Folk Paintings
Mir Qamruddin Khan (Chin Qilich Khan) Nizam- • Madhubani Paintings of Mithila: These are the
ul-Mulk in 1724. A miniature showing a exclusive monopoly of women artists. Initially,
princess in the company of maids is a typical these paintings were done on the walls but the
example of the Hyderabad school of painting. famine of 1967 compelled women to draw
• Tanjore: A style of painting characterised by these paintings on card paper in order to sell,
bold drawing, techniques of shading and the Henceforth, it became famous and
use of pure and brilliant colours flourished at commercialized. The Subjects of these
Tanjore in South India during the late 18th and paintings are Vishnu's avatars and female
19th centuries. deities like Kall, Durga and Parvati.
• Phad Paintings of Rajasthan: They are scroll
Pahari School of Paintings (17th-19th centuries) paintings on which religious and heroic tales
• Ancient tradition of painting had survived in are painted by a class of artists called 'Joshis'
modified form in Kashmir and the adjoining hill who are generally attached to temples.
areas of the Himachal Pradesh and • Pichwal Painting of Rajasthan: It is a ritual
Uttarakhand. These are collectively called temple art in the background of the main deity
Pahari Paintings with themes of Radha, Krishna and Gopls.
• Metcalf was the first person to discover the These paintings are done on rough handspun
Pahari paintings in Kangra. The important cloth.
places where we can find Pahari paintings are • Patachitra Paintings of Odisha: It is done on
Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Chamba and Tehri cloth coated with a paste to give it a leathery
Garhwal. finish. Earthen and stone colours are used for
• Basohli: These are the earliest Pahari paintings these paintings.
in Jammu and Kashmir flourished under Raja • Kalamkari Paintings of Andhra Pradesh: These
Kripal Pal. Basohli style is characterized by have a distinctive style of using indigo and
vigorous and bold lines and strong glowing vegetable dyes on cloth in south Andhra. It
colors. originally depicted mythological themes of
• Guler: Guler painting is marked by liquid grace Ramayana and Mahabharata.
and delicacy. The drawing is delicate and • Warli Paintings of Maharashtra: These are
precise. The Subjects of these miniature tribal paintings. The Warli tribals plaster their
paintings are Bhagavata, the Gita Govinda, the house wall with dung and once dried, they
Bihari Satasal, the Barahmasa and the paint on them with white colour made from
Ragamala. rice paste.
• Kangra School: The Kangra school flourished at
the end of the 18th century. There seems to be INDIAN MUSIC
a combination of the Mughal and Rajasthani
• Indian music is associated with gods and
paintings in this school, Naturalistic style is
goddesses. Origin of the Indian music can be
followed and great attention is paid to
traced back to the Vedic period. Gandharva
detailing.
Veda (the upaveda of the "Sama Veda," is the
• Thangka Paintings: These are religious
study of all art forms including music, dance
paintings made in monasteries using silk and
and poetry) deals with Indian music,
brocade patch work involving highly artistic
• There is a reference of music in Sama Veda
skills. The deities shown in thangka paintings
where Udgatris (special religious singers) were
are usually depictions of visions that appeared
employed during sacrifices.
to great spiritual masters at moments of
• Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni is another Chanting of Om, Chhand and Parbandh are its
important landmark in the history of Indian important constituents.
music. ➢ There were four vanis singing the
• Indian classical music is based on the "ragas", dhrupad. The Gauhar vani, Dagar vani,
which are scales and melodies that provide the Khandar vani and Nauhar vani.
foundation for a performance. • Khayal: It originates from Persian word which
• Unlike western classical music, that is means idea' or 'imagination'. In North India, it
deterministic, Indian classical music allows for is the highest stage of musical art which was
a much greater degree of "personalization" of patronized by Amir Khusro, Mohammed Shah
the performance, almost to the level of jazz- Rangeela, etc. Comparable to the vanis of the
like improvisation. dhrupads, there are gharanas, in the Khayal:
• Two main styles of Indian music exist, the ➢ Gwalior Gharana: It is the oldest and most
Carnatic and the Hindustani, and they express comprehensive in technique and is also
the two facets of music in India. called the "Mother Of Gharanas". Pandit
Mallikarjun Mansur was associated with it.
Ragas ➢ Agra Gharana: It was founded by Khuda
• Ragas form the basis of melody in Indian Baksh of Agra. Also known as Rangeela
music. The goal of the raga is to create a trance Gharana. Ustad Sharafat Hussain Khan was
like state, to broadcast a mood of ecstasy. a prominent personality associated with it.
• The main difference with western classical ➢ Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana: The Jaipur-Atrauli
music is that the Indian ragas are not gharana is said to take off directly from
"composed" by a composer, but are created dhrupad. Singers associated with it are
through a lengthy evolutionary process over Alladiya Khan and Kishori Amolkar.
centuries. ➢ Rampur Sahaswan Gharana: The slow and
• Hindustani (North Indian) ragas are assigned to fast Khayals usually are followed by a
specific times of the day (or night) and to Tarana. The style is very lyrical and full of
specific seasons. finer tonal embroidery. Nisar Hussain
• Many ragas share the same scale, and also the Khan, Rashid Khan are the two prominent
same melodic theme. There are thousands of musicians of recent times belonging to this
ragas, but six are considered fundamental: gharana.
Bhairava, Malkauns, Hindola, Dipaka, Megha • Dhamar (Vori): It describes the play on Lord
and Shree. Krishna which arose in Mathura and has 14
beats.
Hindustani Music • Thumari: It is lyrical in approach, romantic in
• The Hindustani music system may be thought nature with two styles i.e. Poorab or Banaras
of as a mixture of traditional Hindu musical which is slow and Punjab which is fast and
concepts and Persian performance practice. lively.
• The advent of Islamic rule over northern India • Tappa: It developed in Punjab by the camel
caused the musicians to seek patronage in the riders of the north west. The Tappa consists of
courts of the new rulers. the song uttered in fast note patterns.
• Several centuries of this arrangement caused • Tarana: Here no meaningful words are used
the Hindu music to absorb musical influences (Tara Rum Pum, etc.) rather rhythm is
from the Islamic world, primarily from Persia. emphasized upon where Tabla and Sitar are
Hindustani music reached its climax under the stroke providers.
Tansen, a court musician under Akbar. • Qawali: It is a gift of Sufi Movement, further
• Dhrupad: It is the oldest vocal style traced evolved by Amir Khusro.
back to Sama Veda, later patronized by Akbar, • Ghazal: It is a poetic form consisting of
Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior, etc. rhyming couplets and a refrain, with each line
• Maand: Developed in the royal courts of be reconstructed from the epics, the several
Rajasthan, these songs are sung in the Puranas and the rich body of dramatic and
glory of the Rajput rulers. poetic literature known as the nataka and the
• Powada: From the state of Maharashtra, kavya in Sanskrit.
usually ballad songs are sung for the • In the ancient treaties of the Natyashastra, the
heroes of the past like Shivaji. technique of Indian classical dance was clearly
• Khongjom Parva: It is a famous folk music enunciated.
from the state of Manipur which is based • Every year, in the month of March, the
on the musical. Narration of the Battle of majestic temples of Khajurao come alive to the
Khongjom fought between the British sound of the bells of the famous Indian
army and the Manipuri resistance forces in dancers who perform there during the annual
1891. dance festival.
• Bhagawati: These are emotional songs, • As per the ancient treatises, dance is
similar to Ghazals and popular amongst considered as having three aspects:
the masses in Karnataka and Maharashtra. • Natya highlights the dramatic element and
most dance forms do not give emphasis to this
aspect today with the exception of dance-
Musical Instruments drama forms like Kathakali.
• Sushira Vadya: This category includes all the • Nritya is essentially expressional, performed
wind instruments or aerophones such as - specifically to convey the meaning of a theme
Bansuri, Shehnai, Pungi, etc. Ustad Bismillah or idea.
Khan is known as the 'Shehnai King'. One of the • Nritta on the other hand, is pure dance where
famous flautists is Pandit Hariprasad body movements do not express any mood
Chaurasia. (bhava), nor do they convey any meaning.
• Ghana Vadya: These are percussion
instruments called Idiophone instruments. For Classical Dances
example - Manjira, Jhanj, Khartal, etc. Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu)
• Taal/Tata Vadya: This category of instruments • The word Bharatnatyam is an amalgamation of
includes string instruments, also called as three words- Bhava (Expression), Raga
chordophones that function best when their (Melody) and Tala (Rhythm). It is the most
sound is modified by hand. There are various ancient dance form of India. It is mentioned in
types of tata vadya such as Tambura, Veena, Silappadikaram and Bharat Muni's Natya
Gottuvadyam, Ravanhatha etc. shastra.
• The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one
of the main sources of textual material for the
INDIAN DANCES study of the technique and grammar of body
movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.
• In literature, the first references come from
the Vedas where dance and music have their • it is a highly stylized solo feminine dance which
roots. A more consistent history of dance can evolved from the Devadasi System of South
Indian Temples.
• The style of the dance is 'lyrical' which follows • Manipuri has its roots in that state's folk
a unique body-posture, 'tribhanga', linking traditions and rituals and often depicts scenes
philosophy and physical aspects. from the life of the Lord Krishna.
• Jayadeva's "Gita-Govinda" the Bible of an • Manipur dance has a large repertoire;
Odissi dancer, written in the 12th century, has however, the most popular forms are the Ras,
a stupendous influence on the arts of Odisha. the Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta.
• The credit of revival of Odissi in the modern • Unlike some of the other more rhythmic
era goes to Kali Chandra, Kali Charan Patnaik. dances, Manipuri is characterized by smooth
and graceful movements.
Kathak (North India) • Female roles are especially fluid in the arms
• The name Kathak has been derived from the and hands, while male roles tend to have more
word 'Katha' meaning stories. Traditionally the forceful movements.
stories were of Radha and Krishna, in the • The dance also has a theme based on a popular
Natwari style (as it was then called) but the love tale of Khamba-Thoibi of Meitei legends.
Mughal invasion of North India had a serious Music is provided by a 'pung' instrument.
impact on the dance.
• The dance was taken to Muslim courts and Sattriya (Assam)
thus it became more entertaining and less • The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the
religious in content. More emphasis was laid 15th century AD by the great Vaishnava saint
on nritta, the pure dance aspect and less on and reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha
abhinaya. Sankaradeva as a powerful medium for
• The 19th century saw the golden age of Kathak propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
under the patronage of Wajid All Shah, the last • This neo-Vaishnava treasure of Assamese
Nawab of Oudh (Awadh). He established the dance and drama has been, for centuries,
Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on nurtured and preserved with great
bhava, the expression of moods and emotions. commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava
• The Jaipur gharana known for its rhythmic maths or monasteries.
virtuosity and the Benaras gharana are other • Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly
prominent schools of Kathak dance. laid down principles in respect of hasta
• Today, Kathak has emerged as a distinct dance mudras, footworks, aharyas, music, etc.
form. Being the only classical dance of India • This tradition has two distinctly separate
having links streams:
• with Muslim culture, it represents a unique ➢ The Bhaona - related repertoire starts from
synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the
• Further, Kathak is the only form of classical Kharmanar Nach and the dance numbers
dance wedded to Hindustani or North Indian which are independent, such as Chali,
music. Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi,
• Various exponents of this dance are - Menaka, etc.
Sitara Devi, Birju Maharaj, etc. ➢ Among them, the Chali is characterized by
gracefulness and elegance, while the
Manipuri (Manipur) Jhumura is marked by vigor and majestic
• Manipuri comes from Manipur in northeastern beauty.
India. Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals
still performed in Manipur which has its roots Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
in the pre-Vaishnavite period. • Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the
• Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which dance of Mohini', the celestial enchantress of
forms the basis of all stylised dances in the Hindu mythology, is the classical solo
Manipur. dance form of Kerala.
Odisha Chhau, Goti Pua, Baagh Naach, Dalkhai, Dhap, Gumra, Karma
Naach, Keisabadi
Rajasthan Ghoomar, Kalbelia, Kachhi Ghodi
Tamil Nadu Parai Attam, Kaaragattam, Kolattam, Mayil Attam,Theru
Koothu
Tripura Hojagiri
Uttar Pradesh Mayur Nritya, Charukala
West Bengal Gambhira, Alkap, Domni
Sikkim Singhi Chham
impressive music composed simply on a kathia • Yakshagaana: The traditional theatre form of
(wooden instrument). Closely related to this Karnataka, is based on mythological stories
folk theatre is the Chhaiti Ghoda, which and Puranas. The most popular episodes are
employs three sutradhara and two musical from the Mahabharata,
instruments, the dhol and the mohuri. • Therukoothu: The most popular form of folk
• Garodas: Named after the Garoda community drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means "street
of Gujarat, it is a form of popular theatre that play". It is mostly performed at the time of
enacts romantic tales using painted pictures to annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain
complement the actors on stage. goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
• Kariyila: This is a form of open-air theatre
popular in the state of Himachal Pradesh. It is
performed at night during local fairs and PUPPETRY
festivals. Kariyila is composed of small plays
Key Points
performed one by one.
• The earliest instances of puppetry in India can
• Oja-Pali: It is a form of cult theatre of Assam
be found in the ruins of the Indus Valley
held during the festival of the serpent goddess
Civilization where puppets with holes to attach
Manasa. Here, Oja is the chief narrator while
strings in them were found.
the Palis are the singers doing the chorus.
• In addition, the Tamil literature
There are three parts of this performance-
Silappadikaaram which was composed around
Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda and Deva
the 2 century BC also mentions puppetry.
Khanda-where 'Khanda' means episode.
• In the mythological Bhagwata, three terms are
• Powada: This is a unique form of popular folk
mentioned to describe the strings God uses to
theatre that originated in the state of
control the universe - Satta, Raja and Tama -
Maharashtra. The play written to celebrate the
which are puppetry terms. Therefore, it can be
victory of Shivaji over Afzal Khan gave birth to
seen that puppetry has both historical and
this form of theatre, where the plays depict
cultural significance when it comes to India.
stories of valour and bravery.
• Puppets in India can be classified into four
• Dashavatar: It is the most developed theatre
types:
form of the Konkan and Goa regions. The
performers personify the ten incarnations of
➢ String Puppets
Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and
➢ Shadow Puppets
creativity.
➢ Rod Puppets
• Krishnattam: Folk theatre of Kerala, came into
➢ Glove Puppets
existence in the middle of 17th century A.D.
under the patronage of King Manavada of
String Puppets
Calicut. Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays
Kathputli, Rajasthan
performed for eight consecutive days.
• The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are
• Mudiyettu: The traditional folk theatre form of
known as Kathputli. Carved from a single piece
Kerala is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam
of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that
(November December). It is usually performed
are colourfully dressed.
only in the Kall temples of Kerala, as an
• These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do
oblation to the Goddess, It depicts the triumph
not have legs. Puppeteers manipulate them
of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.
with two to five strings which are normally tied
• Koodiyattam: It is one of the oldest traditional
to their fingers and not to a prop of support.
theatre forms of Kerala, and is based on
Sanskrit theatre traditions. The characters of
Kundhel, Odisha
this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor,
• Made of light wood, the Odisha puppets have
Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naan
no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
Yaar, those taking on women's roles.
• The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, • They are carved from wood and follow the
triangular in shape, to which strings are various artistic styles of a particular region.
attached for manipulation. • The Bengal rod-puppets, which survive are
about 3 to 4 feet in height and are costumed
Gombeyatta, Karnataka like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre
• They are styled and designed like the form prevalent in the State.
characters of Yakshagana, the traditional
theatre form of the region. Yampuri, Bihar
• The Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly • These puppets are made of wood. Unlike the
stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, traditional Rod puppets of West Bengal and
elbows, hips and knees. These puppets are Odisha, these puppets are in one piece and
manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a have no joints.
prop. • As these puppets have no joints, the
manipulation is different from other Rod
Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu puppets and requires greater dexterity.
• Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as
Bommalattam combine the techniques of both Glove Puppets
rod and string puppets. Pavakoothu, Kerala
• Bommalattam theatre has elaborate • It came into existence during the 18th century
preliminaries which are divided into four parts due to the influence of Kathakali, the famous
- Vinayak Puja, Komall, Amanattam and classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet
Pusenkanattam. performances.
• The musical instruments used during the
Shadow Puppets performance are Chenda, Chengiloa, Ilathalam
Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka and Shankha.
• These puppets are mostly small in size. • The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is
• The puppets, however, differ in size according based on the episodes from either the
to their social status, for instance, large size for Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
kings and religious characters and smaller size
for common people or servants.
• Even though there were many different This school separates the soul and matter as
strands of philosophical thought, yet the four different entities, therefore, earned the name
basic goals of human life were agreed upon 'dvaita vada' (dualism).
without much confusion. • Here knowledge can be earned through the
➢ The goal of Artha (wealth) was dealt with in methods of Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana
the Arthashastra, (inference) and Shabda (hearing). Originally,
➢ The goal of Dharma (social regulation) was this school believed that divine agency was not
described in the Dharmashastra, a requirement for the creation of the universe
➢ The goal of Kama (sexual pleasure) was arguing that the world came into existence due
elaborated in the Kamashastra or the to Prakriti (nature).
Kamasutra and • This original view was the scientific view and it
➢ The goal of Moksha (salvation) was tackled can be dated from the 1" century AD. Later on,
in many Darshana texts. the views of the school changed wherein they
• The common theme running across these argued that for the creation of the universe
different schools of ancient philosophy wasthe both Prakriti and Purusha (human) were
attainment of salvation or the freedom from necessary. This later view was a spiritual view
the cycle of birth and death. of the creation of the universe. This change
• It was only on the methods advocated for the occurred around the 4th century AD.
attainment of salvation that these schools • In fact, Samkhya school explained the
disagreed upon. Based on these phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and
disagreements, the ancient Indian schools of answered all the questions aroused by the
philosophy are classified. thinkers of those days.
• The ancient philosophy of India can be broadly
divided into two major strands-the Orthodox
School and the Heterodox School. Both
Schools are further subdivided into six and
three major schools respectively.
• Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher • After reasoning and interpreting the Vedas,
and guide. the rituals had to be applied. Only by
performing the Vedic rituals salvation could be
Nyaya School earned and so they did not question the
• This school is thought to be founded by validity of the knowledge contained in the
Gautama, the author of Nyaya Sutra. Vedas.
• The school believed in using logical thinking to • Indirectly this helped legitimize the social
achieve salvation. To do this 'real knowledge' segregation among people, as the teachings of
had to be acquired through analysis using tools this school of philosophy were ultimately used
such as inference, analogy and listening. to further the concept of Brahminical
• The constant theme of the school was the superiority in society.
application of reasoning and thinking to
achieve salvation. Vedanta School
• The Nyaya system of philosophy considers God • Vedanta is a derivative of the two words Veda
who creates, sustains and destroys the and Anta (end) literally meaning the end of the
universe. Vedas.
• The philosophy upheld by this school is found
Vaisheshika School in the Upanishads and it proclaims that
• The origin of this school is attributed to Kanada Brahma is the true reality and everything else
who wrote the source text that governs this is Maya (unreal).
philosophy. • It also proclaimed that the atma and the
• The Vaisheshika School believed that the brahma are similar and that only by knowing
universe was created using the five core the self one could caro salvation. Both atma
elements (Dravya) of- fire, air, water, earth and and brahma were indestructible and eternal.
ether (sky). Therefore, this school believed in • The original text that formed this school of
the physicality and reality of the universe. philosophy was the 'Brahma Sutra' written by
• Due to their scientific approach towards the Badrayana in the 2 century BC
understanding of the universe, they could • Later on, changes in the philosophy occurred
develop the theory of atoms. They also when Shankaracharya (wrote Advaita
heralded the study of physics in India Vedanta) and Ramanujan propounded their
• Some other metaphysical beliefs found in this own commentaries on the subject. Ultimately,
school are the belief in god, laws of karma, this school of philosophy legitimized the
heaven and hell and salvation. These Theory of Karma and rebirth (punarjanma).
metaphysical beliefs did not hamper their
scientific pursuit of knowledge but rather THE HETERODOX SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
supplemented it. The Heterodox school questioned the
• The living beings were rewarded or punished knowledge contained in the Vedas and also
according to the law of karma, based on questioned the existence of God itself. This school
actions of merit and demerit. is divided into three major philosophical divisions
viz. the Buddhist, Jain and Charvaka Schools of
Mimamsa School Philosophy.
• The names associated with this philosophy are
Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta. The Buddhist School of Philosophy
• The Sutras of Jaimini composed in the 3rd
• Gautama Buddha (born in 553 BC at Lumbini,
century BC are the main texts of this school. Nepal) founded the Buddhist School of
• This is the school of philosophy that paid Philosophy. Born as a prince, he was
primary focus on the rituals of the Vedas. disillusioned with life and at the age of 29, he
Literally, the word 'Mimamsa' stands for
reasoning and interpretation,
renounced his inheritance and became a • Right Conduct: One must conduct oneself in
wanderer searching for the truth about life. such a way that it does not bring harm to
• He attained Nirvana while meditating under a others.
pipal tree in Bodhgaya on the banks of the river • Right means of Livelihood: To earn a livelihood
Niranjana. After attaining Nirvana, he one must not use unfair means like fraud,
undertook travelling and preaching and bribery or stealing.
continued to do so until his death. • Right Effort: To stay on the path towards
• He died at the age of 80 and after his death, his salvation it is imperative that thoughts of
disciples held the first Buddhist council at sexual and sensual nature be avoided because
Rajagriha. It was here that the main tenets of they cause great distractions.
Buddhism were codified. • Right Mindfulness: To avoid distracting
• Buddhist philosophy was born out of a desire thoughts one must keep their body (health)
to question the validity of the teachings of the and mind in the right state.
Vedas. • Right Concentration: To be able to follow the
• It questioned the the attainment of Salvation. seven paths right concentration is required
Instead, the Buddhist philosophy maintains without which the path to salvation becomes
that in order to attain salvation four noble difficult.
truths must be followed.
• The four noble truths are-Firstly, human life is
full of suffering in the form of pain, sickness
and death. Secondly, the root cause of human
suffering is desire Thirdly, in order to attain a
state of peace and nirvana a person must let
go of all his desires and passions Fourthly, to
ease human suffering it is important to move
towards the attainment of nirvana using the
Eight-Fold Path.
Pradesh. It believes in the attainment of • The Tripitaka is divided into three parts-Vinaya
universal nirvana rather than personal nirvana. Pitak (life and teachings of the Buddha;
Hinayana is followed by the Ambedkar development of the Sanghas), Sutta Pitaka
Buddhists who believe in the attainment of (Buddha's sermons) and Abhidhamma Pitaka
personal nirvana through right conduct, (philosophy in Buddha's teachings)
discipline and knowledge. • The Sutta Pitaka is further sub-divided into five
• Smaller groups of Buddhists include-Vajrayana Nikayas-Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara
sec (tantric sect from Bihar and Bengal region an Khuddakla Nikaya.
who worship Taras or spouses of Bodhisattvas) • The canons of the Mahayana sect include the
and Yogacara School (founded by Mahayana Sutras (Vaipulya Sutras) containing
Maitreyanatha). the Buddha's sermons. The Prajnapar most
• The canons of Buddhism include-Tripitaka, important of the Mahayana Sutras.
Anguttra Nikaya, Dhammapada, Sutta-nipata
and Samyutta Nikaya.
Buddhist Council Time (Place) King (or Patron) Presiding Monk Outcomes
Jitendriya meaning 'one who has conquered all cycle). Utsarpini and Avasarpini are also
his senses". divided into unequal blocks of time periods
called Aras.
Jain philosophies: • Jains are divided into two sects of Svetambaras
➢ Anekantavada: The Jain philosophy of and Digambaras.
pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, can be ➢ The former is newer, flexible and followers
traced back to the teachings of Mahavira. This wear white clothes and cover their mouth
doctrine states that there are multiple ways in and nose with a cloth. They are the
which reality can be perceived and the followers of Sthulabhdra, a disciple of
complete truth is but the combination of all Bhadrabahu.
the diverse perceptions. ➢ The latter is older, conservative and
➢ Nayavada: The philosophy which postulates followers do not wear clothes and lead a
that an individual understands an object of very austere life. They are the followers of
knowledge through a particular point of view. Bhadrabahu.
➢ Saptabhagi Nyaya: According to it there are ➢ Svetambaras believe that Tirthankars can
seven points of view to understand an object be women or men whereas Digambaras
of knowledge. believe women cannot become
➢ Syadvada: According to it, understanding of an Tirthankars.
object of knowledge is conditional and true in ➢ Further, Sammiyas as a sect arose out of
a way, so one should be conscious and use Digambaras and Therapan this as a sect
syad before any statement. arose out of Svetambaras.
• Mahavira also admitted women as his • Jain scripture was written in Prakrit
followers. (Ardhamagadhi) for example, Agamas,
• In Jain philosophy, reality can be divided into Siddhantas, Ganipidga and Shrutagyana.
two categories - jiva (one with soul) and ajiva • The First Jain Council was held in 300 BC under
(one without soul). Sthulabhdra at Pataliputra. It resulted in the
• The causes of suffering and injustice are compilation of the Jain canons.
attributed to eight factors-Violence (hinsa), • The Second Jain Council was held in the 5th
Lack of compassion (nirdaya), Anger (krodha), century BC under Devarshi Kshama Ramana at
Pride (mada), Infatuation (Maya), Greed Valabhi. It resulted in the compilation of the
(lobha), Hatred (dvesha) and Craving (Trishna). twelve Angas and twelve Upangas in the Ardha
• The goal of every human being is to attain the Magadhi language.
perfection of the soul i.e. become a • The Eight Auspicious Symbols are:
Paramatma. ➢ Swastika (peace and well being),
• The Three Jewels of Jainism are-Samyak ➢ Nandyavarta (swastika with nine
Darshana (Right Belief), Samyak Jnana (Right points),
Knowledge) and Samyak Charita (Right ➢ Bhadrasana (a sitting pose with feet
Conduct). pointing upwards),
• Jainism believes in the Law of Karma and ➢ Srivastava (a mark on the chest),
advocates following the path guided by the ➢ Darpana (mirror reflecting the inner
Three Jewels to achieve salvation (freedom • Mínayugala (symbol of fish used to depict
from the cycle of birth). control over sexual desire),
• The Five Great Vows (Pancha Mahavarta) of • Vardhamanaka (a dish-shaped lamp signifying
Jainism are Non-violence (ahimsa), Truth an increase in wealth and merit) and
(Satya), Not Stealing (Asteya), Not Possessing
(Aparigraha) and Celibacy (Brahmacharya)
• Kalchakra - a division of time into infinite equal
cycles, Further divided into Utsarpini
(ascending cycle) and Avasarpini (descending
• Kalasha (a pot of water symbolic of rituals and interpretations of the holy books in
auspiciousness). order to profit from Dakshina.
• They believed that the individual human being
Jain terminology is at the centre of all action and so
• Basadis: Jain Monastery consumption and enjoyment of material and
• Jina: Conqueror sensual pleasure were not wrong actions.
• Nirgrantha: Free from all bonds • They only accepted the four elements of fire,
• Tirthankara: One who is about to water, earth and air as valid and rejected
attain enlightenment 'ether' supernatural elements as bogus. They
• Paryushana: Jain festival only believed what they could perceive and
• Sallekhana: Voluntary death, an analyse physically.
orthodox Jaina tradition • Finally, they preached the theory that with
• Kara Pudgala: Karmik forces death everything ends. They denied the
existence of the world after death and so
• Anupreksha: 12 religious topics
asked followers to eat, drink and make merry'
• Gunasthanas: 14 stages of soul
while still living in the world.
LANGUAGE
Charvaka School of Philosophy A system of communication through
Key points speech, a collection of sounds that a group of
• This school of philosophy was founded by people understand to have the same meaning. It
Brihaspati and it is one of the oldest schools of differs from 'Dialect' in a way that a dialect is a
philosophy that questioned the teachings of form of language spoken in a local area and several
the Vedas. dialects can be derived from a particular language.
• This school of philosophy is mentioned in the
Vedas. and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
itself. Classification of Indian Languages
• Another name for this school of philosophy is Indo-Aryan Group
the Lokayata School of Philosophy. • This is the most important family of Indian
• According to this school, it is possible to attain Languages and is a branch of the Indo-
salvation keeping in mind a materialistic view European family of languages. It came to India
of the world. with the advent of Aryans
• This was believed to be inspired by the • It is the largest language group spoken by
common people who were devoid of any India's population. It comprises all the
philosophical leanings and hence the name important languages of northern and western
Lokayata meaning "attachment to the material India such as - Sanskrit, Hindi, Gujarati,
world Punjabi, Bhojpuri, Sindhi, Bengali, etc.
• They did not believe in the existence of God or
any supernatural divine being. Dravidian Group
• They also did not support the regulation of • This group comprises the languages spoken in
one's conduct and instead supported the full southern India which covers around 25% of the
exploration and experimentation of the Indian populations.
human senses. • The Dravidian group of languages originated
• The main teachings of the Charvaka School indigenously and does not seem to have been
were: The Charvaka School believed that the influenced by language-groups outside India.
priestly class i.e. the Brahmans produced false
Classical Languages
• In 2004, the Government of India decided to
accord the status of a "Classical Language in
India" to languages that meet certain
requirements
Yajur Veda
LITERATURE • Collection of rituals for performing at different
sacrifices.
Vedic Literature • It was recited by the priests known as
Adhvaryu and is the only Veda partly in prose.
Vedas • It has two major branches or samhitas: Shukla
• Rig Veda (white) and Krishna (black).
➢ Compiled by Hotri priests, it is the oldest
Veda which contains 1028 Sanskrit hymns
dedicated to several deities. Atharva Veda
➢ It belongs to Sakala school and contains 10 • Collection of charms, magic and spells.
Mandalas and 8 Ashtakas. • Attributed to two rishis, Atharvah and Angira,
➢ The IX Mandala is totally devoted to Vedic this veda is also known as Brahma Veda.
God Soma. • It covers all aspects of a human's daily life and
➢ The subject matters of this Veda are focuses on treatment of various diseases and
natural beauty and worldly prosperity. ailments.
Various gods and goddesses mentioned in • Large portion of the text is devoted to black
this Veda are-Rudra (god of wind), Agni and white magic and the changes occurring in
(god of fire), Usha (goddess of dawn), etc. the universe.
Sama Veda
• This Veda focuses on melody or songs sung by Vedangas
the priests known as Udagatri. • For reading, understanding and
• It is known as the 'Book of Chants' and is implementation of Vedas; Vedanga literature
available in three versions viz. the Jaiminiya in emerged. Vedanga/limbs of the Vedas
Carnatic, the Kauthuma in Gujarat and represent six subjects:
Ranayaniya in Maharashtra. • Vedangas helped in maintaining the purity and
• It has a collection of hymns from the Rig Veda integrity of the Vedic tradition. They helped in
and is set to the tune of singing 99 new hymns. popularizing the Sanskrit literature and taught
• Hymns are meant to be sung at Soma Vedic students how to recite hymns, to
sacrifices. understand meanings and ceremonies etc.
Vedanga Description
Siksha Study of sounds and pronunciation associated with each syllable
Chhanda Study of metrics in Sanskrit grammar
Nirukta Study of origin and meaning of complex words
Jyotisha Study of heavenly bodies/astronomy
Kalpa Moral and procedural percepts associated with rituals
Vyakarana Grammar
languages. Pattu, such as, Ram Charitam was • Most of the works of this literature began with
composed by Chiramon. the translation from Sanskrit. Nannaya,
• Malayalam was greatly influenced by Sanskrit Tikanna and Errana are known as the Kavi
language and it led to the evolution of a new Trayam, the trinity of poets. These poets
dialect known as Manipravalam, which is a translated the Mahabharata from Sanskrit into
blend of these languages. Telugu over the period of 11th-14th century
• Thunchath Ezhuthachchan, considered as the AD.
'Father of Malayalam Literature' composed • One of the important and successful works
several classics of Malayalam literature like the titled Uttaraharivamsam was composed by the
Adhyathmaramayanam, Bhagavatham, poet Nachana Somanatha
Ramayanam, etc. • Telugu literature reached its zenith during the
Vijayanagara period. King Krishandevaraya
Telugu Literature composed a poem titled Amukta Malyada. The
• Prior to Nannaya (considered as the first poet five important works in Telugu language are
in Telugu), Telugu literature existed only in the known as Pancha Kavyas.
form of inscriptions.
Pancha Kavyas of Telugu Literature
Poet Work
Allasani Peddana Manu Charithra
Tenali Ramakrishna Panduranga Mahatyam
Sri Krishnadevaraya Amuktamalyada
Rama Raja Bhusan (Bhattu Murti) Vasu Charitra
Chemakura Venkata Kavi Vijaya Vilaasamu
• Kashmir shot into literary prominence, when • The Bhil are known to be excellent archers
Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit but coupled with deep knowledge about their local
this was in the language of the elite. geography.
• For locals, Kashmiri was the popular dialect.
• Lal Ded, who lived in the 14th century, was
probably the first to sing in the Kashmiri Munda
language. She was a Shaivite mystic. • The Mundas are a tribe belonging to the
• After Islam spread in this area, the Sufi Chotanagpur plateau, spread across
influence also came to be visible. The later Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
literary works in Kashmir were dominated by Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal.
Dogri, due to the passing of political power of • They observe many festivals, the most
Kashmir to the Dogra family. important being the Magha or Ba, a thanks-
giving festival celebrated in spring.
Assamese • Buried ancestors are treated as guardians
Although Assamese literature was spirits of the 'khunt' or the genealogical family,
dominated by court chronicles called Buranjis, symbolized by sasandiri, the burial stone.
several poetry and other literary works have also
been composed by writers such as Shankardev, Baiga
Padmanaba Gohain Barua, etc. • The Baiga, meaning sorcerers, are one of the
particularly vulnerable tribal groups and are
Gujarati spread across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar,
• Various popular names are attached with Odisha, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarati literature like Narsinh Mehta, Uttar Pradesh.
Govardhan Ram, Saraswatichandra, etc. • Traditionally, the Balga lived a semi-nomadic
• The literature reached its zenith with the life and practiced slash and burn cultivation.
writings of Dr K M Munshi, who wrote many
fiction and nonfiction works such as Prithvi Kokna
Vallabha. • The Kokna are a major tribe found in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli,
Section - 4: Miscellaneous • The tribe celebrate Bohada, the famous
festival of masks, which is a combination of
dance and drama, celebrated during March
TRIBES OF INDIA and April.
• Korku is one of the 196 languages termed • The Apatani are a tribal group belonging to the
endangered by UNESCO. The community has a Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh. They are also
distinct cultural heritage. known as Tanw, Apa and Apatani.
• Their wet rice cultivation system and their
agriculture system are extensive even without
Abhuj Maria the use of any farm animals or machines. So is
• Abhuj Maria lives a life of isolation from the their sustainable social forestry system.
outside world. A subtribe of the Gond, they
can be found in the secluded enclaves of Hmars
Narayanpur tehsil in Bastar, Chhattisgarh. • The Hmar tribe is a Scheduled Tribe under the
• "The tribe's main festival is Kaksar, which is Constitution of India's 6th Schedule and
celebrated in June. The other important primarily belongs to the states of North
festival is Kudin, which is marked to honour the Eastern India.
clan Gods before the beginning of the harvest • Hmars have a variety of dances which are
season. popular in the cultural world. The most famous
is the Hmar Bamboo Dance called Fahrel Twak
Toda Lam.
• The Todas are a pastoral community belonging
to the Nilgiri plateau. They are one of the Onges
smallest groups of people with a numerical • The Onges are indigenous aboriginal groups
strength of less than a thousand members. belonging to the Andaman Islands. They are
• Todas speak the Toda language which is a one of the few Negrito groups of India.
group within the Dravidian family of • The Onges are traditionally semi-nomadic and
languages. hunter gatherers. They are considered one of
the least fertile people of the world.
Gondi
• The Gondi is a group of Dravidian people living Shompen
mostly in Central and South India. They were • The Shompen are indigenous people of the
called Raj Gond earlier due to the political Great Nicobar Island. They had no recorded
influence of the Gond Rajas. This term is not in outside contact prior to the 1840s.
vogue anymore. • They are the only mongoloid tribal group of
• Gunjala Gondi Lipi, which is a newly discovered Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
script, is currently used to write the Gondi
language. The Gunjala Gondi Lipi had been Jarawa
discovered in manuscripts dated to roughly • The Jarawa is an adivasi indigenous group
1750 AD belonging to the Andaman Islands. Jarawas
speak the Jarawa language which is an Ongan
Chakma language.
• The Chakma are an ethnic group belonging
primarily to the Chittagong Hill Tracts of
Bangladesh. The North Eastern states of India
and western Myanmar also have a sizable
Chakma population.
• The major festivals of the Chakmas are the
Bizu, Buddha Purnima, Kathin Civar Dan and
the Alpaloni.
Apatani
• They live in parts of South Andaman and numbers are estimated at between 250-400
Middle Andaman Islands, and their present individuals.
• Gatka: Originated in Punjab, it is believed to be out of the ring. The wrestlers wear a belt and
a battle technique which was created by the it is used to grapple and hold the opponent.
Sikh warriors. Gatka is actually a milder version
of the deadlier martial art form Shastar Vidya,
which was the fighting style of Akali Nihangs, HANDICRAFTS OF INDIA
the blue-turbaned sect of Sikh fighters. Terracotta Sculpting
• Silambam: Silambam is an ancient stick- • Terracotta sculpting is done using the
martial art form that originated around 1000 technique of semi-firing ceramic clay. It
BC in Tamil Nadu. 'Silam' means hills and literally translates into 'baked earth'.
'Mambam' means bamboo from the hills,
• Terracotta art includes the making of
these sticks are usually found on the hills in
sculptures, pottery, earthenware, utilitarian
that particular region.
household items, architectural edifices etc.
• Sqay: Sqay is a South Asian martial art form of
• Terracotta is hard and water-proof which
sword fighting originated in ancient Kashmir.
makes it durable and long-lasting.
Sqay have different techniques such as the
• The Bankura Horse, which is named after the
single sword, double sword free hand
Bankura district of West Bengal, is a fine
techniques and lessons of both free hand and
example of terracotta art.
sword.
• Gorakhpur terracotta recently got the
• Mardani Khel: Originally from Maharashtra,
Geographical Indication tag.
Mardani Khel is a weapon-based martial art
• Today, Indian terracotta art is being produced
form. It is particularly known for its use of the
and sold the world over as Indian traditional
uniquely Indian patta (sword) and vita (corded
art.
lance).
• Malla-yuddha: It is said to have a history of
Metal Works
more than 5000 years. Practiced at least since
• Metal casting in iron, bell metal and copper is
the 5th century BC, described in the 13th
very popular in India. Metal engraving and
century treatise Malla Purana, malla-yuddha is
embossing is also practiced in most parts of
the precursor of modern pehlwani.
India.
• Cheibi Gad-ga: It is an ancient form of martial
• Moradabad is famous for the Baarik Kaam (or
arts practiced in Manipur. The style involves
detailed work) on metal objects. Their style of
using a sword and a shield.
engraving metal is called Nakashi style.
• Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak: These are the two
• Rajasthan's metal works are famous for
parts of the Huyen Langlon martial art. Both
Marodi work, where a metal is etched upon
were creations of the Meitei people of
another metal and the gaps are filled with
Manipur. Thang-ta is fought with weapons
resin. Decorative plates of metal made in this
(Thang-sword; Ta-spear) whereas Sarit Sarak is
style are famous as mementos amongst
fought unarmed.
tourists.
• Pari-khanda: The Rajputs created it and it is
• Koftagiri is a technique of metal work from
fought with swords and shields. Pari means
Alwar and Jaipur, where a lighter metal is inlaid
shield and Khanda means sword. It is practiced
over the darker one.
in Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha and its forms
• Tarkashi is another technique used by artisans
are also used in the Chhau dance.
from Jaipur, where brass (or copper) wires are
• Thoda: It originated in Himachal Pradesh. The
laid over a metal base or wooden base to
origin of Thoda can be traced back to historical
create intricate designs.
times when the Mahabharata mentions the
• Casting in bronze is also done in varied forms
use of bow and arrows in the epic battles
all over India. Places like Sitapur, Varanasi,
• Inbuan Wrestling: Originated in Mizoram, it is
Moradabad and Etawah in Uttar Pradesh are
played inside a circle, and to win, the player
has to lift up his opponent without stepping
famous for the production of decorative and embroidery where multi-coloured fabric is
ritualistic bronze objects. 'patched together to form generous designs.
• Dhokra casting in bronze is done in West Lamps made in the Pipil style are very famous
Bengal and Odisha and it is used to make brass as decorative items.
ornaments. • Phulkari (make flowers) is the art of
• A type of lamp known as the Pahaldar Lamp is embroidery practiced in the Delhi-Punjab
a famous brass and copper lamp made in region where flower designs are put on cloth.
Jaipur. • Gota is a form of embroidery where gold
• Bell metal works of Assam are very popular in threads are used to create the designs.
the state due to their utilitarian and household • Bagh style of embroidery involves the use of
character (plates, cups, bowls etc). This alloy silk threads on green cloth to make the flowery
was also used to make large metal objects like designs.
cannon guns and huge temple bells. • The Zari technique of embroidery practiced in
Jaipur and Khandela is famous for its intricate
Stone Works and detailed designs. The similar Karchobi
• One of the oldest forms of art was stone technique involves the embroidery of flatly
masonry and the carving on stone. The first stitched metallic thread designs.
tools and buildings were made of stone as well • Chikankari style of embroidery is practiced in
• The Mauryan architecture is primarily on Lucknow and it uses white threads on cotton
stone, for example the rock cut caves of Ajanta and polyester to create various patterns.
and Ellora. • The very famous Kashmiri Shawl is made with
• Other fine examples of stone work are the the embroidery technique known as the
sculptures of Khajuraho and the Buddhist art Kashida.
of Sanchi.
• The rock cut temple of Masroor (Kangra) is a
good example of carving on monoliths. The
Mughals used marble and sandstone to build
their monuments. Instead of sculptures these Crafts on Cloth
monuments were faced with considerable • Common handicraft styles of working with
inlay work and carvings. cloth involve weaving and printing, for
• The marble used by the Mughals were example, block printing.
primarily sourced from Rajasthan where the • An old technique called the 'tie and dye' or
famous white marble known as Makrana Bandhani is still in vogue in India in places such
(Sang-e-Marmar) is found. as Rajasthan. It involves tying the cloth and
• Sang-e-Rathak is the famous dark shaded dipping it in coloured water to make
brown stone found in Jhansi and is used to interesting designs.
make a multitude of stone items from • In Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, the Ikat
bathroom-tiles to jewelry boxes. method of 'tie and dye' is used where the
threads are dyed before weaving. This method
Embroidery Works is also called the 'resist dyeing method.
• Embroidery is the art of sewing a raised design • Kalamkari (designed by pen) is the method of
on a piece of cloth. A variety of threads can be hand painting over cloth and is practiced
used for the purpose including gold and silk commonly in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
threads. There are many styles and techniques • In West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh, the Batik
of embroidery in India which are practiced as a Art of fabric decoration is practiced. Here, the
tradition. ends of the fabric is covered in wax and then
• Pipli (Applique) style of embroidery is named dyed in various colours. The famous Batik saris
after the Pipli village of Odisha where it is are made using this technique.
traditionally practiced, it is a type of patchwork