LECTURES IN PRE-CALCULUS

An arithmetic sequence in which each

term after the first is obtained by adding a
constant called the common difference, to the
(2nd Quarter) preceding term.
11- FRANKLIN If the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of an arithmetic
sequence is 𝑎𝑛 and the common difference is 𝑑,
Lesson 6: Series and Sequence then the formula is:

Listed as one of the United Nations

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) World Heritage sites since 1995, the
two-millenniums old Rice Terraces of the Philippine
The associated arithmetic series with
Cordilleras by the Ifugaos is a living testimony of 𝑛 terms is given by the formal:
mankind’s creative engineering to adapt to
physically-challenging environment in nature. One of the 𝑛(𝑎1+𝑎𝑛) 𝑛[2𝑎1+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
five clusters of terraces inscribed in the UNESCO list is
the majestic Batad terrace cluster (shown above), which is
𝑆𝑛 = 2
= 2
characterized by its amphitheater-like, semicircular
terraces with a village at its base.

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
SEQUENCE AND SERIES A geometric sequence is a sequence
A sequence is a function whose in which each term after the first is obtained by
domain is the positive integers or the set mu;ltiplying the preceding term by a constant
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 𝑛}. called the common ratio.
A series represents the sum of the If the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a geometric
terms of a sequence. sequence is 𝑎𝑛 and the common ratio is 𝑟, then
If a sequence is finite, we will refer to the formula is:
the sum of the terms of the sequence as the 𝑛−1
series associated with the sequence. If the 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1𝑟
sequence has infinitely many terms, the sum is
defined more precisely in calculus. The associated geometric series with
A sequence is a list of number, 𝑛 terms is given by:
separated by commas, 𝑛𝑎1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 = 1
Series is a sum of numbers, separated
by “+” or “-” sign. As an illustration:
𝑆𝑛 = { 𝑛
𝑎1(1−𝑟 )
1, −
1
,
1
, −
1
is a sequence. (1−𝑟)
, 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 ≠ 1
2 3 4
𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 +. . . + 𝑎𝑛 is the associated
The proof of this sum formula is an
series given.
example is the lesson 2.3, when − 1 < 𝑟 < 1,
The sequence {𝑎𝑛} defined by
the infinite geometric series:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3, where 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 1, is 2 𝑛−1
called a Fibonacci Sequence. It terms are 𝑎1 + 𝑎1𝑟 + 𝑎1𝑟 +. . . + 𝑎1𝑟 +. . .
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . .. This formula above has a sum, and is
given by:

INFINITE AND FINITE 𝑆=

𝑎1
1−𝑟
A sequence is infinite if its domain is
If {𝑎1} is an arithmetic sequence, then
the set of positive integer without the last term,
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5,. . .}. The three dots show that the the sequence with 𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝑏𝑛 =
1
is a harmonic
𝑎𝑛
sequence goes on and on indefinitely. A sequence
sequence.
is finite if its domain is set of positive integers
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5,. . ., 𝑛}.

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
 REFLECTION ON summation, and the letter 𝑖 is the index, 𝑚 the
lower bound, and 𝑛 the upper bound.
1. 𝑓(𝑖) - is a term or summand of the summation
SERIES AND 2. 𝑖 - the index of the summation.
3. 𝑚 - the lower bound of the summation.
SEQUENCE 4. 𝑛 - the upper bound of the summation.
In this lesson, we learned the process

PROPERTIES OF SIGMA
and how to solve the series and sequences. I also
learned the different formulas regarding series
and sequences. In sequences, there are four
sequences which are arithmetic, geometric,
fibonacci, and harmonic sequences. These
NOTATION
different sequences have their own distinct We start with finding a formula for the
formulas wherein they have different applications sum in terms of 𝑛.
and functions that is why they have distinct 𝑛
equations. For me, this lesson must be embedded ∑ 𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 +. . . + 𝑛
in my mind as this lesson should be a basic skill
𝑖=1
for me to embody as series and sequences are
The sum can be evaluated in different
crucial in order for me to learn the other lessons.
ways. One informal but simple approach is
In this lesson, we’ve answered different equations
pictorial.
and practiced many series and sequences until I
have memorized the formulas in order for me to
solve the following problems regarding this topic. I
realized and understand that series and sequence
help us predict, evaluate, and monitor the
outcome of a situation or event and help us a lot
in decision making.
Lesson 7: Sigma Notation
The sigma notation is a shorthand for
writing sums. In this lesson, we will see the power
of this notation in computing sums of numbers as
well as algebraic expressions.
𝑛

SIGMA NOTATION
𝑛(𝑛+1)
∑ 𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 +. . . + 𝑛 = 2
𝑖=1
Mathematics uses the sigma notation Another way is to use the formula for an arithmetic
to denote a sum. The uppercase greek letter Σ series with 𝑎1 = 1 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛:
(sigma) is used to indicate a “sum”. The notation
consists of several components or parts. 𝑛(𝑎1+𝑎𝑛) 𝑛(𝑛+1)
Let 𝑓(𝑖) be an expression involving an 𝑆= 2
= 2
integer 𝑖. The expression:
We now derive some useful summation facts.
They are based on the axioms of arithmetic
𝑓(𝑚) + 𝑓(𝑚 + 1) + 𝑓(𝑚 + 2) +. . . + 𝑓(𝑛) addition and multiplication.
𝑛 𝑛
This expression can be compactly written in sigma
notation, and we write it as:
∑ 𝑐𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑛 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
The variabl;e 𝑐 is any real number.
∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚 Proof:
Which is rea “the summation of 𝑓(𝑖) from
𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑛”. Here, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers with 𝑛
∑ 𝑐𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑐𝑓(𝑚) + 𝑐𝑓(𝑚 + 1) + 𝑐𝑓(𝑚 + 2) +. . . + 𝑐𝑓(𝑛)
𝑚 ≤ 𝑛, 𝑓(𝑖) is a term or summand of the 𝑖=𝑚
 𝑛
challenged me the most because of the
∑ 𝑐𝑓(𝑖) = 𝑐[𝑓(𝑚) + 𝑓(𝑚 + 1) +. . . + 𝑓(𝑛)]
𝑖=𝑚 complexity and the amount of logic behind the
𝑛 notations, but in the long process, I watched
𝑐 ∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚 different videos regarding this subject until I fully
understood and got the gist on how to solve the
The summation of constant taken from first 𝑛 summation of the expression. I believe that in this
is equal to 𝑛 multiplied by a constant. lesson, we broke down how to denote the sum of
𝑛 the notation, wherein in sigma notation we
∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 identified the parts to introduce us to the meaning
of notation or rather, the sigma notation. In this
𝑖=0
topic, we understood and answered different
For example:
problems regarding the process of sigma notation,
9
and thereafter we had a test according to the
∑ 9 = 9(9) = 81 topic. I learned that as well as providing shorthand
𝑖=0 for mathematical ideas, sigma notation can aid
The summation of a constant multiplied by a variable is students’ understanding of mathematics to a
equal to a constant multiplied by the summation of a higher level of logical reasoning and
variable. comprehensive learning.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑥𝑖 Lesson 8: Angels in a Unit
∑ 𝑐𝑥𝑖 = 𝑐Σ𝑖 = 1 Circle
𝑖=1 Angles are being used in several fields
𝑛 like engineering, medical imaging, electronics,
𝑐 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑐(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 +. . . + 𝑥𝑛) astronomy, geography and many more. Added to
that, surveyors, pilots, landscapers, designers,
𝑖=1
soldiers, and people in many other professions
∞ ∞
∑ 2𝑥𝑖 = 2 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 2(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 +. . . + 𝑥∞) heavily use angles and trigonometry to
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 accomplish a variety of practical tasks. In this
The summation of an expression lesson, we will deal with the basics of angle
which has 2 or more quantities is equal to the sum measures together with arc length and sectors.
of their summation.

ANGLE MEASURE
𝑛
2
∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖 + 2)
𝑖=1 An angle is formed by rotating a ray
about its endpoint. In the figure shown below, the
CONSTANT FORMULAE initial side of ∠AOB is OA, while its terminal side
is OB. An angle is said to be positive if the ray
𝑛 rotates in a counterclockwise direction, and the
𝑛(𝑛+1) angle is negative if it rotates in a clockwise
∑ 𝑖= 2 direction.
𝑖=1
Hence, an angle is formed by two rays
If 𝑖 has an exponent superscript is 1.
with a common endpoint. One side of the angle
𝑛 rotates about a common endpoint and the other
2 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
∑ 𝑖 = 6
side remains stationary.
𝑖=1 1. Stationary ray - initial side.
If 𝑖 has an exponent superscript is 2. 2. Rotating ray - terminal side.
𝑛 2 2
3 𝑛 (𝑛+1)
∑ 𝑖 = 4
𝑖=1

REFLECTION ON
SIGMA NOTATION a. Initial Side - the initial side of an angle is the ray
where the measurement of an angle stars.
In this lesson, we learned the process B. Terminal Side - the terminal side of an angle is
and the properties of sigma notation. This lesson the ray where the measurement ends.
 An angle is in standard position if it is when the initial side coincides with the positive
drawn in the xy-plane with its vertex at the origin x-axis and the vertex of the angle is located at the
and its initial side on the positive x-axis. The origin of the rectangular coordinate.

CONVERTING DEGREES
angles α, β, and θ in the following figure are
angles in standard position.

AND RADIAN
Since a unit circle has a circumference
𝑜
of 2π, a central angle that measure 360 has
measure equivalent to 2π radians. Thus, we
obtain the following conversion.
To convert a degree measure to
radian, multiply it by:
π
𝑜
180
To convert a radian measure to
degree, multiply it by:
To measure angles, we use degrees,
minutes, seconds, and radians. 𝑜
180
A central angle of a circle measure
𝑜 1 π
one degree written in 1 , if it intercepts of the

UNIT CIRCLE
360
circumference of the circle. One minute, written 1’,
1 𝑜 1
is of 1 , while one second, written 1”, is of
60 60 It is a type of a circle where the origin
1’. of the rectangular coordinate system is found at
Recall that the unit circle has a center the center and the radius should always be equal
at the origin and radius 1 unit. to 1 unit.
A central angle of the unit circle that
intercepts an arc of the circle with length 1 unit is
said to have a measure of one radian, written 1
rad.

Shows some special angles in

standard position with the indicated terminal
sides. The degree and radian measures are also
In trigonometry, the degree measure is given.
often used. On the other hand, in some fields of
mathematics like calculus, radian measure of
angles is preferred. Radian measure allows us to
COTERMINAL ANGLES
Two angles in standard position that
treat the trigonometric functions as functions with
have a common terminal side are called
the set of real numbers as domains, rather than
coterminal angles.
angles.

STANDARD POSITION
The positioning of an angle is called
the standard position. It is the standard position
 2
π𝑟 θ
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑜
360

To find a coterminal angle with an
𝑜 𝑜
angle that measures 410 , just subtract 360 ,
𝑜
resulting in 50 .
Coterminal angles are angles which
are both in standard position and have the same
terminal sides.
REFLECTION ON
ANGLE MEASURE
In this lesson, we learned how to
measure the angle measure, the radius, and the
arc length of the unit circle. Other than that, we
learned how to measure the angle with many
revolutions whereas we graphed the unit circle in
order to know which quadrant does the revolution
terminate from the initial line or side. We also
used this process in order to know the area of the

ARC LENGTH AND AREA OF

A SECTOR
Are length or the linear measure (𝑠) of
the arc intercepted on a circle of radius (𝑟) by a
central angle measure (θ) radians is given by the
product of the radius and radian measure of the
angle.
In a circle, a central angle whose
radian measure is θ subtends an arc that is the
θ
fraction 2π
of the circumference of the circle.
Thus, in a circle of radius, the length of an arc that
subtends the angle is 𝑠 = θ𝑟.
sector, wherein it was crucial to know the area of
certain objects like the windshield of a vehicle and
such. This is an important factor in learning,
whereas using a unit circle, we are able to
measure angles and such in order to provide us,
accurate answers and solutions. Not only that, we
also learned how to convert degrees and radians
vice versa. At the end of the lesson, we have
gained an in-depth understanding of angular
measure.
Lesson 9: Circular Functions
We define the six trigonometric
functions in such a way that the domain of each
function is the set of angles in standard position.
The angles are measured either in degrees or
radians. In this lesson, we will modify these
trigonometric functions so that the domain will be
real numbers rather than a set of angles.
Circular functions are commonly
known as the trigonometric functions because the
radian measures of the angles are calculate by
the length and coordinates of the terminal point of
the arc on the unit circle.

In a circle of radius, the length of an
arc intercepted by a central angle with measure
radians is given.
Angular measure refers to the central
angle which is (θ).
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
ON REAL NUMBERS
Recall that the sine and cosine
function and four others: tangent, cosecant,
secant, and cotangent of angles measure
between zero degrees and ninety degrees were
defined as ratios of sides of a right triangle. It can

FORMULA FOR AREA OF A be verified that these definitions are special

cases.

SECTOR Let θ be an angle in standard position and

𝑃θ = 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) the point on its terminal side on the
1 2 unit circle.
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 2
𝑟θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑦
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 𝑥
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝑥
, 𝑥≠ 0
1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ = 𝑦
, 𝑦≠ 0
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ = 𝑥
, 𝑥≠ 0
𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 𝑦
, 𝑦≠ 0
We define the same six functions on real
numbers. These functions are called trigonometric
functions. The signs of the coordinates of 𝑃(θ)
depends on the quadrant or axis where it
Let 𝑠 be any real number. Supposed θ is the angle terminates. It is important to know the sign of each
circular function in each quadrant. It is not
in standard position with measure 𝑠 rad. Then we
necessary to memorize the table, since the sign of
define:
each function for each quadrant is easily
determined from its definition. We note that the
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ signs of cosecant, secant, and cotangent are the
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ same as sine, cosine, and tangent, respectively.
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
1. Quadrant I (QI): both cosine (x) and sine (y)
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ are positive. All circular functions are positive.
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ 2. Quadrant II (QII): cosine (x) is negative and
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ sine (y) is positive. Only sine and cosecant
functions are positive.
REFERENCE ANGLE 3. Quadrant III (QIII): both cosine (x) and sine (y)
are negative. Only tangent and cotangent
We observed that if θ1 and θ2 are functions are positive.
coterminal angles, the values of the six circular or 4. Quadrant IV (QIV): cosine (x) is positive and
trigonometric functions at θ1 agree with the values sine (y) is negative. Only cosine and secant
functions are positive.
at θ2. Therefore, finding the value of a circular
function at a number θ, we can always reduce θ to Using the fact that the unit circle is
a number between 0 and 2π. symmetric with respect to the x-axis, the
In general, if θ1, θ2, θ3, and θ4 are as y-axis,and the origin, we can identify the
shown in 𝑃(θ1) = (𝑥1, 𝑦1), then each of the coordinates of all the points using the coordinates
of corresponding points in the Quadrant I for the
x-coordinates of 𝑃(θ2), 𝑃(θ3), and 𝑃(θ4) is ± 𝑥1, special angles.
while the y-coordinate is ± 𝑦1. The correct sign is
determined by the location of the angle.
Therefore, together with the correct sign, the
value of a particular circular function at an angle θ
can be determined by its value at an angle θ1 with
a radian measure between 0 and 2π. The angle θ1
is called the reference angle of θ

REFLECTION ON
CIRCULAR
FUNCTIONS
 In this lesson, we learned the different
circular functions wherein i is derived as
trigonometric functions. This helped us know the
different trigonometric functions wherein it is a
basic knowledge in order to advance in the
lesson. Without this basic skill, we are not going to
comprehend the following lessons, so in order to
do so, we learned and discussed how
trigonometric functions are differentiated and seen
to be equated. For the following, we also
discussed the reference angle and how the
opposite matters in order to arrive at a conclusion
easily. At the end of the lesson, we made a unit
circle using a paper plate and graphed and
designed this paper plate. This paper plate served
us as a guide in order to memorize the different
degrees, radians, and the different trigonometric
functions regarding the unit circle.
Lesson 10: Graphs of Circular
Functions
There are many things that occur
periodically. Phenomena like rotation of the
planets and comets, high and low tides, and
yearly change of the seasons follow a periodic
pattern. In this lesson, we will graph the six
circular functions and we will see that they are
periodic in nature.
GRAPHS OF SINE AND
COSINE
Recall that, for a real number 𝑥,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ for an angle θ with measure 𝑥
radians, and that 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ is the second coordinate of
the point 𝑃(ϑ) on the unit circle. Since each 𝑥
corresponds to an angle θ, we can conclude that
(1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 is denied for any real number 𝑥 or the
domain of the sine functions is any real numbers
and (2) the range of sine is the set of all real
numbers between -1 and 1 (inclusive).
It also follow that 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 2π) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
for any real number 𝑥. This means that the values
of the sine function repeat every 2π units. In this
case, we say that the sine function is a period
function with period 2π.
AMPLITUDE AND PERIOD
In the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 and
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, the number |𝑎| is called its amplitude.
Amplitude dictates the height of the curve. When
amplitude is less than 1, the graphs shrink
vertically, and when it is greater than 1, the graphs
are stretched vertically.
If 𝑏 ≠ 0, then both 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑥 and
2π
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏𝑥 have a period given by |𝑏|
. if
0 < |𝑏| < 1, the graphs are stretched horizontally,
and if |𝑏| > 1, the graphs are shrunk horizontally.
PHASE AND VERTICAL
SHIFT
The graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑐) and
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑐) have the same shape as for
the amplitude and period only, respectively, but
shifted 𝑐 units to the right when 𝑐 > 0 and shifted
|𝑐| units to the left if 𝑐 < 0. The number 𝑐 is called
the phase shift of the sine or cosine graph.
While the effect of 𝑐 in the equations
are a horizontal shift of their graphs from the
corresponding graphs of the equation, the effect
of 𝑑 is added on the following functions
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑 and
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑑 is a vertical shift. That is,
the graph of it has the same amplitude, period,
and phase shift, as that of, but shifted 𝑑 units
upward when 𝑑 > 0 amd |𝑑| units downward
when 𝑑 < 0.
GIVEN THE FUNCTIONS
A. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏(θ − 𝑐) + 𝑑
B. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏(θ − 𝑐) + 𝑑
Domain: (− ∞, ∞)/{θ/θϵ𝑅
Range: (𝑦/𝑑 − |𝑎| ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑 + |𝑎|)
C. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘
D. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘
𝑛π+2ℎ𝑏
Domain: 𝑅 − { 2𝑏
; 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
E. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘
F. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑏(θ − ℎ) − 𝑘
 −−𝑛π+ℎ𝑏 defined in the set of real numbers; that is, the
Domain: 𝑅 − { ; 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑏 value of the expression is real when x is real.
G. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘 In the second expression, not every
real value of x makes the expression defined in
H. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘
real numbers.
Range: set of all 𝑅 The domain of an expression or
I. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘 equation is the set of all real values of the variable
for which every term or part of the expression or
J. 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑏(θ − ℎ) + 𝑘
equation is defined in 𝑅.
Range: (− ∞, 𝑘 − |𝑎|) ∪ [𝑘 + |𝑎|, ∞)
IDENTITY AND
Note: θ is the domain, while the arc length (𝑠) is
the range.
CONDITIONAL EQUATION
REFLECTION ON An identity is an equation that is true
for all values of the variable in the domain of the
GRAPHS OF equation. An equation that is not an identity is
called a conditional equation. In other words, if
CIRCULAR some values of the variable in the domain of the
equation do not satisfy the equation then the
FUNCTION equation is a conditional equation.

In this lesson, we learned the

importance that is applicable in the trigonometric
FUNDAMENTAL
TRIGONOMETRIC
functions. In this lesson, we are teached the
graphs according to the trigonometric functions,
and this helped us learn how the unit circle and
the graphs are similar and coincide to form
different frequencies that are crucial in the field of
IDENTITIES
physics and different aspects of wavelengths. This Reciprocal Identities:
is helpful for us to know the amplitude, period,
1
shifting in phase, shifting vertically, and more, in 1. 𝑐𝑠𝑐θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
order for us to fully know the domain and range of
the different trigonometric functions. Graphs are 1
important in order for us to illustrate what is
2. 𝑠𝑒𝑐θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
happening in the equation of the trigonometric 1
functions.. 3. 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
Lesson 11: Fundamental
Trigonometric Identities Quotient Identities:
In previous lessons, we have defined 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
trigonometric functions using the unit circle and
1. 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
also investigated the graphs of the six 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
trigonometric functions. This lesson builds on the 2. 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
understanding of the different trigonometric
We can use these identities to simplify
functions by discovery, deriving, and working with
trigonometric expressions.
trigonometric identities.
Pythagorean Identities:
DOMAIN OF AN 2 2
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1
EXPRESSION OR 2
2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 θ
2

EQUATION 2
3. 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 θ = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 θ
2

In the first expression, every real value

of x when substituted to the expression makes it
Even-Odd Identities:
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(− θ) =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 the fundamental identities, and proved some
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(− θ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ identities. In this lesson, we derive the sum and
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(− θ) =− 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ difference identities for cosine, sine, and tangent
functions, establish the cofunction identities, and
PROVING prove more trigonometric identities
Cosine Difference Identity:
TRIGONOMETRIC 1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
Cosine Sum Identity:
IDENTITIES 2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
We can use the eleven fundamental
trigonometric identities to establish other Cofunction Identities:
identities. For example, suppose we want to π
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
establish the identity:
π
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
𝑐𝑠𝑐θ − 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠θ π
To verify that it is an identity, recall that 2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 2 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵
we need to establish the truth of the equation for
all values of the variable in the domain of the Sine Sum Identity:
equation. It is not enough to verify its truth for 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
some selected values of the variable.
To prove it, we use the fundamental
Sine Difference Identity:
trigonometric identities and valid algebraic 2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
manipulations like performing the fundamental
operations, factoring, canceling, and multiplying
Tangent Sum and Difference
the numerator and denominator by the same Identities:
quantity.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
Start on the expression on one side of 1. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
the proposed identity (preferably the complicated
side), use and apply some of the fundamental 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
trigonometric identities and algebraic 2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
manipulations, and arrive at the expression on the
other side of the proposed identity. REFLECTION ON
REFLECTION ON SUM AND
IDENTITIES DIFFERENCE
In this lesson, we learned the
In this lesson, we learned the
fundamentals of trigonometric identities, meaning,
application of trigonometric identities in the sum
we learned how trigonometric functions are made
and difference of the equation. This helped us in
and what are the different identities for us to
giving a simplification for identities that have the
allocate. These identities are very helpful in order
operation of sum and difference. I have learned in
to make the equation easier to solve and the
this process that there are more identities in this
equation to be much more simple or simplified
matter, and with the use of more identities, the
rather. This process involves us having different
more identities we are able to construct for more
identities regarding the trigonometric functions, as
reliable and valid data.
this helped us prove the equation and find out if
the equation can still be simplified or the given Lesson 13: Double - Angle
equation remains unchanged. In this lesson or Identities and Half-Angle
topic, we are tasked to memorized the different Identities
identities regarding trigonometric functions.
Lesson 12: Sum and Difference Double-Angle Identities for Sine
Identities
In the previous lesson, we introduced and Cosine:
the concept of trigonometric identity, presented

1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝐴) = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
2 2
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
3. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝐴) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − 1
4. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝐴) = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
Double-Angle Identity for Tangent:
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
1. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2𝐴) =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴
Some Useful Identities:
2 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 = 2
conclusions and write a better explanation
regarding identities.
Lesson 14: Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
2 In the previous lessons on functions
(algebraic and trigonometric), we computed the
2 value of a function at a number in its domain.
Now, given a value in the range of the function,
we reverse this process by finding a number in the
domain whose function value is the given one.
Observe that, in this process, the function
2 involved may or may not give a unique number in
the domain.
Loosely speaking, a function that
reverses what a given function 𝑓 does is called its
inverse function, and is usually denoted by 𝑓 .
−1

We denote the inverse function of a

2 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 −1
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = 2
function 𝑓 by 𝑓 . the graphs of a function and its
inverse function are symmetric with respect to the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Half-Angle Identities for Sine and In this lesson, we first restrict the
Cosine: domain of each trigonometric function because
each of them is not one-to-one. We then define
2 𝐴 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 ) = 2
each respective inverse function and evaluate the
values of each inverse trigonometric function.
2 𝐴
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ) =
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
2
INVERSE SINE FUNCTION
All the trigonometric functions that we
consider are periodic over their entire domains.
Half-Angle Identities for Tangent: This means that all trigonometric functions are not
𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 one-to-one if we consider their whole domains,
1. 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 2 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 which implies that they have no inverses over
those sets. But there is a way to make each of the
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 2 ) = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
trigonometric functions one-to-one. This is done
by restricting their respective domains. The
𝐴 restrictions will give us well-defined inverse
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛( ) = 2 𝐴
trigonometric functions.
The domain of the sine function is the
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
set R of real numbers, and its range is the closed
2 𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 interval [−1, 1]. As observed in the previous
4. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 ) = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 lessons, the sine function is not one-to-one, and
the first step is to restrict its domain (by agreeing
REFLECTION ON what the convention is) with the following
conditions: (1) the sine function is one-to-one in
DOUBLE AND HALF that restricted domain, and (2) the range remains
the same.
In this lesson, we learned
The inverse of the restricted sine
double-angle and the half-angle identities for
function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, where the domain is
cosine, sine, and for tangent identities. In short, π π
we are given the formula to memorize in order for restricted to the closed interval [− 2
, 2
], is called
us to be familiar. If there are two angles that are inverse sine function or arcsine function, denoted
opposite to each other, we can use this identity, if −1 −1
by 𝑓 (𝑟) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥. Here, the domain of the
the angle was divided into two, we can use this π π
function is [-1, 1], and its range is [− , ]. Thus,
identity. I realized that we need more reasoning 2 2
−1
and explaining to do in order for us to reach 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, if and only if
 π π
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥, where − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and − 2
≤𝑦≤ 2
These are the graphs (solid thick
.
curve) of the restricted cosine function and the
inverse cosine function.

These are the graphs (solid thick

curve) of the restricted sine function and the
inverse sine function.

SUMMARY TABLE OF
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

INVERSE SINE FUNCTION

The development of the other inverse
trigonometric functions are similar to that of the
−1
inverse sine function. This means 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 or
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 means 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑥, where
− 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ π.
 REFLECTION
In this lesson, we learned the
importance and application of trigonometric
functions, if they are reversed, wherein they are
called inverse or arc functions. In the last topic ,
we are given the chance to learn the doman,
range, and how to graph the inverse functions.
This helped us to find the domain and the range,
thus enhancing our skills in using the different
properties of equations and inequalities to arrive
at the exact solution. This helped us know the
difference between inverse functions in contrast to
the trigonometric functions and their graphs.

OVERALL
REFLECTION
Overall, I want to summarize that
trigonometric functions and equating them are
crucial and helped me be better in my reasoning
and helped me boost and enhance my critical
thinking skills. With so many different, graphs,
formulas, and solutions, it burdened my mind that
eventually, I was able to keep up through studying
and discovered and realized that it was fun in
trying to solve these different trigonometric
functions, wherein it didn’t hurt to try and be
passionate in solving the identities and illustrating
graphs, rather, the time in this quarter was
enjoyable and keeped me in track from being
boosted and alive in solving. Realistically, I
reflected and understood that the real-life
application of trigonometry and its functions are
used through geography in order to measure the
distance between landmarks, in astronomy to
measure the distance of nearby stars, and also
the satellites navigation system.