Final Eces 2023

Electronic Control in Electrical Systems
(EET 4071)
7th Semester, Section: A
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
D R . D EBADATTA A. G ADANAYAK
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Institute of Technical Education & Research

Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar
Contents
Table of contents iii
0 Detailed Syllabus 1
1 Electrical Power Systems - An Overview 8

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 General composition of the power network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.4 Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 An overview of the dynamic response of electrical power networks . . . 15
1.3.1 Transient stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Snapshot-like power network studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.1 Power flow studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.2 Optimal power flow studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.3 Fault studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.4 Random nature of system load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.5 Non-linear loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 The role of computers in monitoring, control, and planning of power
networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.1 Energy control centres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Typical Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Power System Engineering - Fundamental Concepts 25

2.1 Reactive power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Load compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
i
2.2 Basic source/load relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Thevenin equivalent circuit model of a power system . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Fault level and circuit-breaker ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3 Loads and phasor diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.4 The symmetrical system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Complex power, apparent power, real and reactive power . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Leading and lagging loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Power factor correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 Compensation and voltage control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.1 System load line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Control of power and frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.8 Relationships between power, reactive power, voltage levels and load
angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.9 Three phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.9.1 Advantages of three phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.9.2 Development of three phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.9.3 The wye-delta transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.10 Power flow and measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.10.1 Single phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.10.2 Three phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.10.3 Two phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.11 Three phase power measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.11.1 Three watt-meter method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.11.2 Two watt-meter method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.12 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.12.1 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.12.2 Parallel operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.12.3 Zero sequence effects in three phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.13 Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.13.1 Harmonics fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.13.2 Main sources of harmonics in power system . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.13.3 Main undesirable effects of harmonics in power system . . . . . . 52
ii
2.13.4 Harmonic power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.13.5 RMS values in presence of harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.13.6 Phase sequence of harmonics in balanced three-phase systems . . 54
2.14 Review of per-unit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.14.1 Advantages of per unit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3 Transmission system compensation 57

3.1 Review of voltage and current equations of a long, lossless transmission
line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.1 Surge impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 The uncompensated line on open-circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 The uncompensated lines under load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4 Flexible AC Transmission Systems 65

4.1 Controllable parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.1.1 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2 Relative importance of controllable parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Basic types of FACTS controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Possible benefits from FACTS technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
iii
Chapter 0
Detailed Syllabus
Chapter-1: Electrical Power Systems-an Overview
(Reference: "Power Electronics Control in Electrical Systems" by E Acha, V G Agelidis, O

Anaya-Lara, and T J E Miller, Elsevier. Sections: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7).
1. Introduction.
2. General composition of the power network.
(a) Generation.
(b) Transmission.
(c) Distribution.
(d) Utilization.
3. An overview of the dynamaic response of electrical power networks.
(a) Transient stability.
4. Snapshot-like power network studies.
(a) Power flow studies.
(b) Optimal power flow studies.
(c) Fault studies.
(d) Random nature of system load.
(e) Nonlinear load.
1
Chapter 0. Detailed Syllabus Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
5. The role of computers in the monitoring, control and planning of power

networks.
(a) Energy control centres.
Chapter-2: Power Systems Engineering - Fundamental

Concepts

Anaya-Lara, and T J E Miller, Elsevier. Sections: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10,
2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14).
1. Reactive power control.
2. Basic source/load relationships.
(a) Fault level and circuit-breaker ratings.
(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit model of a power system.
(c) Phasor diagram for resistive, inductive and capacitive loads.
3. The symmetrical system.
(a) Complex power, apparent power, real and reactive power.
4. Leading and lagging loads.
5. Power factor correction.
6. Compensation and voltage control.
(a) System load line.
7. Control of power and frequency.
8. Relationship between power, reactive power, voltage level and load angle.
9. Three phase systems.
(a) Development of three phase systems.

7th Semester (EEE), Section: A 2
(b) The wye-delta transformation.
(c) Balanced and unbalanced load.
10. Power flow and measurement.
(a) Single phase.
(b) Two phase.
(c) Three phase.
(d) Power measurement: Three wattmeter connection and two wattmeter

connection.
11. Transformer.
(a) Basic principle.
(b) Function.
(c) Parallel operation.
(d) Zero-sequence effect in three-phase transformer.
12. Harmonics.
(a) Basic concept.
(b) Harmonic power.
(c) RMS values in presence of harmonics.
(d) Phase sequence of harmonics in balanced 3-phase system.
(e) Harmonics in balanced networks.
(f) Basic idea about AC line harmonics in three phase rectifiers.
13. Per unit quantities.
(a) Standard formulas.
(b) Changing base.
(c) Transformer in per-unit system.
14. Problem solving (Thevenin equivalent circuit).
15. Problem solving (Three phase systems).

Chapter-3: Transmission System Compensation

Anaya-Lara, and T J E Miller, Elsevier. Sections: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3).
1. Voltage and current equations of long lossless transmission line.
2. Surge impedance and natural loading of a transmission line.
3. The uncompensated line on open circuit.
4. Uncompensated lines under load.
5. Uncompensated symmetrical line: Variation of voltage and reactive power with

load.
6. Maximum power and steady state stability.
7. Problem solving on voltage and current equations of long lossless transmission

line.
Chapter-4: Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(Reference: "Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission

Systems" by Narain G. Hingorani and Laszlo Gyugyi, IEEE Press. Sections: 1.4, 1.5, 1.6,
1.8, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2).
Basics of Flexible AC Transmission Systems (Sections: 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8)
1. Power flow equations in a transmission interconnection (sending-end and

receiving-end active power, reactive power, and current).
2. Relative importance of controllable parameters.
3. Basic types of FACTS controllers.
4. Possible benifits from FACTS technology.

Static Shunt Compensation: SVC and STATCOM (Sections: 5.1,5.2)
1. Objective of shunt compensation.
(a) Mid point voltage regulation for line segmentation.
(b) End of line voltage support to prevent voltage instability.
(c) Improvement of transient stability.
(d) Power oscillation damping.
2. Methods of controllable VAR generation.
(a) Variable impedance type static VAR generators.
i. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR).
ii. Thyristor switched reactor (TSR).
iii. Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC).
iv. Fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR).
v. Thyristor switched capacitor thyristor controlled reactor (TSC-TCR).
(b) Switched converter type VAR generators.
i. Basic operating principle.
ii. Basic control approaches.
(c) Hybrid VAR generators.
Static Series Compensator (Sections: 6.1,6.2)
1. Objective of series compensation.
(a) Concept of series capacitive compensation.
(b) Voltage stability.
(c) Improvement of transient stability.
(d) Power oscillation damping.
(e) Subsynchronous oscillation damping.
2. Variable impedance type series compensators.

(a) GTO thyristor controlled series capacitor (GCSC).
(b) Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC).
(c) Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC).
(d) Basic operating control schemes for GCSC, TSSC, and TCSC.
Chapter-5: Power Semiconductor Devices and Converter

Hardware Issues

Anaya-Lara, and T J E Miller, Elsevier. Sections: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9,
5.10).
1. Introduction.
2. Power semiconductor devices.
(a) Diode.
(b) Thyristor.
(c) Light-triggered thyristor.
(d) Desired characteristics of fully controlled power semiconductors.
(e) Gate-turn-off thyristor.
(f) Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor.
(g) Insulated-gate bipolar transistor.
(h) MOS-controlled thyristor.
(i) Other semiconductor devices.
(j) Semiconductor switching-power performance.
3. Power modules.
4. Passive components.
5. Ancillary equipment.

6. Cooling systems.
7. Component layout.
8. Protection of semiconductors - Snubber circuit.
9. Current trends in power semiconductor technology.
Laboratory Work
1. Introduction to Simulink, Simpowersystems, Calling Simulink models from

Matlab script, Saving and plotting results.
2. Experiment 1: Verification of the current, active power and reactive power

equations for an interconnected power system.
3. Experiment 2: End point voltage control using capacitor bank.
4. Experiment 3: Harmonic estimation in six and twelve pulse converters.
5. Experiment 4: Voltage control using thyristor controlled reactor.
6. Experiment 5: Harmonic elimination in distribution network using shunt active

power filter.

Chapter 1
Electrical Power Systems - An Overview
1.1 Introduction
The main elements of an electrical power system are generators, transformers,

transmission lines, loads and protection and control equipment. These elements are
interconnected so as to enable the generation of electricity in the most suitable
locations and in sufficient quantity to satisfy the customers’ demand, to transmit it to
the load centres and to deliver good-quality electric energy at competitive prices. The
quality of the electricity supply may be measured in terms of:
• constant voltage magnitude, e.g. no voltage sags or swells.
• constant frequency.
• constant power factor.
• balanced phases.
• sinusoidal waveforms, e.g. no harmonic content.
• lack of interruptions.
• ability to withstand faults and to recover quickly.
8
Chapter 1. Electrical Power Systems - An Overview Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
1.2 General composition of the power network
F IGURE 1.1: General composition of the power network
The electrical power network may be divided into four parts.
1. Generation
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
4. Utilization
1.2.1 Generation
• Most of the electricity consumed worldwide is produced by three-phase

synchronous generators.
• Three-phase induction generators are used in wind generations.
• Three-phase and single-phase static generators are used in fuel cells and
photovoltaic arrays.
3-phase supply
output DC input
Armature Winding
Rotor
Rotor with
Field Winding
F IGURE 1.2: Synchronous generator
Stator slots with

armature winding
Rotor slots
with
excitation
winding
Round rotor machine Salient pole machine
F IGURE 1.3: Types of synchronous generator
Synchronous machines can be divided into two categories, according to their rotor
structure.
1. Salient pole machines: A salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting out from
the surface of the rotor core. Salient pole alternators have large number of poles

and operate at lower speeds. It has comparatively a larger diameter and a short
axial length. They are used in hydrogenerators.
2. Round rotor machines: Round rotor or cylindrical rotor has smooth cylindrical
construction without projected poles. In about two-third of the rotor periphery,
slots are cut at regular intervals to house distributed field windings. The
unslotted portion forms the pole faces. They are operated in high speed
generators driven by steam or gas turbines because of their better mechanical
strength and balanced dynamics. Therefore they are also called turboalternators
or turbogenerators.
The turbine-generator set has three main control systems to generate desired power
at desired voltage. They are:
1. The boiler’s firing control
2. The governor control
3. The excitation system control
Steam at Torque at Power at Electrical

pressure P Speed N Voltage V Output
Fuel Boiler Turbine Generator
Excitation
σ Firing σ Governor σ System
Control
Power Set Reference Reference

Point Speed Voltage
F IGURE 1.4: Turbo-generator control
1.2.2 Transmission
• Transmission networks operate at high voltage levels such as 400 kV and 275
kV, because the transmission of large blocks of energy is more efficient at high
voltages.

• Step-up transformers in generating substations are responsible for increasing

the voltage up to transmission levels and step-down transformers located in
distribution substations are responsible for decreasing the voltage to more
manageable levels such as 66 kV or 11 kV.
• High-voltage transmission is carried by means of AC overhead transmission lines

and DC overhead transmission lines and cables.
• High-voltage transmission networks are usually ’meshed’ to provide redundant

paths for reliability.
• Overhead transmission lines are used in high-voltage transmission and in

distribution applications. They are built in double circuit or single circuit,
three-phase configuration in the same tower. In high-voltage transmission lines,
each phase consists of two or four conductors per phase, depending on their
rated voltage, in order to reduce the total series impedance of the line and to
increase transmission capacity. One or two sky wires are used for protection
purposes against lightning strikes.
• Underground cables are used in populated areas where overhead transmission

lines are impractical.
• Power transformers are used for the following applications:
1. As step-up transformers to increase the operating voltage from generating

levels to transmission levels.
2. As step-down transformers to decrease the operating voltage from

transmission levels to utilization levels.
3. As control devices to redirect power flows and to modulate voltage

magnitude at a specific point of the network.
4. As ’interfaces’ between power electronics equipment and the transmission

network.
• Reactive power equipments are used for voltage regulation, stability

enhancement and for increasing power transfers. These functions are normally

carried out with mechanically controlled shunt and series banks of capacitors
and non-linear reactors. However, when there is an economic and technical
justification, the reactive power support is provided by electronic means as
opposed to mechanical means, enabling near instantaneous control of reactive
power, voltage magnitude and transmission line impedance at the point of
compensation. FACTS devices such as TCR, TSC, STATCOM, GCSC, TCSC are
used for this purpose.
1.2.3 Distribution
• Distribution networks may be meshed or radial. Meshed networks are more

reliable than radial networks. On the other hand, protection of radial
distribution systems are simple and more efficient.
• Recently power electronics controllers are used in the distribution systems to

supply electricity with high quality to selected customers. The generic,
systematic solution being considered by the utility to counter the problem of
interruptions and low power quality at the end-user level is known as Custom
Power.
• Custom power is the low voltage counterpart of the more widely known FACTS
technology. FACTS controllers are aimed at the transmission level whereas
Custom Power controllers are aimed at the distribution level. The STATCOM
and the DVR are the best known Custom Power equipments. The STATCOM is
a shunt connected device which may include the functions of voltage control,
active filtering and reactive power control. The DVR is a series connected device
which precisely compensates for waveform distortion and disturbances in the
neighbourhood of one or more sensitive loads.
1.2.4 Utilization
1. The customers of electricity vendors may be classified into three categories, as

industrial, commercial and domestic users.

2. Traditionally, induction motors have formed the dominant component in the

vast array of electric equipment found in industry. However, computer-assisted
controllers and power electronics-based equipments are becoming more
popular in modern manufacturing processes. The disadvantage of such
equipments is that they requires to be supplied with high quality electricity.
3. Types of load:
(a) Some loads draw constant current from the power system and their
operation may be affected by supply voltage and frequency variations.
• induction motors
• synchronous motors
• DC motors
(b) Some loads are less susceptible to voltage and frequency variations and
exhibit a constant resistance characteristic:
• incandescent lighting
• heating instruments
(c) Some loads are based on power electronics technology and are capable of
injecting significant harmonic currents back into the network.
• colour TV sets
• microwave ovens
• energy saving lamps
• computer equipment
• industrial variable speed motor drives
• battery recharging stations.
4. Electric energy storage is an area of great research activity. However, even now,
for the purpose of practical industrial applications, apart from pumped hydro
storage, there is very little energy storage in the system. Thus, at any time the
following basic relation must be met:
Generation = Demand + TransmissionLosses (1.1)

So as power engineers have no direct control over the electricity demand only
load shedding is the only way to deal with the generation and demand
imbalances.
1.3 An overview of the dynamic response of electrical

power networks
1. Normal dynamic conditions of power system:
(a) connection and disconnection of both large and small loads in any part of
the network.
(b) connection and disconnection of generating units to meet system demand.
(c) scheduled topology changes in the transmission system.
2. Abnormal operating conditions in power system:
(a) sudden loss of generation.
(b) phase conductors falling to the ground.
(c) phase conductors coming into direct contact with each other.
3. For dynamic analysis purposes the power network has traditionally been
subdivided as follows:
(a) synchronous generator and excitation system.
(b) turbine-governor and automatic generation control.
(c) boiler control.
(d) transmission network.
(e) loads.
4. The model used for power system dynamic study must consider the time scales
for which the study is intended and the time constants of the plant components.
For example:

(a) Studies involving over-voltages due to lightning require a detailed

representation of the transmission system and the electrical properties of
the generators, with particular attention paid to the capacitive effects of
transmission lines, cables, generators and transformers. However, the
mechanical parameters of the generators and most controls can be ignored
because they have no time to react to these during the short span of time of
lightning.
(b) The long term dynamics associated with load frequency control and load
shedding involve the dynamic response of the boiler and turbine-governor
set and do not require a detailed representation of the transmission system.
1.3.1 Transient stability
1. Transient stability studies are the most popular dynamic studies. Their main
objective is to determine the synchronous generator’s ability to remain stable
after the occurrence of a fault or following a major change in the network such
as the loss of an important generator or a large load.
2. Faults need to be cleared as soon as practicable. Transient stability studies

provide valuable information about the critical clearance times before one or
more synchronous generators in the network become unstable.
3. Transient stability studies are time-based studies and involve solving the
differential equations of the generators and their controls, together with the
algebraic equations representing the transmission power network.
Review of Theory 1.3.1

Transient Stability
Transient stability is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism when subjected
to large disturbances.
Classical Swing Equation:
d2 δm
Jωm = Pm − Pe (1.2)
dt2
J = The inertia constant of the rotor.

ωm = Speed of the rotor.

δm = The angle between the rotor field axis and the axis rotating at synchronous speed
(rotating flux axis).
Pm = Input mechanical power.
Pe = Output electrical power.
c max
Let’s take aPmsynchronous
 Pmax sin   dgenerator
  Pmax sin   Pm  dto an infinite bus through(2.47)

0

c
connected a transmission
line.
Pe
Pmax
E
A D F
Pm
B C
0 0 C   max  
2
F IGUREequal
Fig. 2.4: Swing curve to demonstrate 1.5:area
Swing curve
criterion
From Fig. 2.4 we can immediately observe that

In steady state before the fault is applied the rotor angle is at the stable equilibrium
point Ac(Pm = Pe ). When a three-phase to ground fault is applied on the transmission
  Pm  Pmax
lines, towards
0
thesin   d Areaof
generator, thenABCD
the electrical power output of the generator
(2.48) will be
zero and hence the operating point moves to point B on P − δ curve. Since, electrical
power output
max Pe has become zero and the mechanical input power Pm is constant the
  Pmaxstarts
rotor angle

sin  Pm  d  Areaof DEF (2.49) 1.2. The
to increase as can be observed from swing equation
c
imbalance in input and output power will lead to rotor gaining kinetic energy and the
From (2.48)
rotor starts and (2.49) it
accelerating. can be understood
Hence, that thepoint
the operating energystarts
gained moving
during acceleration
from point B on
(Area ABCD) should be exactly equal to the energy lost during deceleration (Area
the P − δ curve along the δ − axis towards infinity. If the fault is cleared say at point
DEF) for the system to be stable. Hence, we can write
C, which corresponds to an angle δc , then since electrical power output is not zero but
it is Pmax sinof(δPc ) thecurve
Area operating point moves
during acceleration toduring
= Area pointdeceleration
E on the swing curve.
(2.50) It can be
observed that at point E the electrical power output is greater than the mechanical
Because of (2.50) we call this method of assessing the stability as equal area criterion.
power input and hence the rotor starts decelerating. Since, rotor has finite inertia it
Now the basic idea is that we have to clear the fault below a critical clearing angle  c
cannot change its speed suddenly and hence the rotor acceleration will decrease slows
2.18

due to which angle will swing from point E to point F. The rotor angle will increase
until the rotor kinetic energy gained during the fault period is exhausted. Once, the
rotor exhausts the kinetic energy gained during fault period it will swing back from
point F and will move towards the point A. It can be understood that the energy
gained during acceleration (Area ABCD) should be exactly equal to the energy lost
during deceleration (Area DEF) for the system to be stable. Hence, we can write the
stability criteria:
Area of P − δ curve during acceleration = Area during deceleration.
We call this method of assessing the stability as equal area criterion. So the basic task
is to clear the fault below a critical clearing angle δc .
1.4 Snapshot-like power network studies
1.4.1 Power flow studies
1. The analysis tool used to assess the steady state operation of the power system is
known as Load Flow or Power Flow studie. It has the following objectives:
(a) to determine the nodal voltage magnitudes and angles throughout the
network.
(b) to determine the active and reactive power flows in all branches of the
network.
(c) to determine the active and reactive power contributed by each generator.
(d) to determine active and reactive power losses in each component of the
network.
2. In steady state operation, the plant components of the network are described by
their impedances and loads are normally recorded in MW and MVAr. Ohm’s
law and Kirchhoff’s laws are used to model the power network as a single entity
where the nodal voltage magnitude and angle are the state variables.
3. The power flow is a non-linear problem because, at a given node, the power
injection is related to the load impedance by the square of the nodal voltage,
which itself is not known at the beginning of the study. Thus, the solution has to
be reached by iteration. The solution of the non-linear set of algebraic equations

representing the power flow problem is achieved efficiently using the Newton-
Raphson method.
4. The generators are represented as nodal power injections because in the steady
state the prime mover is assumed to drive the generator at a constant speed and
the AVR is assumed to keep the nodal voltage magnitude at a specified value.
5. FACTS equipments provides adaptive regulation of one or more network

parameters such as voltage magnitude or active power at key locations.
1.4.2 Optimal power flow studies
1. An optimal power flow is an advanced form of power flow algorithm which

is used to determine the steady state operating conditions of power networks
by incorporating an objective function to be optimized without violating system
operational constraints.
2. The choice of the objective function depends on the operating philosophy of

each utility company. However, active power generation cost is a widely used
objective function.
3. Traditionally, the constraint equations include the network equations, active and
reactive power consumed at the load points, limits on active and reactive power
generation, stability and thermal limits on transmission lines and transformers.
4. Optimal power flow studies provide an effective tool for reactive power
management and for assessing the effectiveness of FACTS equipment.
1.4.3 Fault studies
1. Faults are unpredictable events that may occur anywhere in the power network.
Given that faults are unforeseen events, strategies for dealing with them must be
decided well in advance. For the above reason, to create appropriate protection
strategies, fault studies are required.

2. Fault creates large currents flowing from the generators to the point of fault and
the voltage drop to extremely low values. The greatest voltage drop takes place at
the point of fault, but neighbouring locations are also affected to varying degrees.
3. Faults can be divided into two categories shunt faults and series faults.
• Shunt faults:
(a) three-phase-to-ground short-circuit
(b) one-phase-to-ground short-circuit
(c) two-phase short-circuit
(d) two-phase-to-ground short-circuit.
• Series faults:
(a) one-phase conductor open
(b) two-phase conductors open
(c) three-phase conductors open.
1.4.4 Random nature of system load
1. The system load varies continuously with time in a random fashion. Significant
changes occur from hour to hour, day to day, month to month and year to year.
2. The random nature of system load must be included in power flow studies and
this finds useful applications in planning studies.
3. Some possible approaches for modelling random loads within a power flow
study are:
(a) modelling the load as a distribution function, e.g. normal distribution.
(b) future load is forecast by means of time series analysis based on historic
values, then normal power flow studies are performed for each forecast
point.
(c) future load is forecast by means of Neural Networks, then normal power
flow studies are performed.

1.4.5 Non-linear loads
1. Loads can be divided into two categories, linear loads and non-linear loads.
Linear load is a load where current waveform follows the voltage waveform
exactly i.e. if sinusoidal voltage is applied to it the resulting current is also
purely sinusoidal. Examples are, resistive, inductive or capacitive loads.
Similarly, non-linear load is a load in which the current waveform doesn’t
follow the voltage waveform exactly i.e. for a sinusoidal voltage input, the
resulting current is non-sinusoidal.
2. Non-linear power component examples:
(a) power electronics equipment
(b) electric arc furnaces
(c) large concentration of energy saving lamps
(d) saturated transformers
(e) rotating machinery.
3. Non-linear loads cause voltage and current distortions. Adverse effects of

voltage and current distortions are:
(a) the breakdown of sensitive industrial processes
(b) permanent damage to utility and consumer equipment
(c) additional expenditure in compensating and filtering equipment
(d) loss of utility revenue
(e) additional losses in the network
(f) overheating of rotating machinery
(g) interference in neighbouring communication circuits
(h) spurious tripping of protective devices.

1.5 The role of computers in monitoring, control, and

planning of power networks
1.5.1 Energy control centres
1. Energy control centres have the objective to monitor and control the electrical
network in real-time so that secure and economic operation is achieved round
the clock, with a minimum of operator intervention.
2. Energy control centres include:
(a) ’smart’ monitoring equipment
(b) fast communications
(c) power systems application software
(d) an efficient database
(e) mainframe computers.
3. The main power systems softwares used for the real-time control of the network
are:
(a) state estimation
(b) security analysis
(c) optimal power flows.
4. These applications provide the real-time means of controlling and operating

power systems securely. In order to achieve such an objective they execute
sequentially. Firstly, they validate the condition of the power system using the
state estimator and then they develop control actions, which may be based on
economic considerations while avoiding actual or potential security violations.
5. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system of software and

hardware elements that allows industrial organizations to:
(a) Control industrial processes locally or at remote locations

(b) Monitor, gather, and process real-time data
(c) Directly interact with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and
more through human-machine interface (HMI) software.
(d) Record events into a log file.

1.6 Typical Questions
1. Differentiate salient pole machines from round rotor machines.
2. Write two examples each from normal and abnormal dynamic conditions in
electrical power networks.
3. What do you mean by optimal power flow studies?
4. Differentiate linear and non-linear loads with examples.
5. What are custom power devices?
6. Write advantages and disadvantages of the meshed electrical distribution

network over the radial networks.
7. With example explain, why the model used for power system dynamic study
must consider the time scales for which the study is intended?
8. What are the various types of faults in the power system?
9. Write different approaches for modelling random loads in a power flow study.
10. Write a short note on energy control center explaining its purpose, equipment
and software.
11. Point out uses of SCADA.
12. What are the parameters which measure the quality of electricity?
13. Explain briefly with block diagram the main controls of the turbine-generator
sets to generate desired power at desired voltage level.
14. Why it is necessary to study dynamic response of power networks?
15. What is the main objective of fault study?

Chapter 2
Power System Engineering -

Fundamental Concepts
2.1 Reactive power control
1. The maintenance of constant frequency requires an exact balance between the

overall power supplied by the generators and the overall power absorbed by
the loads. Similarly, voltage levels are sensitive to the flow of reactive power
and therefore control of reactive power is necessary to keep the voltage within
acceptable limits.
2. when the focus is on reactive power flow in the transmission line, it is termed as
transmission system compensation.
3. Reactive power control applied to individual loads is termed as load

compensation.
2.1.1 Load compensation
1. Load compensation can be defined as the management of reactive power to

improve the quality of supply at a particular load or group of loads.
2. Load compensation equipments are usually installed on or near to the

consumer’s premises.
3. In load compensation there are three main objectives:
25
Chapter 2. Power System Engineering - Fundamental Concepts Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
(a) Power-factor correction:Most industrial loads have lagging power factors;

that is, they absorb reactive power. The load current therefore tends to be
larger than is required to supply the real power alone. Only the real power
is ultimately useful in energy conversion and the excess load current
represents a waste to the consumer. The adverse effects are: increase in
cable capacity rating to accommodate reactive current, , increase in cable
power loss, and difficulties in control of voltage throughout the network.
Supply tariffs to industrial customers usually penalize low power-factor
loads, encouraging the use of power-factor correction equipment.
(b) improvement of voltage regulation: The most obvious way to improve

voltage regulation would be to ’strengthen’ the power system by increasing
the size and number of generating units and by making the network more
densely interconnected. This approach is costly and also increases the fault
level. Hence, It is always better to size the transmission and distribution
system according to the maximum demand for real power and to manage
the reactive power by means of compensators.
(c) load balancing: Most AC power systems are three-phase, and are designed
for balanced operation. Unbalanced operation gives rise to undesirable
negative and zero sequence components. Such components can have
adverse effects such as additional losses in motors and generating units,
oscillating torque in AC machines, increased ripple in rectifiers,
malfunction of several types of equipment, saturation of transformers, and
excessive triplen harmonics and neutral currents.
4. The ideal load compensator characteristics:
(a) It must supply the exact reactive power requirement of the load.
(b) It must present a constant-voltage characteristic at its terminals.
(c) It must be capable of operating independently in the three phases.

2.2 Basic source/load relationships
2.2.1 Thevenin equivalent circuit model of a power system
At any point where a load is connected to the power system, the power system can
be represented by a Thevenin equivalent circuit having an open circuit voltage E and
an internal impedance Zs = Rs + jXs . Usually Xs is much bigger than Rs , hence Zs is
approximated as Zs = jXs .
jXS
F IGURE 2.1: Thevenin equivalent circuit of one phase
2.2.2 Fault level and circuit-breaker ratings
• The fault level (sometimes called short-circuit level) is a term used to describe
the ’strength’ of a power supply: that is, its ability to provide both current and
voltage. It is defined as:
Fault level = Open-circuit voltage × Short-circuit current.
• Fault level is expressed as VA/phase or MVA/phase.
• For figure 2.1

E
Short circuit current Isc = Xs
Fault level= Isc × E
• Circuit-breakers must interrupt fault currents to separate the healthy circuit from
the faulty one. When the contacts of the circuit-breaker are separating, there is an
arc which must be extinguished. The difficulty of extinguishing the arc depends
on both the current and the system voltage. So it is convenient to take the product
of these as a measure of the size or ’power’ of the circuit-breaker that is needed.

• The rating of a circuit-breaker should always exceed the fault level at the point
where the circuit-breaker is connected otherwise the circuit-breaker might not be
capable of interrupting the fault current.
Numericals to be solved in the class 2.2.1

Q: (a) A single-phase power system has an open-circuit voltage E =6.36 kV and a
fault level of 16 MVA. Calculate the short-circuit current Isc in kA, and the Thevenin
internal reactance Xs in ohms.
(b) What value of resistance R would draw 1.5 MW when connected to the open end?
Calculate also the terminal voltage V, the voltage drop Xs I, and the load angle δ.
(c) What value of inductive reactance X L would be needed to reduce the voltage by
3%? Express the answer in ohms and also per unit of Xs (i.e. the ratio X L /Xs ).
(d) What value of capacitive reactance Xc would be needed to raise the voltage by 3%?
Express the answer in ohms and also per unit of Xs (i.e. the ratio Xc /Xs ).
2.2.3 Loads and phasor diagrams
• Power factor angle (Φ): angle between V and I.
• Power factor: cos(Φ).
• Load angle (δ): Angle between V and E.
jXS
E
jXSI
E V R
V
I
F IGURE 2.2: Purely resistive load

jXS
E
E V jXL
V jXSI
F IGURE 2.3: Purely inductive load
jXS
V
E V
-jXC
E jXSI
F IGURE 2.4: Purely capacitive load
2.2.4 The symmetrical system
The symmetrical system is the simple model of a power system that comprises two
synchronous machines coupled by a transmission line modelled by a simple inductive
impedance jXs .
jX
I I
jXI
ES
I
ER
ES S
R
ER
F IGURE 2.5: The symmetrical system
Active power transferred is given by:
Es ER
P= sin(δ) (2.1)
X

Q: In a symmetrical power system, Es = Er = 6.35kV and X = 2.52Ω . If the
voltage-drop XI is 40% of Es , calculate the current I, the power transmitted, the power
factor at both ends of the line, and the load angle δ between Es and Er .
2.3 Complex power, apparent power, real and reactive

power
• The complex power is given by S = V I ∗ = P + jQ.
• P is the real power averaged over one cycle. It is expressed in W, kW, MW, etc.
• Q is the reactive power averaged over one cycle. It is expressed in VAr, kVAr,
MVAr, etc.
• S is the apparent power equals to the magnitude of the complex power. S = |S|.
It is expressed in VA, kVA, MVA, etc.
S
Q
F IGURE 2.6: The power triangle
Let’s take voltage as reference phasor V ̸ 0o = V

For a inductive load the current would be lagging.
Take current I ̸ − Φ = Icos(ϕ) − jIsin(ϕ).
Now the complex power is S = V I ∗ = V [ Icos(ϕ) + jIsin(ϕ)] = P + jQ.
So P = V Icos(ϕ) and Q = V Isin(ϕ).
Similarly, if we take a capacitive load, the current would be leading.
Take current I ̸ Φ = Icos(ϕ) + jIsin(ϕ).
The complex power is S = V I ∗ = V [ Icos(ϕ) − jIsin(ϕ)] = P + jQ.
So P = V Icos(ϕ) and Q = −V Isin(ϕ).
• In inductive loads reactive power is positive. In other words they absorb VArs.
• Capacitive loads absorb negative reactive power. In other words capacitive loads
generate VArs.
• However, for generators the convention is the opposite. In a generator if the

current lags voltage, it is said to be generating VArs and if current leads voltage
it is said to be absorbing reactive power.
• From the power triangle, it can be seen that:

P P
Power Factor = cos(ϕ) = S =√
P2 + Q2
• For non-sinusoidal waveforms, power factor can be defined as,

Average Power
PF = RMS Voltage× RMS Current

Q The voltage applied to a load is
v = 215sin(377t) + 140cos(754t) + 70sin(1131t).
Resulting current is
i = 20cos(377t + 30o ) + 5cos(754t − 60o ) + 2sin(1131t + 70o ).
Calculate the average power in the load and the effective values of the current and
voltage.
2.4 Leading and lagging loads
jXS
E
jXSI
E V R
V
I
F IGURE 2.7: Unity power factor load

jXS
jXSI
E V
R+jXL
V
F IGURE 2.8: Lagging power factor load
jXS
E
jXSI
I
E V
R-jXC
F IGURE 2.9: Leading power factor load
• For unity power factor load | E| > |V |.
• For lagging power factor load | E| > |V |.
• For leading power factor load, | E| can be greater than, equals to or less than |V |.
• Only in leading power factor load perfect voltage regulation i.e. | E| = |V | can be
achieved.

2.5 Power factor correction
IS
I IY
IY
V -jXC IR
V
Z
IX
jXL
I
F IGURE 2.10: Power factor correction
Let’s take a load impedance of Z = R + jX L

V
Current I = Z = VY
1
where Y = admittance = R+ jX L = G − jB
R
G = Conductance = R2 + X 2L
and B = susceptance = R2X+LX2
L
Reactive admittance is − jB for inductance and + jB for capacitance.
V
In the phasor diagram, active component of current IR = R
V
and reactive component of current IX = XL . Active power consumed by the load
P = IR V = V 2 G,
Reactive power consumed is Q = IX V = V 2 B
An inductive load is compensated by a capacitive admittance and a capacitive load is
compensated by an inductive admittance.
For 100% compensation, IS = I + IY = V ( G − jB) + V ( jB) = VG = IR .
It can also be explained as, reactive power consumed by the load (Q) is equal to reactive
power generated by the capacitor (QY ).
However, compensation is not always 100 %. It may be partial when QY < Q.

2.7 Compensation and voltage control
Figure2.72.12Compensation
shows a one-line diagram and of an AC power
voltage system, which could represent
control
either a single-phase system, or one phase of a three-phase system. Figure 2.13 shows
the phasor
Figure 2.12diagram
shows afor an inductive
one-line diagramload.
of an AC power system, which could represent
Chaptereither
2.
WhenPower
a the System
single-phase
load drawsEngineering
system, or one
current from -the
phaseFundamental
of a three-phase
supply, Concepts
system.
the terminal Dr.V2.13
Figure
voltage D. A. Gadanayak
shows
falls below
theopen-circuit
the phasor diagramvaluefor
E.an inductive
The load. between V and the load current I is called
relationship
the When
systemthe load
load draws
line, Figurecurrent
2.14. from the supply, the terminal voltage V falls below
2.6 Compensation and voltage control
the open-circuit value E. The relationship between V and the load current I is called
the system load line, Figure 2.14.
Fig. 2.12 Equivalent circuit of supply and load.

F IGURE 2.11: Supply system with load and compensator
Fig. 2.12 Equivalent circuit of supply and load.
Fig. 2.13 Phasor diagram (uncompensated).

Fig. 2.13 Phasor diagram (uncompensated).
F IGURE 2.12: Phasor diagram for system without compensator
For the uncompensated line:

∆V = E − V = Z s I (2.2)
where Z s = Rs + jXs .
Also we know complex power S = V I ∗ = P + jQ ⇒ V I = P − jQ
P − jQ
I= (2.3)
V
Now the equation 2.2 becomes
P − jQ Xs P − R s Q

R s P + Xs Q
∆V = ( Rs + jXs ) = +j = ∆VR + j∆VX (2.4)
V V V

If we take V as reference, equation 2.2 can be written as,
R s P + Xs Q Xs P − R s Q
E = V + ∆V = V + +j (2.5)
V V
Magnitude wise,
F:/PEC/REVISES_10-11-01/075065126-CH002.3D ± 46 ± [31±81/51] 17.11.2001 9:49AM
2 2
Xs P − R s Q

2 R s P + Xs Q
| E| = V + + (2.6)
V V
To find the value of total reactive power Qs for zero voltage drop equation 2.6 can be
solved for Q by putting V = | E|.
46 Power systems
Now theengineering ± fundamental
net compensating concepts
reactive power would be QY = Qs − Q.
Iγ
E jX s I s
Is
∆V
RsIs
V
I
Load
Fig. 2.15 Phasor diagram, compensated for constant voltage.
F IGURE 2.13: Phasor diagram of the system with the compensator
voltage V. Equation (2.13) always has a solution for Qs , implying that: A purely
• For complete power factor correction Q in equation (2.4) is zero,
reactive compensator can eliminate voltage variations caused by changes in both the real
and the reactive
Hence power of the load.
Provided that the reactive∆Vpower Rs P of X s P compensator P
= + j the = ( Rs + jXs ) Qg can be controlled
(2.7)
V V V
smoothly over a sufficiently wide range (both lagging and leading), and at an
adequate rate, the compensator can perform as an ideal voltage regulator.
• For a finite value of active power P, equation (2.7) can’t be zero. It implies A
We have seen that a compensator can be used for power-factor correction. For
example,purely reactivefactor
if the power compensator cannot
is corrected to maintain
unity, Qs both unity
0 and Qgpower
Q. factor
Then and
constant voltage.
P
V (Rs jXs ) (2:14)
V
which is independent of Q and therefore not under the control of the compensator.
Thus:
7th A purely (EEE),
Semester reactive compensator
Section: A cannot maintain both constant voltage and unity
35
power factor at the same time.
The only exception is when P 0, but this is not of practical interest.
2.6.1 System load line
In the figure 2.2 we can see that ∆VX only rotates the vector E and the change in voltage
E2
magnitude is mainly due to ∆VR . Also the short circuit MVA S = Xs , which can be
E2 V2
approximated as S = Xs ≈ Xs .
Now equation 2.2 becomes
R s P + Xs Q
∆V = ∆VR = (2.8)
V
If Rs is neglected compared to Xs , it becomes,
Xs Q ∆V Xs Q Q
∆V = ⇒ = 2 ≈ (2.9)
V V V S
Q
∆V ≈ V (2.10)
S
Q Q
E−V ≈ V ≈E (2.11)
//SYS21/F:/PEC/REVISES_10-11-01/075065126-CH002.3D ± 45 ± [31±81/51] 17.11.2001 9:49AM S S

Q
V ≈ E 1− (2.12)
S
Now the relationship between Q and V is a straight line and it is called the system load
line. Power electronic control in electrical systems 45
Fig. 2.14 System load line. F IGURE 2.14: The system load line
The `load' can be measured by its current I, but in power systems parlance it is the
reactive volt-amperes Q of the load that is held chiefly responsible for the voltage
drop. From Figures 2.12 and 2.13,
V E V Zs I (2:10)
where I is the load current. The complex power of the load (per phase) is defined by
equation (2.2), so
7th Semester (EEE), Section: A P jQ
36
I (2:11)
V
and if V V j0 is taken as the reference phasor we can write
2.7 Control of power and frequency
• The power supplied to the system by the generator Pin is determined by the prime
mover(s).
• However, the power system operator has no control over power taken from the
system Pout , since it depends upon the amount of loading.
• In the short term (i.e. over a period of a fraction of a second), the frequency
control ensures that Pin = Pout , and this control is effected by maintaining the
speed of the generators extremely close to the nominal value. Suppose the power
system is in a steady state and Pin = Pout . Suppose that the load increases so that
more power is taken from the system, tending to make Pin < Pout . The prime
mover and the generator will tend to slow down. Therefore the prime mover has
a governor (i.e. a valve controller) that increases Pin when the frequency is below
the rated value, and decreases Pin when the frequency is above the rated value.
• The large generating stations are usually best operated at constant power for
long periods, without varying their contribution to Pin . Apart from the
economics, one reason for this is that if the power is varied, the temperature
distribution in the turbine, boiler, and generator will be affected, and ’thermal
cycling’ is considered undesirable in these very large machines. So these
generators have a relatively steep or insensitive governor characteristic, such
that the frequency would have to change by quite a large amount to change the
contribution to Pin . Elsewhere in the power system, or sometimes in the same
power station, there are special generators assigned to the task of frequency
control. These generators have very flat governor characteristics such that a tiny
change in frequency will cause a large swing in power. They are usually gas
turbine powered, up to 20 MW. However, some very large rapid-response
generators are sometimes built into hydro-electric pumped-storage schemes.

2.8 Relationships between power, reactive power,

voltage levels and load angle
jX
I I
jXI
ES
I
ER
ES S
R
ER
F IGURE 2.15: The symmetrical power system
Let
E R = Er ̸ 0o = Er ; ES = Es ̸ δ (2.13)
Now current
Es ̸ δ − Er ̸ 0o
I= (2.14)
Xs ̸ 90o
Receiving end complex power,

∗
Es ̸ δ − Er ̸ 0o

∗
S = Er I = Er
Xs ̸ 90o
∗
E2

Er Es ̸
= δ − 90o − r ̸ −90o
Xs Xs
Er Es ̸ E2
= 90o − δ − r ̸ 90o
Xs Xs

Er Es Er Es E2 E2
= cos(90o − δ) + j sin(90o − δ) − r cos(90o ) − j r sin(90o )
Xs Xs Xs Xs
Er Es Er Es E2
= sin(δ) + j cos(δ) − j r
Xs Xs Xs
E2

Er Es Er Es
= sin(δ) + j cos(δ) − r = P + jQ
Xs Xs Xs
So
Er Es Er Es E2
P= sin(δ) and Q= cos(δ) − r (2.15)
Xs Xs Xs
Similarly, analysing sending end complex power we can get,
Er Es Es2 Er Es
P= sin(δ) and Q= − cos(δ) (2.16)
Xs Xs Xs
2.9 Three phase systems
2.9.1 Advantages of three phase systems
1. Three phase power generation is economical than single phase generation.
2. Three phase power transmission systems are economical. Better utilization of the
transmission line material, insulation, transformers, etc.
3. It provides diversity (ability to supply different loads from different phases so

that failure of one do not affect others) and security (in case of failure of a phase,it
has ability to continue three phase supply, example is open delta connection) of
supply.
4. Instantaneous power waveform of three phase supply is constant where as for

single phase supply it is pulsating.
5. Three phase induction motors are robust, relatively cheap, smaller, have
self-starting property, provide steady output (uniform torque), requires least
maintenance, and are more efficient than single phase motors.

an excess of triplen harmonics in the current or voltage waveforms of the load.
The current and voltage in Figures 2.19 and 2.20 are displaced in phase by the
power factor angle f. Figure 2.21 shows a complete phasor diagram for a balanced
wye-connected load with a lagging power factor.
An alternative connection of the three phases is the delta connection shown in
ChapterFigure
2. Power System Engineering - Fundamental Concepts Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
2.22 together with the construction of the phasor diagram under balanced
conditions with a lagging power factor.
2.9.2 For the delta connection,
Development of three phase systems p
VLL Vph and IL 3Iph (2:26)
The delta connection is used to provide a path for triplen harmonic currents. For
example, when transformers operate at higher than normal voltage the magnetizing
F IGURE 2.16: Three phase wye-connection and phasor diagram
Fig. 2.21 Phasor diagram for balanced wye-connected load.
Fig. 2.22 Three-phase connection with delta-connected load and phasor diagram.
F IGURE 2.17: Three phase delta-connection and phasor diagram
Variables Wye-connection Delta-connection

√
Voltage VL = 3Vph VL = Vph
√
Current IL = I ph IL = 3I ph
P = 3Vph I ph cos(Φ) P = 3Vph I ph cos(Φ)
Power √ √
P = 3VL IL cos(Φ) P = 3VL IL cos(Φ)
Advantages of wye-connection
1. A star connected alternator requires less number of turns than delta connected
alternator for the same output voltage.

2. For the same line voltage a wye-connected alternator requires less insulation.
3. A three phase four wire system allows use of two voltage levels (phase and line
voltage).
4. When the neutral point is earthed the insulators have to bear less line voltage
during a line-to-ground fault.
Advantages of delta-connection
1. Delta connection has higher reliability. If one of the three primary windings of a
delta-connected transformer fails, the secondary will still produce full voltage on
all three phases.
2. In delta connection, the triplen harmonics are allowed to flow locally without
entering the external circuit.
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3. Normally three phase motor windings are connected in delta, so that full line
voltage can be utilized for torque production.
2.9.3 The wye-delta transformation

54 Power systems engineering ± fundamental concepts
Fig. 2.23 Wye±delta transformation.

F IGURE 2.18: Wye-delta transformation
current in each phase tends to become distorted, and the triplen harmonics are
allowed to flow
1. Delta-wye locally in a delta-connected winding without entering the external
transformation:
circuit. In electric motors a delta winding permits the use of a larger number of turns
of smaller-gauge wire, because the phase voltage is increased while the phase current
is decreased, Z AB ZCA with the wye connection.
compared ZBC Z AB ZCA ZBC
ZA = ; ZB = ; ZC =
Z AB + ZBC + ZCA Z AB + ZBC + ZCA Z AB + ZBC + ZCA
(2.17)
2.9.2 The wye±delta transformation
A wye-connected load can be represented by a virtual load connected in delta, and
7th vice-versa,
Semester Figure
(EEE), 2.23. To
Section: Atransform the delta connection into a wye connection, 41
ZAB ZCA ZBC ZAB ZCA ZBC
ZA ; ZB ; ZC (2:27)
Z Z Z
2. Wye-delta transformation:
YA YB YB YC YC YA
YAB = ; YBC = ; YCA = (2.18)
YA + YB + YC YA + YB + YC YA + YB + YC

Q1 Three single-phase loads are connected to a 250 V, three-phase, three-wire supply
of sequence RYB:
6 kW at unity PF between R and Y;
4 kW at 0.8 PF leading between Y and B;
2 kW at 0.5 PF lagging between B and R.
Taking VRY as reference phasor, calculate all three line-currents.
Q2 A three-phase delta-connected induction motor is fed from a supply of 440 V line-
line, and delivers 225 kW to a water pump. Calculate the line current, assuming 90%
for the efficiency and 85% for the power factor.
Q3 Each phase of a three-phase delta-connected load comprises a capacitor of 40 µF in
series with a resistor of 100 Ω. This load is connected to a three-phase supply at 440 V
and 50 Hz. Calculate (a) the rms phase current in the load; (b) the line current; and (c)
the total power taken from the supply. (d) Also calculate the new line currents and the
power taken from the supply, if the phases that were originally connected in delta are
reconnected in star when the supply is still 440 V at 50 Hz.
Q4 Three identical inductive impedances are connected in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz,
three-phase supply of sequence RYB. The current in the R line is 4.8 A and it leads the
voltage VYB by 53o . Determine (a) the rms phase current; and (b) the resistance and
inductance of each phase. Q5 An inductive three-phase wye-connected load is supplied
at 4160 V and takes 1400 kW of real power and 700 kVAR of reactive power. The
supply system impedance is j0.9Ω/phase. Calculate:
(a) the current;

(b) the power factor;
(c) the open-circuit voltage (i.e. the supply voltage E) if the load voltage V =4160 V;
(d) the ratio of the open-circuit voltage E to the load voltage V; and
(e) the load angle (i.e. the phase angle between E and V).

Power electronic control in electrical systems 57
The resulting compensating admittances are given in equation (2.29).

Chapter 2. Power System Engineering - FundamentalpConcepts
Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
jBgab jBab j(Gca Gbc )= 3
p
jBgbc jBbc j(Gab Gca )= 3 (2:29)
p
2.10 Power flow andjBmeasurement
jB j(G gca ca bc Gab )= 3
2.10.1 2.10phase
Single Power flow and measurement
2.10.1 Single-phase
Let v = Vm cos(ωt) and i = Im cos(ωt − Φ),
Suppose we have a single-phase load as in Figure 2.7 supplied with a sinusoidal p
voltage whose instantaneous
Now the instantaneous power value is u Vm cos ot. The RMS value is V Vm / 2
and the phasor value is V. If the load is linear (i.e. its impedance is constant and does
not depend on the current or voltage), the current will be sinusoidal too. It leads or
lags the voltage by a phase angle f, depending on whether the load is capacitive or
p = vi = Im cos(ωt
Vminductive. )cosa (lagging
With Φ)
ωt − (inductive) load, i Im cos(ot f); see Figure 2.29.
The instantaneous power is given by p ui, so
V m Im
p Vm Im cos ot cos(ot f) [ cos f cos(2ot f)] (2:30)
2
Vm Im
= (Φ) expression
[cosThis + cos(2ωt has−aΦconstant
)] term and a second term that oscillates at double
2 frequency. The constant term represents the average power P: we can write this as
Vm Im
P p p cos f VI cos f (2:31)
2 2
p
Vm Im P is equal
Vm Ito
p m the product of the rms voltage V Vm / 2, the RMS current
= cos(IΦ) I+ cos(2ωt − Φ)
m / 2, and the power factor cos f. The amplitude of the oscillatory term is
(2.19)
2 2
fixed: i.e. it does not depend on the power factor. It shows that the instantaneous
power p varies from 0 to Vm Im to Vm Im and back to 0 twice every cycle. Since the
Fig. 2.29 Instantaneous current, voltage and power in a single-phase AC circuit.

F IGURE 2.19: Instantaneous voltage, current and power in a single-phase
AC circuit
Vm Im
It indicates, an average power of 2 with a peak-peak power fluctuation of 200%
at double frequency. The oscillation of power in single-phase circuits contributes to
lamp flicker and causes vibration in motors and transformers, producing undesirable
acoustic noise.
2.10.2 Three phase
Let
v a = Vm cos(ωt), i a = Im cos(ωt − ϕ) ;
2π
vb = Vm cos(ωt − 3 ), i b = Im cos(ωt − 2π
3 − ϕ) ;
2π
vc = Vm cos(ωt + 3 ), i c = Im cos(ωt + 2π
3 − ϕ) ;
Now the instantaneous power
p = v a i a + vb ib + vc ic
2π 2π
= Vm Im [cos(ωt)cos(ωt − ϕ) + cos(ωt − )cos(ωt − − ϕ)
3 3
2π 2π
+ cos(ωt + )cos(ωt + − ϕ)]
3 3
Vm Im 4π
= [cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − ϕ) + cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − − ϕ)
2 6
4π
+ cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − − ϕ)]
3
Vm Im 4π 4π
= [cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − ϕ) + cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − ϕ)cos( ) + sin(2ωt − ϕ)sin( )
2 6 6
4π 4π
+ cos(2ωt − ϕ)cos( ) + sin(2ωt − ϕ)sin( )]
3 3
√
Vm Im −1 3
= [cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − ϕ) + cos(ϕ) + cos(2ωt − ϕ) + sin(2ωt − ϕ)
2 2 2√
−1 − 3
+ cos(2ωt − ϕ) + sin(2ωt − ϕ) ]
2 2
3Vm Im Vm Im
⇒p= cos(ϕ) = 3 √ √ cos(ϕ) = 3V Icos(ϕ) (2.20)
2 2 2
So in three phase systems instantaneous power is not pulsating.
2.10.3 Two phase
Let
v a = Vm cos(ωt), i a = Im cos(ωt − ϕ) ;
vb = Vm cos(ωt − π2 ), ib = Im cos(ωt − π
2 − ϕ) ;

Now the instantaneous power
p = v a i a + vb ib
π π
= Vm Im [cos(ωt)cos(ωt − ϕ) + cos(ωt − )cos(ωt − − ϕ)]
2 2
= Vm Im [cos(ωt)cos(ωt − ϕ) + sin(ωt)sin(ωt − ϕ)]
= Vm Im [cos(ωt − ωt + ϕ)]
Vm Im
⇒ p = Vm Im cos(ϕ) = 2 √ √ cos(ϕ) = 2V Icos(ϕ) (2.21)
2 2 ± fundamental concepts
62 Power systems engineering
So in two phase systems instantaneous power is not pulsating.
2.11 Three phase power measurement
2.11.1 Three watt-meter method

Fig. 2.33 Sampled voltage and current waveforms.
Fig. 2.34 Three-wattmeter connection.
F IGURE 2.20: Three watt-meter method

which indicates that only two wattmeters are required, connected as shown in Figure
2.35. Since this is valid for instantaneous power, it is also valid for average power. It
is valid irrespective of the waveforms of voltage and current, requiring only that the
connection is three-wire.
P = Va0 Ia + Vb0 Ib + V I . c0 csinusoidal AC conditions the two-wattmeter connection can be described
Under
(2.22)
by the equations
P1 huac ia i RefVac Ia g Vac Ia cos f1
(2:40)
P2 hubc ib i RefVbc Ib g Vbc Ib cos f2

2.11.2 Two watt-meter method

Fig. 2.35 Two-wattmeter connection.

F IGURE 2.21: Two watt-meter method
We know for a balanced system
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 ⇒ Ic = − Ia − Ib
P = Va0 Ia + Vb0 Ib + Vc0 Ic
= Va0 Ia + Vb0 Ib + Vc0 (− Ia − Ib )
= Ia (Va0 − Vc0 )Fig.

+ 2.36 Vb0 −
Ib (Phasor Vc0 )
diagram for two-wattmeter connection.
⇒ P = Ia Vac + Ib Vbc (2.23)
2.12 Transformers
2.12.1 Uses
1. Transforms voltage level for optimum transmission.

2. Isolates coupled circuits.
3. Impedance matching.
4. Create a neutral point remote from power station (grounding transformers with
zigzag winding configuration).
• Limit transient overcurrent.
• Source of ground fault current during LG faults.
• Load connection.
5. Provide tappings in the transmission line.
6. Suppress harmonics (triplen harmonics).
7. Provide phase shift for multi-pulse converters.
8. Reactive power compensation by saturation controllable reactors. By dc current

the level of saturation is controlled and hence the inductance (as level of
saturation increases inductance decreases).
2.12.2 Parallel operation

Fig. 2.43 Parallel transformers.

F IGURE 2.22: Parallel operation of transformers
This theory can be extended to the parallel operation of transformers by represent-
ing them by their TheÂvenin equivalent circuits, in which the series impedance is
approximately the leakage reactance. In general they are not required to share the
V = E− I1 Z1 load equally, but in proportion to their ratings. For this we shall see that their per-
unit impedances must be equal, when evaluated on their own respective MVA bases
and a common voltage base.
Working with Figure 2.43, the load current is

E V E V 1 1
I I1 I2 (E V) (2:47)
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
V = E − I2 Z2
and the respective transformer contributions are
1=Z1 Y1 Z2
7th Semester (EEE), Section:I1A 1=Z1 1=Z2 I
Y1 Y2
I
Z1 Z2
I (2:48) 47
and
1=Z2 Y2 Z1
I2 I I I (2:49)
1=Z1 1=Z2 Y1 Y2 Z1 Z2
Taking the ratio of equations (2.48) and (2.49),
⇒ I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 (2.24)
1
I Z Z1 Y1
⇒ 1 = 2 = 1
= (2.25)
I2 Z1 Z2
Y2
I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
⇒ I1 Z1 = ( I − I1 ) Z2 = IZ2 − I1 Z2
⇒ I1 ( Z1 + Z2 ) = IZ2
1
!
Z2 Z1 Y1
⇒ I1 = I= 1 1
I= I (2.26)
Z1 + Z2 Z2 + Z1
Y1 + Y2
Similarly,

Z1 Y2
I2 = I= I (2.27)
Z1 + Z2 Y1 + Y2
Complex power
Complex power through transformer-1
∗ ∗ ∗
Y1 Y1 Y1
S1 = V I1∗ =V I = ∗
VI = S (2.28)
Y1 + Y2 Y1 + Y2 Y1 + Y2
Similarly, complex power through transformer-2 is

∗ ∗ ∗
Y2 Y2 Y2
S2 = V I2∗ =V I = ∗
VI = S (2.29)
Y1 + Y2 Y1 + Y2 Y1 + Y2
so
S1 Y1∗ Z2∗
= ∗ = ∗ (2.30)
S2 Y2 Z1

In per unit system
Z1 Z [S ]
z1 = = 12 = Z1 1 b2 (2.31)
[ Z1 ]b [V1 ]b [V1 ]b
[ S1 ] b
Similarly,
Z2 Z [S ]
z2 = = 22 = Z2 2 b2 (2.32)
[ Z2 ]b [V2 ]b [V2 ]b
[ S2 ] b
Per unit complex power ratio,
s1 S1 / [ S1 ] b S1 [ S2 ] b Z2∗ [S2 ]b z1∗ [V1 ]2b

= = × = ∗ = ∗ (2.33)
s2 S2 / [ S2 ] b S2 [ S1 ] b Z1 S1 ]b z2 [V2 ]2b
If [V1 ]b = [V2 ]b then,
s1 z∗
= 2∗ (2.34)
s2 z1
It indicates that, when the transformers are loaded proportional to their ratings i.e
S1 ∝ [S1 ]b and S2 ∝ [S2 ]b , then z1 = z2 i.e. p.u. impedances must be same.
2.12.3 Zero sequence effects in three phase transformer
𝜱1 𝜱2 𝜱3
F IGURE 2.23: 3-phase, 3-limb transformer
Under balanced condition:
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0,

Va + Vb + Vc = 0,
ϕa + ϕb + ϕc = 0,
For all fluxes there is a return path.

However under unbalanced condition,
Ia + Ib + Ic = I0 ,
Va + Vb + Vc = V0 ,
ϕa + ϕb + ϕc = ϕ0 ,
Hence,
• ϕ0 doesn’t get a return path and must find a return path outside the three limbs
resulting in leakage flux.
• Induced eddy current will increase causing over heating.
• Zero sequence inductance is low causing a large zero sequence current.
• Potential of the neutral point will oscillate.
Remedy
1. Five limb core. Extra two limbs provide a return path for the ϕ0 .
2. Delta connected winding.
3. Tertiary winding.
2.13 Harmonics
2.13.1 Harmonics fundamentals
Distortions in the sinusoidal voltage or current waveforms are termed as harmonics.

The origin of the word harmonics came from the Fourier series method of analysing
non-sinusoidal waveforms. Fourier series provided a method to represent any
periodic non-sinusoidal waveform in terms of a dc component and sum of sine and

cosine waveforms. Let the periodic non-sinusoidal waveform is v(t). Then according
to Fourier series it can be represented as,
∞ ∞
v(ωt) = v0 + ∑ am cos(mωt) + ∑ bm sin(mωt) (2.35)
m =1 m =1
where
Z 2π
1
v0 = v(ωt)d(ωt)
2π 0
Z 2π
1
am = v(ωt)cos(ωt)d(ωt)
π 0
Z 2π
1
bm = v(ωt)sin(ωt)d(ωt).
π 0
Now equation(2.35) can also be written as,
∞
v(ωt) = v0 + ∑ [ am cos(mωt) + bm sin(mωt)] (2.36)
m =1
∞
" #
am bm
q
= v0 + ∑ a2m + bm
2 p
a2m + bm
2
cos(mωt) + p
a2m + bm
2
sin(mωt)
m =1
Lets take

am bm −1 am
sin(ϕm ) = p ⇒ cos(ϕm ) = p and ϕm = tan .
a2m + bm
2 a2m + bm
2 bm
Lets take also
q
v p,m = a2m + bm
2.
Equation (2.36) can be written as,
∞
v(ωt) = v0 + ∑ v p,m [sin(ϕm )cos(mωt) + cos(ϕm )sin(mωt)]
m =1

∞
v(ωt) = v0 + ∑ v p,m sin(mωt + ϕm ) (2.37)
m =1
v(ωt) = v0 + v p,1 sin(ωt + ϕ1 ) + v p,2 sin(2ωt + ϕ2 ) + v p,3 sin(3ωt + ϕ3 ) + ... upto ∞
Now v p,1 is called the magnitude (or the peak value) of fundamental component, v p,2
is called the magnitude of second harmonic component, v p,3 is called the magnitude of
third harmonic component, and so on.
If V1 ,V2 ,...,Vm are the RMS values of fundamental, second harmonics, ..., mth harmonics,
v p,1 v p,2 v p,m
i.e. V1 = √ ,V2 = √ , Vm = √ , then equation (2.37) can be written as,
2 2 2
∞ √
v(ωt) = v0 + ∑ 2Vm sin(mωt + ϕm ) (2.38)
m =1
Generally, in steady state, power system voltage and current waveforms are
symmetrical and having no DC components. Hence in steady state analysis we
neglect v0 and hence equation (2.38) is represented as,
√ ∞
v(ωt) = 2 ∑ Vm sin(mωt + ϕm ) (2.39)
m =1
2.13.2 Main sources of harmonics in power system
1. Non-linear magnetic elements, such as saturated transformer cores.
2. Non-sinusoidal airgap flux distribution in rotating AC machines.
3. Switched circuit elements, such as rectifiers, triacs, and other power-electronic

converters.
2.13.3 Main undesirable effects of harmonics in power system
1. Additional heating of cables, transformers, motors etc. due to increase in both

copper and iron losses.
2. Insulation stress on equipments because of increase in crest factor.

3. Interference to communication circuits.
4. Electrical resonance, resulting in potentially dangerous voltages and currents.
5. Relays whose operation is governed by voltage/current peak are affected by

harmonics.
6. Metering devices exhibit erroneous behaviour.
7. Shifting of zero crossings affect control circuits.
8. Maloperation of sensitive electronic instruments including computer systems.
2.13.4 Harmonic power
Let voltage harmonics are represented as,
√ ∞
v(ωt) = 2 ∑ Vm sin(mωt)
m =1
and current harmonics are represented as,
√ ∞
i (ωt) = 2 ∑ In sin(nωt + ϕn )
n =1
Average power:
Z 2π
1
Pavg = p(ωt)d(ωt)
2π 0
Z 2π √ ∞ √ ∞
1
=
2π 0
2 ∑ Vm sin(mωt) 2 ∑ In sin(nωt + ϕn )d(ωt)
m =1 n =1
Z 2π ∞
1
=
2π 0
∑ 2Vm sin(mωt) In sin(nωt + ϕn )d(ωt)
m=1,n=1
Z 2π ∞
1
=
2π 0
∑ Vm In {cos [(m + n)ωt + ϕn ] + cos [(m − n)ωt − ϕn ]}d(ωt) (2.40)
m=1,n=1

R 2π
When p ̸= 0 0 cos( pθ + ϕ)dθ = 0 Hence
Z 2π
1
Vm In cos [(m + n)ωt + ϕn ] d(ωt) = 0 always
2π 0
Z 2π
1
Vm In cos [(m − n)ωt − ϕn ] d(ωt) = 0 only when m ̸= n
2π 0
For m = n
Z 2π
1 1
Vm In cos [(m − n)ωt − ϕn ] d(ωt) = Vm Im cos(−ϕn )(2π ) = Vm Im cos(ϕm )
2π 0 2π
Hence equation (2.40) becomes,
∞
1
Pavg =
2π ∑ Vm Im cos(ϕm ) (2.41)
m =1
2.13.5 RMS values in presence of harmonics

s
∞
s
1 T 2
Z
Irms =
T 0
i (t)dt = ∑ 2
Im (2.42)
m =0
s
∞
s
1 T 2
Z
Vrms =
T 0
v (t)dt = ∑ Vm2 (2.43)
m =0
2.13.6 Phase sequence of harmonics in balanced three-phase systems
Let us take a balanced three-phase voltages under harmonics:
v an = V1 cos(ωt) + V2 cos(2ωt) + V3 cos(3ωt) + V4 cos(4ωt) + V5 cos(5ωt) + V6 cos(6ωt) + ...
2π 2π 2π 2π
vbn = V1 cos(ωt − ) + V2 cos2(ωt − ) + V3 cos3(ωt − ) + V4 cos4(ωt − )
3 3 3 3
2π 2π
+ V5 cos5(ωt − ) + V6 cos6(ωt − ) + ...
3 3
2π 2π 2π 2π
vcn = V1 cos(ωt + ) + V2 cos2(ωt + ) + V3 cos3(ωt + ) + V4 cos4(ωt + )
3 3 3 3
2π 2π
+ V5 cos5(ωt + ) + V6 cos6(ωt + ) + ...
3 3

Now harmonic terms in vbn and vcn can be further simplified, for example

2π 4π 2π
V2 cos2(ωt − ) = V2 cos(2ωt − ) = V2 cos (2ωt + ) − 2π
3 3 3

2π 2π
= V2 cos 2π − (2ωt + ) = V2 cos(2ωt + )
3 3
2π
V3 cos3(ωt + ) = V3 cos(3ωt + 2π ) = V3 cos(3ωt)
3
In the similar fashion if we reduce all terms in vbn and vcn , we get
v an = V1 cos(ωt) + V2 cos(2ωt) + V3 cos(3ωt) + V4 cos(4ωt) + V5 cos(5ωt) + V6 cos(6ωt) + ...
2π 2π 2π
vbn = V1 cos(ωt − ) + V2 cos(2ωt + ) + V3 cos(3ωt) + V4 cos(4ωt − )
3 3 3
2π
+ V5 cos(5ωt + ) + V6 cos(6ωt) + ...
3
2π 2π 2π
vcn = V1 cos(ωt + ) + V2 cos(2ωt − ) + V3 cos(3ωt) + V4 cos(4ωt + )
3 3 3
2π
+ V5 cos(5ωt − ) + V6 cos(6ωt) + ...
3
Clearly, three fundamentals are in positive sequence, three second harmonic

components are in negative sequence, three third harmonic components are in zero
sequence, and so on.
TABLE 2.1: Sequence components of harmonics
Harmonic order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...

Phase sequence + - 0 + - 0 + - 0 + ...
2.14 Review of per-unit system
Per-unit quantities are quantities that have been normalized to a base quantity.
Conventionally, [ MVA]b and [kV ]b are taken as the primary base quantities and other

base quantities such as [ I ]b , [ Z ]b are derived from them. For example:
[kV ]2b
[ Z ]b = (2.44)
[ MVA]b
Base change formula
[kV ]2b,old [ MVA]b,new

[ Z ]b,new = [ Z ]b,old × (2.45)
[kV ]2b,new [ MVA]b,old
2.14.1 Advantages of per unit system
• Voltage, current, and impedance expressed in pu do not change when they are
referred from one side of the transformer to the other side.
• In simplified single line network diagrams, transformers can be replaced by their

equivalent pu series impedances for easy calculation.
• As the pu values lie within narrow range, they are suitable for digital calculation.

Chapter 3
Transmission system compensation
3.1 Review of voltage and current equations of a long,

lossless transmission line
I(x)
Is Ir
Es V(x) Vr
x
a
F IGURE 3.1: Transmission line model with distributed series inductance

and shunt capacitance
Lossless transmission line: Series resistances and shunt conductances are neglected.
Voltage and current equations of of a long, lossless transmission line are given by:
V ( x ) = Vr cosβ( a − x ) + jZ0 Ir sinβ( a − x ) (3.1)
Vr
I (x) = j sinβ( a − x ) + Ir cosβ( a − x ) (3.2)
Z0
where, Vr and Ir are receiving end voltage and current respectively.

x= distance from sending end along the line.
l and c are series inductance and shunt capacitance per km respectively.
s
√ XL
β = ω lc = : phase constant or wave number (in rad/km).
XC
57
Chapter 3. Transmission system compensation Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
1
u = √ : propagation velocity (in km/s).
lc
u
λ= : wavelength (in km).
f
θ = βa : electrical length of the transmission line (in radian).
3.1.1 Surge impedance
Surge impedance (Z0 ) is the driving-point impedance of a infinitely long transmission

line or a line which is terminated by a load of Z0 .// So when the line is loaded with
Z0 , voltage at each point on the transmission line is a constant i.e. the voltage profile is
flat.
Surge impedance loading or SIL (P0 ) refers to the power transferred for a load equals
to surge impedance.
2
Vr,L −L
P0 = (3.3)
Z0
Fig. 3.3 Voltage profiles along a long, lossless symmetrical transmission line.
F IGURE 3.2: Voltage profiles along the long lossless transmission line for
important with very long lines when there are no intermediate substations at which
different cases of power with respect to the surge impedance loading
the voltage level can be controlled. Evidently it is desirable to operate such lines as
close as possible to the SIL, to maintain a flat voltage profile. Shorter lines (typically
those less than 50±100 km) do not have such a problem with the variation of the
voltage profile with load, and the power transmission through them is more likely to
3.2 The uncompensated line on open-circuit
be limited by other factors, such as the fault level or the current-carrying capacity of
the conductors (which is thermally limited).
3.2.3 The
For open-circuit uncompensated
(without load) Ir = 0. line on open-circuit
So equation 3.1 and 3.2 will become:
A lossless line that is energized by generators at the sending end and is open-circuited
at the receiving end is described by equation (3.2) with Ir 0, so that
V ( x ) = Vr cosβ( a − x ) (3.4)
V(x) Vr cos b(a x) (3:6)
and

Vr
I(x) j sin b(a x) (3:7)
Z0
The voltage and current at the sending end are given by these equations with x 0.
Es Vr cos y (3:8)
Vr
I (x) = j sinβ( a − x ) (3.5)
Z0
When x = 0, V ( x ) = Es . So putting x = 0, equation 3.4 and 3.5 will become:
Es
Es = Vr cosβa = Vr cosθ ⇒ Vr = (3.6)
cosθ
Vr
Is = j sinθ (3.7)
Z0
Replacing the value of Vr from equation 3.6 into 3.4 and 3.5, we have,
Es cosβ( a − x )
V (x) = (3.8)
cosθ
Es sinβ( a − x )
I (x) = j (3.9)
Z0 cosθ
To realize the voltage and current profiles, let’s take the example of an unloaded 300
km transmission line. Let’s β = 6o per 100km. Now a = 300 km, θ = βa = 18o . As line
is not loaded, I ( a) = Ir = 0.
From equation 3.8,
Es Es
V ( a) = Vr = = = 1.05Es = 1.05 pu.
cosθ cos18o
88 Transmission system compensation
From equation 3.9,
Es sinβa Es sinθ Es Es Es
Is = I (0) = j =j = j tanθ = j tan18o = j0.325 = 0.325 pu.
Z0 cosθ Z0 cosθ Z0 Z0 Z0
Fig. 3.4 Phasor diagram of uncompensated line on open-circuit.
Fig. 3.5 Voltage and current profiles for a 300-km line at no load (open-circuit).
F IGURE 3.3: Voltage and current profiles for a transmission line at no load
The general forms of these profiles are shown in Figure 3.5. For a line 300 km in
5
7th Semester (EEE), length at 50 Hz, b 360 f /3 10 6 per 100 km, so y 6 3 18 . Then
Section: A
Vr Es / cos y 1:05Es and Is (Es /Z0 ) tan y 0:329 p:u: based on the SIL. The
59
voltage rise on open-circuit is called the Ferranti effect.
Although the voltage rise of 5% seems small, the `charging' current is appreciable
and in such a line it must all be supplied by the generator, which is forced to run at
leading power factor, for which it must be underexcited.1 Note that a line for which
y ba p/2 has a length of l/4 (one quarter-wavelength, i.e. 1500 km at 50 Hz),
3.3 The uncompensated lines under load
IS Ir
ES Vr P
+
jQ
F IGURE 3.4: Radial uncompensated line with load
V ( x ) = Vr cosβ( a − x ) + jZ0 Ir sinβ( a − x )
When x = 0
ES = Vr cosβa + jZ0 Ir sinβa
ES = Vr cosθ + jZ0 Ir sinθ (3.10)
Receiving end complex power:
Vr Ir∗ = P + jQ
⇒ Vr∗ Ir = P − jQ
P − jQ
⇒ Ir =
Vr∗
So equation (3.10) becomes
P − jQ
ES = Vr cosθ + jZ0 sinθ (3.11)
Vr∗
If ES is fixed, Q is fixed, for any value of P equation (3.11) will give two solutions to Vr .

F IGURE 3.5: Receiving end voltage as a function of active power
3.4 Numericals
Q. A transmission cable has a sending-end voltage ES = 345 kV line-line. Losses may

be neglected. The cable has an inductive reactance per unit length of 0.60Ω/km and a
capacitive admittance of 50.0µS/km at 50 Hz, and its length is a = 54.8 km. Assuming
that the receiving-end is open-circuited, calculate
(i) the surge impedance Z0 ;
(ii) the electrical length of the line in degrees;
(iii) the receiving-end voltage expressed in per-unit with ES as reference;
(iv) the sending-end current;
(v) the reactive power at the sending end, in MVAr;
(vi) the reactive power at the sending end, expressed as a fraction of the
surge-impedance loading.
Ans:
(i) s r
p XL 0.6
Z0 = X L XC = = = 109.5445Ω
YC 50 × 10−6

(ii) s
XL p
= X L YC = 0.6 × 50 × 10−6 = 5.477 × 10−3 radian
p
β=
XC
180
θ = βa = 5.477 × 10−3 × 54.8 = 0.3 radian = 0.3 × = 17.189o
π
(iii)
ES cosβ( a − x )
V (x) =
cosθ
For x = a
Es Es
V ( a) = = = 1.0468ES = 1.0468 p.u.
cosθ cos17.189o
(iv)
ES sinβ( a − x )
I (x) = ×
Z0 cosθ
√
ES sinβa ES sinθ ES (345 × 103 )/ 3
I (0) = × = × = tanθ = tan(17.189o ) = 562.478A
Z0 cosθ Z0 cosθ Z0 109.5445
(v) Reactive power at sending end
√ √
QS = 3VS IS = 3345 × 103 × 0.562478 × 103 = 336.113 MVAr
(vi) Surge impedance loading
Vr2( L− L) (1.0468 × 345 × 103 )2

P0 = = = 1190.625 MVA
Z0 109.5445
QS
= 0.2823 pu
P0
Q. A transmission cable has a receiving-end voltage Vr = 345 kV line-line. The cable

has an inductive reactance per unit length of 0.60Ω/km and a capacitive admittance of
50.0µS/km at 50 Hz. The cable length is a = 14.8 km. Calculate
(i) The sending end voltage when load is 900 MVA with a lagging power factor of
0.88.
(ii) The transmission angle δ.

(iii) The sending end current.
(iv) The active and reactive power at the sending end.
(v) Draw phasor diagram showing phase voltage and current of both ends.
Ans:
s r
p XL0.6
Z0 = X L XC = = = 109.5445Ω
50 × 10−6
YC
s
XL p
= X L YC = 0.6 × 50 × 10−6 = 5.477 × 10−3 radian
p
β=
XC
180
θ = βa = 5.477 × 10−3 × 14.8 = 0.0810596 radian = 0.0810596 × = 4.64437o
π
Let’s take per phase receiving end voltage Vr as the reference. Vr = ( 345
√ ) × 103 ̸ 0o V
3
As total power is 900 MVA. Per phase power is 300 MVA.
Also, power factor cosϕ = 0.88.
Per phase active power P = 300 × 106 × cosϕ W and
per phase reactive power is Q = 300 × 106 × sin(ϕ) VAr.
P − jQ 300 × 106 × 0.88 − j300 × 106 × sin(cos−1 0.88)

Ir = =
Vr∗ ( 345
√ ) × 103
3
= 1325.395 − j715.372 = 1506.13̸ − 28.357o A
(i)
ES = Vr cosθ + jZ0 Ir sinθ per phase
345
ES = ( √ ) × 103 cos(4.64437o ) + j109.5445(1325.395 − j715.372)sin(4.64437o ) per phase
3
= (204.8786 + j11.756) × 103 volt per phase
= 205.213 × 103 ̸ 3.284o volt per phase (3.12)
√
Sending end voltage (Line-Line)=205.213 × 103 3 = 355.44 kV.
(ii) From equation (3.12), the transmission angle δ = 3.284o .

(iii)
Vr
IS = j sinθ + Ir cosθ
Z0
( 345
√ ) × 103
3
=j sin(4.64437o ) + (1325.395 − j715.372)cos(4.64437o ) A
109.5445
= j144 + 1321.04 − j713.023 A
= 1321.04 − j569.023 = 1438.38̸ − 23.303o A
(iv)
h i
PS + jQS = 3ES IS∗ = 3 (204.8768 + j11.756) × 10 3
× [1321.04 + j569.023] VA
= 792 × 106 + 395 × 106 VA
⇒ PS = 792 MW and QS = 395 MVAr.
(v) Phasor diagram:
ES
3.284o
Vr
o
-23.303
-28.357o
IS
Ir
F IGURE 3.6: Phasor diagram showing ES , Vr , IS , and Ir .

Chapter 4
Flexible AC Transmission Systems
4.1 Controllable parameters
jX
I I
E1
Ip1 jXI=E1-E2
E2 I
E1
E2
Iq1
F IGURE 4.1: Symmetrical system.

jX
I I
E1
Ip1 jXI=E1-E2
E2 I
E1
E2
Iq1
F IGURE 4.2: Phasor diagram of symmetrical system.
Let’s take the symmetrical system shown in Fig 4.1. The phasor diagram is shown in
Fig 4.2. We know that the sending end active and reactive powers are given as,
Er Es Es2 Er Es
P= sin(δ) and Q= − cos(δ) (4.1)
Xs Xs Xs
65
Chapter 4. Flexible AC Transmission Systems Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
The current can be resolved in to two mutually perpendicular directions, I p1 in the

direction of E1 and Iq1 in the direction perpendicular to E1 . Now the sending end
active and reactive powers can also be given as,
P = E1 × I p1 and Q = E1 × Iq1 (4.2)
From the figure it can been seen that:
1. Active power mainly depends upon current I or E1 − E2 .
2. Reactive power mainly depends upon the orientation of E1 − E2 or the angle of I.
4.1.1 Parameters
From the Figure 4.3 we can draw following conclusions:
1. In Figure 4.3(a), we can see that increase and decrease of the value of X will
increase and decrease the height of the P − δ curves, respectively and hence the
active power can be controlled by controlling X.
2. Power/current flow can also be controlled by regulating the magnitude of

voltage. However, it is seen from Figure 4.3(b) that with change in the
magnitude of E1 , the magnitude of the driving voltage phasor E1 − E2 does not
change by much, but its phase angle does. This also means that regulation of the
magnitude of voltage phasor E1 and/or E2 has much more influence over the
reactive power flow than the active power flow.
3. Current flow and hence power flow can also be changed by injecting voltage in
series with the line. It is seen from Figure 4.3(c) that when the injected voltage
in phase quadrature with the current (which is approximately in phase with the
driving voltage), directly influences the magnitude of the current flow, and hence
the active power flow.
4. Alternatively, the voltage injected in series can be of variable magnitude and

phase [Figure 4.3(d)]. It is seen that varying the amplitude and phase angle of
the voltage injected in series, both the active and reactive power can be
influenced.
(E1 - E2cos 6)
r
,f1
I
&_cos 6
",,. -1:1 sin 6
X E2sin 6 �(E2 - E
�lq, = (E1 - E2COS 6)I......._
(b)4. Flexible AC Transmission Systems
Chapter E1 cost,
Dr. D. A. Gadanayak
lq 2 = (E2- E1 cos 6 )IX
r
E2cos 6) (b)
(c)
f1
-1:1 sin 6 �lq, = (E1 - E2COS 6)I X I

E1 cost,
�(E2 - E1 cos 6)
E2cos 6)
......._ E2sin 6 lq 2 = (E2- E1 cos 6 )IX
,f1
-1:1 sin 6 (c)
......._ E2sin 6
�(E2 - E1 cos 6)
t, °
90" 180
�(E2 - E1 cos 6) Angle 6
t, (d) (A) °
(e)
90"Power 180 (B) Changing
angle Angle
curves6 for voltage E1 .
different values of (e)
(d) X.
- Injected voltage Injected voltage
Injected voltage
- Injected voltage
(f)
(f) (C) Injecting (g) (D) Injecting

tage voltage (g) voltage with
perpendicular to Figure 1.3 Ac power flow control of a transmission line: (
variable
oltage the line current. system; (b) current flow perpendicular to the dr
magnitude
Figureand 1.3
and Ac power
reactive
phase. powerflow
flowcontrol of a trans
phasor diagram; (d) p
system; (b) current flow perpendic
different values of X; ( e) regulating voltage ma
reactive power; (f) injecting voltage perpendic
F IGURE 4.3: Controllable parameters. and reactive power flow phasor
mostly changes active power; (f) injecting volta
different
the line. values
(Note that of X;
for clarity the(phasors
e) regulatin
are id
tudesreactive power; (f) injecting volta
in this figure.)
4.2 Relative importance of controllable parameters
mostly changes active power; (f) i
the line. (Note that for clarity the
tudes in
• Control of the line impedance X ( e.g., with a thyristor-controlled this capacitor)
series figure.)
ol of a transmission line: (a) simple two-machine
trol perpendicular
ow to the
line:driving voltage;
can provide a(c)powerful
active means of current control.
of a transmission (a) simple two-machine
flow phasor diagram;
flow perpendicular (d)driving
to the powervoltage;
angle curves for
(c) active
; flow
(e) regulating voltage
phasor diagram; (d) magnitude mostly
power angle
• When changes
curves is
the angle fornot large, which is often the case, control of X or the angle
njecting
X; voltage voltage
(e) regulating perpendicular
magnitude to the linechanges
mostly current
einjecting
power; (f) injecting
voltage voltage
perpendicular phasor
to theinline
substantially series with the control of active power.
current
provides
for
ve clarity
power;the(f) phasors
injectingare identified
voltage phasorbyintheir
seriesmagni
with
for clarity the phasors are identified by their magni
) • Control of angle (with a Phase Angle Regulator, for example), which in turn
controls the driving voltage, provides a powerful means of controlling the
current flow and hence active power flow when the angle is not large.

• Injecting a voltage in series with the line, and perpendicular to the current flow,
can increase or decrease the magnitude of current flow. Since the current flow
lags the driving voltage by 90 degrees, this means injection of reactive power in
series, (e.g., with static synchronous series compensation) can provide a powerful
means of controlling the line current, and hence the active power when the angle
is not large.
• Injecting voltage in series with the line and with any phase angle with respect to
the driving voltage can control the magnitude and the phase of the line current.
This means that injecting a voltage phasor with variable phase angle can provide
a powerful means of precisely controlling the active and reactive power flow.
• When the angle is not large, controlling the magnitude of one or the other line
voltages (e.g., with a thyristor-controlled voltage regulator) can be a very
cost-effective means for the control of reactive power flow through the
interconnection.
• Combination of the line impedance control with a series Controller and voltage
regulation with a shunt Controller can also provide a cost-effective means to
control both the active and reactive power flow between the two systems.
4.3 Basic types of FACTS controllers
FACTS definition:
A power electronic based system and other static equipment that provides control of
one or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance controllability and
increase power transfer capability.
In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories:
1. Series Controllers: The series Controller could be a variable impedance, such

as capacitor, reactor, etc., or a power electronics based variable source of main
frequency, subsynchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a combination) to serve
the desired need. In principle, all series Controllers inject voltage in series with
the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the

c Types of FACTS Controllers 15
Section 1.6 • Basic Types of FACTS Controllers

• Basic Types of FACTS Controllers
Section 1.6 • Basic Types of FACTS Controllers 15
(b)
(a) (b)
(a)
(b) (A) (b)Series
(c) (B) Shunt
controllers. controllers. (c)
-e -
(c)
-e -
-e -
(c)
-e -
(e)
(d) (C) Combined (e) (D) Combined
(d) series-series
(e) series-shunt
- e- - e-
controllers. controllers.
F IGURE 4.4: Basic types of FACTS controllers.

- e-
(e) variable reactive power. Any other
series Controller only supplies or consumes
(f) phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.
(f)
-e2.-Shunt Controllers: As in the case of series Controllers, the shunt Controllers may
(g)
be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle,
(g)
all shunt Controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. As
long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt
Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase
(h) (g)power as well.
relationship will involve handling of real
Storage
(h) (i)
3. Combined series-series Controllers: This could0)be a combination of separate
Storage
seriesFigure 1.4 Basicwhich
controllers, types of are
FACfS Controllers:
controlled
(i)
in (a)
a general symbol for
coordinated FACTS in
manner, Con
a multiline
troller; (b) series Controller; (c) shunt Controller; (d) unified
0) series
series Controller;
transmission system. (e) coordinated
Or it could be a unified and (g)
series Controller.
shunt Controller;
The real(f) unified
power transfer
series-shunt Controller; (g) unified Controller for multiple lines; (h)
capability ofFigure
series
the 1.4 Basic
Controller
unified types of FACfS Controllers:
with storage;Controller,
series-series (i) shunt Controller
(a)with
referred general symbol
to storage; (j)
as Interline for FACTS Con
Power
troller; (b) series Controller;
unified series-shunt Controller with storage. (c) shunt Controller; ( d) unified series
Flow Controller, makes series Controller;
it possible (e) coordinated
to balance both the series
realand shunt
and Controller;
reactive power (f) unified
series-shunt Controller; (g) unified Controller for multiple lines; (h)
flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system.
series Controller with storage; (i) shunt Controller with storage; (j)
Storage
frequency cycles) storage needs. In addition, another storage
unified series-shunt Controller with storage. source such as a battery,
superconducting magnet, or any other source of energy can be added in parallel
(i)
7th Semester
through an (EEE), Section:
electronic A
interface ) converter's de storage. Any of the
to replenish0the 69
converter-based, series, shunt, or combined shunt-series Controllers can generally
gure 1.4 Basic accommodate
types frequency
of FACfSstorage,
cycles)such as capacitors,
storage
Controllers: needs.
(a) batteries,
In
general andfor
addition,
symbol superconducting
another
FACTS Conmagnets,
storage source such as a b
which bring an added dimension to FACTS technology (Figures Storage
l.4(h), 1 .4(i), and
4. Combined series-shunt Controllers: This could be a combination of separate

shunt and series Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or
a Unified Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements. In principle,
combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the
shunt part of the Controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part
of the Controller. However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified,
there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via
the power link.
4.4 Possible benefits from FACTS technology
• Control of power flow as ordered. The use of control of the power flow may be
to follow a contract, meet the utilities’ own needs, ensure optimum power flow,
ride through emergency conditions, or a combination thereof.
• Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including

short term and seasonal. This can be accomplished by overcoming other
limitations, and sharing of power among lines according to their capability.
• Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limit, limiting
short-circuit currents and overloads, managing cascading blackouts and
damping electromechanical oscillations of power systems and machines.
• Provide secure tie line connections to neighbouring utilities and regions thereby
decreasing overall generation reserve requirements on both sides.
• Provide greater flexibility in siting new generation.
• Upgrade of lines.
• Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power.
• Reduce loop flows.
• Increase utilization of lowest cost generation.

PLEASE FOLLOW THE CLASS

NOTES FOR THE REST PART OF THE
SYLLABUS

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Electronic Control in Electrical Systems

Institute of Technical Education & Research

Table of contents iii

1 Electrical Power Systems - An Overview 8

2 Power System Engineering - Fundamental Concepts 25

3 Transmission system compensation 57

4 Flexible AC Transmission Systems 65

Chapter-1: Electrical Power Systems-an Overview

(Reference: "Power Electronics Control in Electrical Systems" by E Acha, V G Agelidis, O

2. General composition of the power network.

3. An overview of the dynamaic response of electrical power networks.

(a) Transient stability.

4. Snapshot-like power network studies.

(a) Power flow studies.

(b) Optimal power flow studies.

(c) Fault studies.

(d) Random nature of system load.

(e) Nonlinear load.

5. The role of computers in the monitoring, control and planning of power

(a) Energy control centres.

Chapter-2: Power Systems Engineering - Fundamental

(Reference: "Power Electronics Control in Electrical Systems" by E Acha, V G Agelidis, O

1. Reactive power control.

2. Basic source/load relationships.

(a) Fault level and circuit-breaker ratings.

(b) Thevenin equivalent circuit model of a power system.

(c) Phasor diagram for resistive, inductive and capacitive loads.

3. The symmetrical system.

(a) Complex power, apparent power, real and reactive power.

4. Leading and lagging loads.

5. Power factor correction.

6. Compensation and voltage control.

(a) System load line.

7. Control of power and frequency.

9. Three phase systems.

(a) Development of three phase systems.

(b) The wye-delta transformation.

(c) Balanced and unbalanced load.

10. Power flow and measurement.

(a) Single phase.

(b) Two phase.

(c) Three phase.

(d) Power measurement: Three wattmeter connection and two wattmeter

(a) Basic principle.

(c) Parallel operation.

(d) Zero-sequence effect in three-phase transformer.

(a) Basic concept.

(b) Harmonic power.

(c) RMS values in presence of harmonics.

(d) Phase sequence of harmonics in balanced 3-phase system.

(e) Harmonics in balanced networks.

(f) Basic idea about AC line harmonics in three phase rectifiers.

13. Per unit quantities.

(a) Standard formulas.

(b) Changing base.

(c) Transformer in per-unit system.

14. Problem solving (Thevenin equivalent circuit).

15. Problem solving (Three phase systems).

Chapter-3: Transmission System Compensation

(Reference: "Power Electronics Control in Electrical Systems" by E Acha, V G Agelidis, O

1. Voltage and current equations of long lossless transmission line.

2. Surge impedance and natural loading of a transmission line.

3. The uncompensated line on open circuit.