OPTIMUM PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS IN POULTRY:

RECENT ADVANCES AND PERSPECTIVES

Tricia Anne M. Ilaw

Cavite State University - Indang

 Abstract

This article review explores recent advancements and perspectives on optimum protein

requirements in poultry nutrition. The determination of nutrient needs in poultry is influenced

by various factors, including genetics, environmental conditions, and advancements in

biotechnology. The ideal protein concept, utilizing lysine as a reference amino acid, has

facilitated the calculation of essential amino acid requirements. Biotechnological applications,

such as feed additives, enzymes, and phase feeding, have significantly contributed to

enhancing nutrient utilization and productivity. The article emphasizes the evolving role of

feed enzymes, anticipating the development of enzyme cocktails to optimize nutrient release.

Additionally, the availability of crystalline amino acids has revolutionized feed formulations,

allowing for precise amino acid profiles and improved efficiency in modern poultry strains.

The review anticipates future challenges related to societal concerns and emphasizes the

ongoing progress in enzyme technology and the positive outlook for crystalline amino acids in

poultry nutrition.

Introduction

The research delves into the challenges of determining nutrient requirements in

poultry, considering factors like genetics, environmental conditions, and advancements in bird

strains. The historical reliance on 1994 National Research Council (NRC) recommendations

is contrasted with the contemporary shift towards commercial breeding company

suggestions. The study highlights the significance of essential amino acids and energy in

poultry nutrition, with a focus on the ideal protein concept using lysine as the reference amino

acid. Additionally, the paper discusses the influence of biotechnological applications, the

emergence of phase feeding, and the role of feed enzymes and crystalline amino acids in

optimizing nutrient utilization.

Published literature provides insights into the challenges of defining nutrient requirements in

poultry, considering genetic, environmental, and industry-specific factors. Notable references

include Baker (1996) for recommended digestible lysine requirements in meat chickens,
Bedford and Shultz (1998) for the introduction of exogenous feed enzymes, and Selle and

Ravindran (2007) for the rising use of microbial phytase. The literature also explores the

applications of biotechnology in poultry feeding, including the use of feed additives, feed

enzymes, and gut ecosystem enhancers.

Existing problems in poultry nutrition include the removal of in-feed antibiotics, driven by

concerns about antibiotic resistance, posing a challenge for maintaining performance

efficiency. The gaps in knowledge regarding metabolizable energy and digestible amino acid

requirements for different poultry classes, as well as the lack of rapid tests for estimating

these requirements, are identified. The need for continuous updates on ingredient variation

and comprehensive data on digestible amino acids is also recognized in the context of phase

feeding.

The challenges and gaps identified in poultry nutrition are relevant in the specific context of

the study's location or place of research. The advancements in biotechnology, concerns

about antibiotic resistance, and the need for precise nutrient management align with the

evolving landscape of poultry production in the given area.

The significance of the study lies in its potential to contribute to the refinement of poultry

nutrition practices, addressing challenges such as the removal of in-feed antibiotics,

optimizing phase feeding strategies, and leveraging biotechnological advancements. The

study aims to provide valuable insights for poultry nutritionists, researchers, and industry

professionals, ultimately benefiting the efficiency and sustainability of poultry production.

This research aims to investigate the multifaceted impact of recent biotechnological

advancements, including feed additives, enzymes, and gut ecosystem enhancers, on poultry

nutrition. Additionally, the study endeavors to evaluate challenges and opportunities

associated with phase feeding in poultry production, considering factors such as ingredient

variation, digestible amino acids, and metabolic differences among poultry classes. The
research also seeks to assess the current and potential future role of feed enzymes,

particularly enzyme cocktails, in optimizing nutrient release and utilization in poultry diets.

Furthermore, the study aims to examine the significance of crystalline amino acids in meeting

the ideal amino acid profile, enhancing the performance of modern high-producing poultry

strains, and addressing concerns related to protein efficiency and environmental impact.

Overall, this research aims to contribute valuable insights for refining poultry nutrition

practices, with a focus on optimizing protein for sustainability, efficiency, and the well-being of

poultry.

Defining Nutrient Requirements

The determination of nutrient requirements in poultry faces significant challenges due

to the influence of various factors and constant fluctuations. Two primary factors affecting

nutrient needs are bird-related (genetics, sex, type, and stage of production) and external

factors (thermal environment, stress, husbandry conditions). Achieving precision in defining

these requirements requires accuracy at both levels. The availability of nutrient requirement

information for different poultry classes has improved, largely attributed to the growing

uniformity in genotypes, housing, and husbandry practices within the poultry industry.

Historically, the poultry industry has relied on the nutrient recommendations outlined

in the 1994 publication by the National Research Council (NRC). However, given the

substantial genetic advancements in broilers and layers since then, the industry now leans

towards recommendations from commercial breeding companies, which align more closely

with the requirements of modern bird strains. Among dietary components, essential amino

acids and energy stand out as the most expensive and critical. Determining the requirements

for these amino acids, especially the ten essential ones, is challenging. The ideal protein

concept, which utilizes lysine as the reference amino acid and sets the requirements for other

essential amino acids as a percentage or ratio of lysine, has facilitated this process. This

approach allows for the calculation of all other essential amino acid needs once lysine
requirements are determined. The ideal protein concept has gained widespread acceptance

in the industry for setting amino acid specifications in feed formulations

Amino Acid 1 to 21 days 22 to 42 days 43 to 56 days

Lysine1 100 100 100

Arginine 105 108 108

Histidine 35 35 35

Isoleucine 67 69 69

Methionine + 72 72 72

cysteine

Phenylalanine + 105 105 105

tyrosine

Threonine 67 68.5 68.5

Tryptophan 16 17 17

Valine 77 80 80

1
Recommended digestible lysine requirements for meat chickens during 1 to 21 days, 22 to

42 days and 43 to 56 days (Baker, 1996)

Table 1. Ideal amino acid ratios of meat chickens at three growth periods

Products of Biotechnology in Poultry Feeding

Over the past two decades, advancements in biotechnology have presented new

prospects for enhancing the productivity and efficiency of animals through improved nutrition.

Various applications within animal nutrition have been implemented (see Table 2), while

others, despite known potential, are yet to be commercially applied due to technical

constraints and public concerns (see Table 3). The remarkable acceptance and growth of
feed additives in poultry production, especially in-feed antibiotics, have significantly

contributed to the industry's current performance efficiency. However, the recent removal of

in-feed antibiotics, driven by concerns about antibiotic resistance in humans, poses a

significant challenge. Although alternative solutions are under investigation, widespread

acceptance in the commercial industry remains a hurdle.

Another notable addition to the animal feed market is exogenous feed enzymes,

evolving from an initially vague concept to a widely accepted tool for enhancing nutrient

utilization (Bedford and Shultz, 1998). The introduction of glycanases, such as xylanases and

glucanases, in the 1990s effectively addressed the anti-nutritive effects of non-starch

polysaccharides (NSP), facilitating increased use of viscous grains in poultry diets (Choct,

2006). The last decade has witnessed a rising use of microbial phytase in poultry diets,

driven by concerns regarding phosphorus pollution from intensive animal operations (Selle

and Ravindran, 2007). Recently, carbohydrase enzymes like xylanases, amylases, and

glucanases, alongside other exogenous enzymes including proteases, are gaining

commercial significance. Combinations of these enzymes have demonstrated effectiveness

even in maize-based diets with low NSP levels (Cowieson, 2010). Another noteworthy

development is the availability of crystalline amino acids, enabling nutritionists to precisely

meet the ideal amino acid profile and enhance the performance and yield of modern

high-producing birds.

Application Aim(s) of developing the technology

1. New ingredients Production of microbial proteins as new feed

sources in animal feeding (e.g. single cell

protein, yeast protein).

2. .Designer ingredients Nutritional enhancement (e.g. high-oil

 maize, high-methionine lupins) or reduction

in the level of anti-nutritive components in

common feed ingredients (e.g. low-phytate

maize)

3. Feed additives

a. Antimicrobials To suppress the growth of harmful bacteria

and promote the establishment of a

desirable gut flora balance (e.g. antibiotics)

b. Crystalline amino acids To increase dietary supply of specific amino

acid and improve protein balance in diet

formulations.

c. Feed enzymes To improve availability of nutrients (energy,

amino acids, phosphorus etc) in feed

ingredients by reducing the negative effects

of anti-nutritive components (e.g. microbial

phytases acting on phytate, xylanases

acting on arabinoxylans in wheat).

4. Gut ecosystem enhancers

a. Probiotics To promote the establishment of a desirable

gut ecosystem through the proliferation of

beneficial species (e.g. direct-fed

microbials).
 b. Prebiotics

To competitively exclude harmful organisms

and promote the establishment of a

desirable gut ecosystem (e.g. mannan

oligosaccharides).

Table 2. Examples of some biotechnological applications that are widely used in animal

nutrition

Applications Aim(s) of developing the technology

1. Modification of gut microbes To genetically modify microorganisms

naturally present in the gut to enhance their

capacity for defined functions or add new

functions (e.g. rumen microbes to improve

cellulose digestion).

2. Introduction of new gut microbes To introduce new species or strains of

microorganisms into the gut

3. Bioactive peptides Improved growth and efficiency (e.g. growth

hormone-releasing peptides), improved gut

function, immunomodulation, antibacterial

properties
 4. Antimicrobial replacers Antimicrobial enzymes (e.g. lysozyme),

delivery of specific antibodies via

spray-dried plasma and egg products

5. Transgenesis To modify nutrient metabolism and improve

growth efficiency by transfer of genes

Table 3. Examples of some biotechnological applications with future potential in animal

nutrition

Phase Feeding

The advancement of phase-feeding, a precise-feeding approach, has emerged as a

significant development in the last two decades. This feeding system involves a gradual

reduction of dietary amino acid levels over time, aiming to minimize costs related to excess

protein or amino acids in poultry diets. Commercial phase feeding programs typically

incorporate multiple phases to systematically decrease amino acids and other nutrients for

both broilers and layers. The determination of the number of phases in a production cycle is

influenced by economic considerations and practical feasibility (Leeson, 2007).

However, the widespread adoption of phase/precise feeding faces several challenges.

Firstly, there is a need for continuous updates on data regarding ingredient variation and the

reliability of matrix values. Secondly, more comprehensive data on digestible amino acids,

especially in major raw materials, are essential. Additionally, information on the comparative

digestibility of amino acids for different classes of chickens, such as layers and broilers of

varying age groups, is lacking. Notably, it is recognized that the digestibility of various

nutrients and metabolizable energy during the first week is lower in comparison to older birds

(Noy and Sklan, 1995; Thomas et al., 2008; Tancharoenrat et al., 2010). Furthermore, there
is a significant gap in knowledge concerning metabolizable energy and digestible amino acid

requirements for different poultry classes.

Unfortunately, the industry lacks objective and rapid tests to estimate metabolizable

energy and digestible amino acids as raw materials are received at the feed mill. Looking

ahead, the future directions in poultry nutrition will be shaped by ongoing changes in global

animal agriculture and societal concerns. Feed formulations may need modification in the

future to address not only science-based requirements but also societal needs. Social issues

such as antibiotic growth promoters, environmental impact, animal welfare, traceability, and

the use of meat and bone meal and genetically modified ingredients will play a crucial role in

decision-making, influencing practices from the farm level to the retail distribution of poultry

products (Leeson, 2007).

Feed Enzymes

In the future, there will be heightened pressure to maximize the extraction of energy

and nutrients from poultry diets. Utilizing a combination of strategies will be essential, with

exogenous feed enzymes playing a pivotal role in optimizing nutrient release. There is a

likelihood of the development of new enzyme products that demonstrate efficacy across a

range of diet formulations. Evidence suggests that formulations with multiple enzyme

activities could offer a competitive approach to enhancing nutrient utilization in poultry diets

(Cowieson et al., 2006; Selle and Ravindran, 2007).

Rather than relying solely on single enzymes, the next generation of feed enzymes is

expected to come in the form of enzyme cocktails. This shift is driven by the structural

complexity of feed ingredients, where nutrients in their 'native' state are intricately linked to

proteins, fats, fibers, and other complex carbohydrates. Ongoing advancements in enzyme

technology are anticipated, leading to the development of enzymes that are closer to being

'perfect.' These next-generation enzymes are expected to exhibit high specific catalytic

activity (per unit of protein), excellent thermostability, high activity across a broad range of gut
pH, resistance to proteolysis, and stability under ambient temperatures (Bedford and

Partridge, 2001).

Technological progress is being made to preserve enzyme activity in dry enzyme

products, protecting them from the heat, moisture, and high pressures during feed

processing. Commercially available thermostable enzymes, especially phytases, are a result

of these advancements (Amerah et al., 2011). Given the rising costs of raw materials and the

relatively low cost of enzymes, there is significant potential to extract more nutrients by using

unconventionally high enzyme doses. Notably, super-doses of microbial phytase have

demonstrated substantial and consistent beneficial effects (Cowieson et al., 2011).

Crystalline Amino Acids

Maximizing the efficiency of protein and amino acid utilization is crucial in poultry diets

due to the high cost of protein. Genetic advancements have led to current poultry strains with

enhanced protein gain efficiency. The challenge for nutritionists is to sustain these genetic

improvements by refining amino acid nutrition in poultry. The availability of crystalline amino

acids in the commercial market has been a significant development, aiding nutritionists in

various aspects (D'Mello, 2003).

(i) Crystalline amino acids, such as DL-methionine, L-lysine.HCl, and L-threonine, allow

nutritionists to more precisely meet the ideal amino acid profile, thereby enhancing the

performance and yield of modern high-producing poultry strains.

(ii) The use of digestible amino acids, instead of total amino acids, in feed formulations is

emphasized. This approach becomes particularly relevant when incorporating poorly

digestible nontraditional alternative ingredients. Formulating diets based on digestible amino

acids enables increased diversity and inclusion levels of such ingredients, aiding in the

creation of an "ideal" protein (Lemme et al., 2004).

(iii) Utilizing crystalline amino acids facilitates the reduction of dietary crude protein levels

while more precisely meeting amino acid requirements. This enhances nitrogen utilization

efficiency, reduces protein accretion, and ultimately lowers nitrogen output in manure.

(iv) Crystalline amino acids enable the implementation of phase-feeding programs, gradually

reducing dietary amino acid levels over time to cut costs associated with excess protein or

amino acids.

The current availability of DL-methionine, L-lysine.HCl, and L-threonine at competitive

prices, and the potential future availability of valine and isoleucine, indicate a positive outlook

for crystalline amino acids as additives. These amino acid supplements play essential roles in

nutrition, economics, and environmental aspects in future animal production systems.

Although concerns exist about the faster absorption of free amino acids compared to

protein-bound amino acids, evidence suggests that supplements of limiting amino acids are

utilized more efficiently by poultry for growth than equivalent quantities supplied as intact

proteins (D’Mello, 2003).

Conclusion

The article review provides a comprehensive exploration of recent advancements and

perspectives in optimizing protein requirements for poultry nutrition. The emphasis on the

ideal protein concept, biotechnological applications, and evolving strategies like phase

feeding underscores the dynamic nature of this field. Challenges such as the removal of

in-feed antibiotics and the need for comprehensive data are acknowledged, paving the way

for future research and innovation. The positive outlook for enzyme technology and

crystalline amino acids presents promising avenues for refining feed formulations and

addressing the efficiency and sustainability of modern poultry production. Overall, the review

contributes valuable insights for poultry nutritionists, researchers, and industry professionals,

offering a roadmap for continued progress in optimizing protein for the well-being of poultry

and the industry as a whole.

 Recommendations

1. Prioritize research efforts to further understand and quantify digestible amino acid

requirements for various poultry classes, considering factors such as age, breed, and

production stage. This can help refine feed formulations and enhance nutrient utilization.

2. Support research and development initiatives aimed at creating objective and rapid tests

for estimating metabolizable energy and digestible amino acids in raw materials at feed mills.

Streamlining this process can contribute to more accurate feed formulations.

3. Encourage ongoing research in enzyme technology, with a focus on developing enzyme

cocktails that demonstrate efficacy across a range of diet formulations. Investigate enzymes

with enhanced characteristics, such as high specific catalytic activity, thermostability, and

resistance to proteolysis.

4. Promote the commercial adoption of biotechnological applications, including feed

additives, enzymes, and gut ecosystem enhancers, by addressing technical constraints and

public concerns. This could involve collaborative efforts between researchers, industry

stakeholders, and regulatory bodies.

5. Conduct further studies to validate the effectiveness and economic feasibility of phase

feeding programs. Explore the potential benefits in terms of cost reduction and improved

efficiency, taking into account variations in ingredient quality and nutrient requirements.

6. Encourage continuous monitoring of industry trends related to global animal agriculture

and societal concerns. Stay informed about evolving consumer preferences, environmental

considerations, and emerging regulations that may impact poultry nutrition practices.
 REFERENCES

Amerah, AM, et al. “ Influence of Feed Processing on the Efficacy of Exogenous Enzymes in

Broiler Diets.” Wld’s Poult Sci J., vol. 67, no. 29-46, 2011.

Amerah, AM, et al. “ Feed Particle Size: Implications on the Digestion and Performance of

Poultry.” Wld’s Poult Sci J, vol. 63, no. 439-455, 2007.

Baker, DH. Advances in Amino Acid Nutrition and Metabolism of Swine and Poultry. Ln:

Nutrient Management of Food Animals to Enhance and Protect the Environment,

Kornegay, ET. 1996, pp. 41–53.

Bedford, MR, and GG Partridge. Enzymes in Farm Animal Nutrition. 2001.

Bedford, MR, and H Schulze. Exogenous Enzymes in Pigs and Poultry. 1998,

https://doi.org/Nutr%20Res%20Rev%2011:91-114.

Choct, M. Enzyme for the Feed Industry: Past, Present and Future Taylor & Francis. Mar.

2006,

www.researchgate.net/publication/248626732_Enzyme_for_the_feed_industry_Past_

present_and_future.

Cowieson , AJ. Strategic Selection of Exogenous Enzymes for Corn/Soy-Based Poultry

Diets. 2010, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpsa/47/1/47_009045/_pdf.

Cowieson, AJ, et al. “Evolving Enzyme Technology: Impact on Commercial Poultry Nutrition.”

Nutr Res Rev . , vol. 19(1), no. 90, June 2006. 103,

https://doi.org/10.1079/NRR2006121.

D’Mello, JPF. Amino Acids in Animal Nutrition. 2nd ed., Wallingord, UK, CABI Publishing, 17

Apr. 2003.

Leeson, S. “Balancing Science versus Societal Issues in Poultry Nutrition.” CAB Reviews:

Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, vol.

2, no. 1, 2007. 5.

Lemme, A, et al. “ Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids in Feed Ingredients for Broilers.” Wld’s

Poult Sci, vol. 60, no. 421, 2004. 435.

Noy, Yael, and David Sklan. “Digestion and Absorption in the Young Chick.” Poultry Science,

vol. 74, no. 2, Feb. 1995, pp. 366–373, https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0740366.

NRC. “National Research Council Nutrient Requirements of Poultry - Ninth Revised Edition .”

The Journal of Applied Poultry Research, vol. 3, no. 101, Mar. 1994. 101,

https://doi.org/10.1093/japr/3.1.101.

Ravindran, V. “Advances and Future Directions in Poultry Nutrition: An Overview.” Korean J.

Poult. Sci., vol. 39, no. 1, 7 Mar. 2012, https://doi.org/10.5536/KJPS.2012.39.1.053.

Selle, P, and V Ravindran. Microbial Phytase in Poultry Nutrition. May 2007,

www.researchgate.net/publication/248333123_Microbial_phytase_in_poultry_nutrition

Tancharoenrat, P, et al. “Energy Utilisation and Digestibility of Fats as Influenced by the Age

of Broilers.” Proc Aust Poult Sci Symp, vol. 21, no. 59, 2010.

Thomas, DV, et al. “ Nutrient Utilisation of Diets Based on Wheat, Sorghum or Maize by the

Newly Hatched Broiler Chick.” Br Poult Sci, vol. 49, no. 429-435, 2008.