NAME : MOHAMUD MOHAMED KHALID

REG NO : CIS-1-0268-1-2020
UNIT CODE : CISY231
UNIT NAME : TELECOMMUNICATION.

1. Discuss the FOUR different switching techniques, Application Areas, Characteristics,

advantages and disadvantages of each.

Circuit Switching
 Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks. It come into existence
for handling voice traffic in addition to digital data. However digital data handling
by the use of circuit switching methods are proved to be inefficient
Advantage

 It uses a fixed bandwidth.

 A dedicated communication channel increases the quality of communication.

 Data is transmitted with a fixed data rate.

 No waiting time at switches.

 Suitable for long continuous communication.

Disadvantage

 A dedicated connection makes it impossible to transmit other data even if the channel is
free.

 Resources are not utilized fully.

 The time required to establish the physical link between the two stations is too long.

 As a dedicated path has to be established for each connection, circuit switching is more
expensive.

 Even if there is no transfer of data, the link is still maintained until it is terminated by
users. By this channel remains ideal for a long time thereby making circuit switching
inefficient.

 Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.

 Packet Switching
In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets and each of which includes a header
with source, destination and intermediate node address information. Individual Packets in packet
switching technique take different routes to reach their respective destination.
Advantage

 It delivers the data to a destination by finding their own paths; circuit switching has a
dedicated and predefined channel.

 It is highly reliable as missing packets are detected by destination; circuit switching does not
have this option.

 It uses lesser bandwidth as packets are quickly routed towards the destination; circuit
switching should have dedicated bandwidth.

 The channel in this switching is available for other transmissions as soon as packets are
routed; circuit switching occupies the channel till the voice communication is completed

 It is cost-effective and easier to implement; circuit switching is expensive

Disadvantage

 As the movement of packets is not synchronous in this switching, it may not be suitable in
communication applications like voice calls; while circuit switching is highly suitable for
voice calls

 Packets don’t move in an organized way; sequence numbers should be provided to identify
each packet; circuit switching gives the highest priority for the channel to give the best
experience to the users

 In this switching, complexity is high at each node as packets are routed over multiple paths to
reach the destination, leading to loss of data or delay in delivering the packets; circuit
switching makes sure there is no loss of data

 This switching needs additional and secure protocols to protect the data, leading to a
significant rise in implementation costs; circuit switching has a dedicated channel for one
service and one individual route.
Message Switching
In case of Message Switching, it is not necessary to established a dedicated path in between any
two communication devices. Here each message is treated as an independent unit and includes its
own destination source address by its own.
 Advantage

 As more devices share the same channel simultaneously for message transfer, it has
higher channel efficiency compare to circuit switching.
 In this type, messages are stored temporarily en-route and hence congestion can be
reduced to greater extent.
 It is possible to incorporate priorities to the messages as they use store and forward
technique for delivery.
 It supports message lengths of unlimited size.
 It does not require physical connection between source and destination devices unlike
circuit switching.

Disadvantage

 This switching type is not compatible for interactive applications such as voice and video.
This is due to longer message delivery time.
 The method is costly as store and forward devices are expensive. This is due to large
storage disks requirements to store long messages for long duration.
 It can lead to security issues if hacked by intruders. Hence vital information’s such as
banking accounts, official and personal passwords should not be included in the
messages.
 As the system is complex, often people are not aware whether the messages are
transferred successfully or not. This may lead to complications in social relationships.

3. Discuss the following wireless communication concepts, Paging System Cordless

Telephone Systems Cellular Telephone Systems.

 Cordless telephone is telephone with wireless handset that communicates using radio
waves with base station
 paging system gives indications like musical alerts, name calling, audio signals to a
particular individual whom system wants at telephone. These indications are given to
radio receiver carried in the individual’s pocket.

4. Differentiate the following mobile communication systems Second Generation (2G)

Cellular Networks 2.5G; Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks; 3G W-CDMA
(UMTS); 3G Cdma2000; 4G and 5G.

2G - Second Generation
Cell phones received their first major upgrade when they went from 1G to 2G. The main
difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used
by 1G network are analog, while 2G networks are digital. Main motive of this generation was to
provide secure and reliable communication channel. 2G capabilities are achieved by allowing
multiple users on a single channel via multiplexing. During 2G Cellular phones are used for data
also along with voice. The advance in technology from 1G to 2G introduced many of the
fundamental services that we still use today, such as SMS, internal roaming, conference calls,
call hold and billing based on services e.g., charges based on long distance calls and real time
billing. The max speed of 2G with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is 50 Kbps or 1 Mbps
with Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

3G - Third Generation

This generation set the standards for most of the wireless technology we have come to know and
love. Web browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and another Smartphone
technology were introduced in the third generation. Introduced commercially in 2001, the goals
set out for third generation mobile communication were to facilitate greater voice and data
capacity, support a wider range of applications, and increase data transmission at a lower
cost .3G has Multimedia services support along with streaming are more popular. In 3G,
Universal access and portability across different device types are made possible (Telephones,
PDA's, etc.). 3G increased the efficiency of frequency spectrum by improving how audio
is compressed during a call, so more simultaneous calls can happen in the same frequency range.
The UN's International Telecommunications Union IMT-2000 standard requires stationary
speeds of 2Mbps and mobile speeds of 384kbps for a "true" 3G. The theoretical max speed
for HSPA+ is 21.6 Mbps
4G - Fourth Generation

4G is a very different technology as compared to 3G and was made possible practically only
because of the advancements in the technology in the last 10 years. Its purpose is to provide high
speed, high quality and high capacity to users while improving security and lower the cost of
voice and data services, multimedia and internet over IP. Potential and current applications
include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV,
video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing. The max speed of a 4G network when
the device is moving is 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps for low mobility communication like when
stationary or walking, latency reduced from around 300ms to less than 100ms, and significantly
lower congestion. When 4G first became available, it was simply a little faster than 3G. 4G is not
the same as 4G LTE which is very close to meeting the criteria of the standards. To download a
new game or stream a TV show in HD, you can do it without buffering
5G - Fifth Generation
5G is a generation currently under development, that's intended to improve on 4G. 5G promises
significantly faster data rates, higher connection density, much lower latency, among other
improvements. Some of the plans for 5G include device-to-device communication, better battery
consumption, and improved overall wireless coverage. The max speed of 5G is aimed at being as
fast as 35.46 Gbps, which is over 35 times faster than 4G

5. Explain the following cellular concepts: Frequency Reuse; Channel Assignment

Strategies; Handoff Strategies; Interference and System Capacity; Trucking.
 Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given
area, that are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish
communication.
 Channel assignment means assigning channels or spectrum bands to radio interfaces for
communication. Learn more in: Routing through Efficient Channel Assignment in
Cognitive Radio Networks. Assigns multiple channels to different traffic transmissions.
 Handoff Strategies This process of transferring the channels between two cells is called
Hand-Off. These Handoff Strategies in Mobile Communication not only involves
identifying a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control signals be
allocated channels associated with the new base stations.
 interference is that which modifies a signal in a disruptive manner, as it travels along a
communication channel between its source and receiver. The term is often used to refer
to the addition of unwanted signals to a useful signal.
 System capacity is formally defined as the maximum of the product of the number of
users per cell times the user spectral efficiency for a given maximum outage probability.
 trucking is an enclosure usually with a rectangular cross section, and with one removable
or hinged side, that is used to protect cables and provide space for other electrical
equipment. The cable trucking system will protect cables from dust or water ingress.

6. Explain the following Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications,

OFDM, CDMA, FDMA, WDMA, and TDMA.

OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-division multiple access)

Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) is a feature of Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) that
allows access points to serve multiple clients at the same time. OFDMA follows a set of rules
created for the transmission of data between more than one terminal (any device at the end of a
transmission channel, such as a computer or phone) over a transmission medium (such as a
wireless network). An example of how OFDMA works is when two phones send data over the
same phone line. A time-interval may be assigned to each phone, and they will take turns
sending their signal over the line at each assigned interval. However, these time frames are
imperceptibly small, making the data transfer seem to happen simultaneously and seamlessly.

CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency multiplexing.
In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. The basic
principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-CDMA),
frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is generated which
extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is used to perform this action.
Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is possible to select a signal with
a given code in the presence of many other signals with different orthogonal codes.
FDMA Overview
In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize
crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will be
received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in the first
generation of analog mobile phone.

TDMA Overview
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an
accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.
In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used for
the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The mobile
system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.