Biopolymers are polymers produced by living

organisms; in other words, they are polymeric

biomolecules. Biopolymers are biodegradable, and
some are also compostable. Some biopolymers
are biodegradable: they are broken down into CO2 and
water by microorganisms.
Biopolymers (also called renewable polymers) are
produced from biomass for use in the packaging
industry. Biomass comes from crops such as sugar
beet, potatoes or wheat: when used to produce
biopolymers, these are classified as non food crops.
These can be converted in the following pathways:
Starch > (fermentation) > Lactic acid > Polylactic acid (PLA)

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 Polylactic Acid is example compostable and
biodegradable and has characteristics similar
to polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), or
polystyrene (PS).
Poly(lactic acid) or polylactide (PLA) is a
biodegradable and
bioactive thermoplastic aliphatic polyester d
erived from renewable biomass, typically
from fermented plant starch such as from
corn, cassava, sugarcane or sugar beet pulp.

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Two main monomers are used: lactic acid, and the
cyclic di-ester, lactide.
The most common route to PLA is the ring-opening
polymerization.
PLA can also be used as a decomposable
packaging material.

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Applications:
PLA is used as a feedstock material in
desktop fused filament fabrication 3D printers.
PLA is also used in the e-tobacco industry.
Biodegradable PLA cups in use at a
restaurant.
Mulch film made of PLA-blend "bio-flex“.
Tea bags made of PLA. Peppermint tea is
enclosed.
3D printed human skull with data from
computed tomography. Transparent PLA.

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 Polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHAs are poly
esters produced in nature by numerous
microorganisms, including
through bacterial fermentation of sugar or li
pids.
To produce PHA, a culture of a micro-
organism such as Cupriavidus necator is
placed in a suitable medium and fed
appropriate nutrients so that it multiplies
rapidly.

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 lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce
frictional force and heat generation between the
surfaces in mutual contact, when the surfaces move.
A good lubricating oil generally possess the following
characteristics:
Suitable Viscosity: The viscosity of oil should not
change with rise in temperature.
Oilness: It ensures the adherence to the bearings
and spread over the surface. This property makes oil
smooth and very important in boundary lubrication.
Strength: The lubricant must have high strength to
avoid metal contact and seizure under heavy loads.
Chemical Stability: The lubricant should not react
with surfaces and any deposit in the cylinder.
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Pour Point: It should be low to allow the flow of
lubricant at low temperature to the oil pump.
Flash Point and Fire Point: The lubricating oil
should not burn inside the cylinder, otherwise it will
leave heavy deposit and poisonous exhaust.
Therefore, the flash point and fire point of the
lubricating oil must be high.
Neutralization: The oil should not have a tendency
to form deposits by reacting with air, water, fuel or
the products of combustion.
Cleaning: The oil should act as cleaning agent
inside the engine and should carry any deposits with
it. It should also have non-foaming characteristics,
low cost and be non-toxic.
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Refractory materials are used in furnaces, kilns, incinerators,
and reactors. Refractories are also used to make crucibles
and moulds for casting glass and metals and for surfacing
flame deflector systems for rocket launch structures.

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Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark
knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-
ignition internal combustion engines occurs
when combustion of some of the air/fuel
mixture in the cylinder does not result from
propagation of the flame front ignited by
the spark plug, but one or more pockets of
air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of
the normal combustion front.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-
ignition—they are two separate events.
However, pre-ignition is usually followed by
knocking.
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Octane number, is a standard measure
of the performance of an engine or
aviation fuel. The higher the octane
number, the more compression the fuel
can withstand before detonating
(igniting).
a figure indicating the anti-knock
properties of a fuel, based on a
comparison with a mixture of iso-octane
and n-heptane.
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An antiknock agent is a gasoline additive used
to reduce engine knocking and increase the
fuel's octane rating by raising the temperature
and pressure at which auto-ignition occurs.
Ex: Tetraethyllead (Pb(CH2CH3)4) is add to
improve the octane rating.
This helps the petrol to burn more slowly and
smoothly, preventing knocking and giving higher
Octane ratings.
1,2-dibromoethane is also added to the petrol to
remove the lead from the cylinder as PbBr2,
which is a vapour and removed from the engine.
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 Cetane number

It is an inverse of the similar octane

rating for gasoline.
Cetane number is a measure of the quality of
a diesel fuel expressed as the
percentage of cetane in a mixture of cetane
and α -methylnapthalene of the same quality
as the given fuel is also called: cetane rating.
α -methylnapthalene has a long ignition delay
and hence its cetane number is taken to be
zero.
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Diesel fuel with poor cetane rating burns too
slowly.
The cetane number can be improved by adding
certain additives called dopes only in small
amounts
i.e., 2.6% eg. Ethyl nitrite, ethyl nitrate, isoamyl
nitrate and acetone peroxide. Cetane number
of a fuel depends on the nature and
composition of its hydrocarbon. The order of
cetane number for the following is given as:
n-alkanes> napthalene > alkenes>branched
alkane > aromatics.
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 Liquefied petroleum gas
Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid
petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also
referred to as simply propane or butane,
are flammable mixtures of hydrocarbon gases
used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking
equipment, and vehicles.
When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion
engines, it is often referred to as autogas or
auto propane.

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CNG is made by compressing natural gas,
(which is mainly composed of methane, CH4),
to less than 1 percent of the volume it
occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It
is stored and distributed in hard containers at
a pressure of 20–25 MPa (2,900–3,600 psi),
usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) (methane
stored at high pressure) is a fuel which can
be used in place of gasoline, diesel
fuel and propane/LPG.
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Fuel Calorific Values. The calorific value of a
fuel is the quantity of heat produced by its
combustion – at constant pressure and under
“normal” (standard) conditions (i.e. to 0oC and
under a pressure of 1,013mbar).
Units: 1k. Cal/kg + 18 B. Th. U/lb=1 cal/g
Higher or Gross calorific value(HCV): Higher
calorific value of a fuel portion is defined as
the amount of heat evolved when a unit
weight (or volume in the case of gaseous
fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion cooled to the normal
conditions (with water vapor condensed as a
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result).
Higher Calorific Value (HCV) or Higher
Heating Value (HHV) or Gross Calorific Value
When 1 kg of a fuel is burnt, the heat obtained by the
complete combustion after the products of
the combustion are cooled down to room temperature
(usually 15 degree Celsius) is called higher calorific
value of that fuel.
Lower Heating Value (LLV) or Lower Calorific
Value (LCV) or Net Calorific Value: When 1 kg
a fuel is completely burned and the products of
combustions are not cooled down or the
heat carried away the products of combustion is not
recovered and the steam produced in this process is
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not condensed then the heat obtained is known as the
Relation between Higher and Lower
Calorific Value.
The amount of Lower Calorific Value can
be obtained by subtracting the amount
heat carried away by
the combustion products especially the
heat carried away by the steam
LCV = HCV – Heat carried away by the
steam (Latent heat of water vapour
formed.
Net C. V= gross C.V.-9XH / 100X587
Net C. V= gross C.V.- 0.09XHX587
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Where H= % of hydrogen in the fuel
Higher calorific value means the total quantity of
heat liberated from combustion of unit mass or
unit volume of given fuel when by products/side
products are allowed to cool at room temperature.
Lower calorific value means the total quantity of
heat liberated from combustion of unit mass or
unit volume of given fuel when side products are
allowed to escape.
Main difference is in higher calorific value heat
losses to cool down but in lower calorific value
there is no heat because side products
(ash,volatile matter etc) escapes.
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Dulong's formula that is:
HCV = 1/100[8080C + 34500(H-O/8) + 22400S],

here the C, S, O , H are the percentages of

carbon, sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen. ...
Problem: C=90%, O=4%, N=1%, S=0.5%
and ash=5%.The NCV of the fuel was found
to be 8480cal/g. Calculate the percentage of
hydrogen and HCV of the fuel.

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