RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
 Overview of Research
•Research is undertaken within most
professions.
•More than a set of skills, it is a way of
thinking; examining critically the various
aspects of ones professional work.
•Research is a habit of questioning what you
do, and a systematic examination of the
observed information to find answers to
questions or to solve problems
 What then is research?
•The word research is composed of two
syllables; re and search.
•Re- means again, anew or over again
•Search- means to ‘examine closely and
carefully’, to ‘test and try’ or to ‘probe’.
Research- therefore means a careful,
systematic and patient investigation in some
field of knowledge to establish facts or
principles.
 Definitions of research
•Payton (1979) defines research as the
process of looking for a specific answer to
a specific problem in an organised,
objective and reliable way

•Waltz and Bausell (1981) defines it as a

systematic, formal, rigorous and precise
process employed to gain solutions to
problems and or to discover and interprete
new facts and relationships
 Definitions of research contd.,

• Research is the process of collecting,

analyzing and interpreting data in order to
increase our understanding of a
phenomena about which we are
interested or concerned
• (Leedy and Omrod, 2004)
 What is research methodology?
•This is an overall action plan for research.
•It is the series of steps that connects a
given set of research questions or gaps in
knowledge to the conclusions arrived at
•Research methods thus entails; selection of
designs, data gathering, sampling,
sampling and research ethics utilized by
researcher to answer research questions.
 Attributes of research
• 1. Purposive
Any good research must have a definate aim or
purpose. It must be focused or otherwise fail to
be systematic and directed

2. Systematic
A researcher should employ structured
procedure from the beginning to the end of
research. The different steps cannot be taken in
a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow
others.
 Attributes of research cont.,
3. Objective / empirical
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation
of data should be based on facts from the actual
data collected and not on researchers subjective or
emotional values
4. Testable
Scientific research blends itself to testing logically
developed hypothesis to see whether or not the
data supports the proposed hypothesis
 Attributes of research cont.,
• 5. Rigorous
A researcher must be scrupulous in ensuring
that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and
justified. Rigor therefore refers to the degree of
carefulness and exactitude in research.

6. Replicable
Results of the research or tests of hypothesis
should be supported again and again, when
research is repeated in other similar
circumstances
 Attributes of research cont.,
•7. Generalizable
This refers to the scope of applicability of
research findings, that is; can be applied
(generalized) to other affected institutions

8. Precise
Precision refers to how close the findings
based on a sample are to the reality e.g the
closer the findings are to the actual, the
higher the precision level
 Attributes of research cont.,
• 9. Confidence
• Confidence refers to the probability that
estimates are correct e.g 100% is perfect
confidence, 80%- high and 20% low
confidence levels.

• 10. Parsimonious
This refers to the simplicity of explaining the
phenomena. Being simple in explaining the
outcomes of research is preferred to complex
research frameworks that consider
unimaginable number of factors.
Why do we do research? / Purpose of
research
•1. Discover new knowledge
•The main purpose of research is to
discover new knowledge.
• This involves the discovery of new facts
and their correct interpretation and practical
application.
• Although there are other sources of
knowledge, research remains the most
efficient and reliable source of knowledge
 Purpose cont.,
• 2. Describe phenomena
• A major purpose of many studies is to describe
and explore phenomena. Descriptive studies
answers the questions what, who , when ,
where and sometimes how
• 4. Enable prediction
• Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomena
A given Phenomena B . e.g researchers
carefully predicting the occurrence of the lunar
eclipse.
 Purpose of research cont.,
•3. Explain phenomena
•A researcher has an explanatory purpose if
he/ she wishes to go beyond description to
explain the WHY? Of a phenomena
•. E.g why some town have higher crime
rate than others.
 Purpose of research cont.,
•4. Exploration
•Much of social research is conducted to
explore a topic, by providing familiarity
•For example, when examining a new
interest area or where study is relatively
new or unstudied.
 Purpose of research cont.,
5. Enable control
• Ability to predict with certainty allows researchers
to develop solutions to existing problems. e.g
developing vaccines or cures to control diseases
6. To develop theory
•Researchers develop theories to try and explain
certain phenomena through conducting a series
of studies to enable explanations.
 Purpose of research cont.,
• 7. To test theory
• More researches are again further conducted to
test the validity of existing theories.
• 8. Involuntary research.
• This is undertaken by students or faculty as a
requirement of their degrees or professional
advancements
 Class Activity

•In groups of 4-6 members according to

your area of specialization;

•Discuss the benefits of research in your

field of specialization (10mks).
 Scientific thinking
•Sources of knowledge range from untested
opinion to highly systematic styles of
thinking.
•While most people rarely think about how
they know something or where the
knowledge originated from, for researchers
this is a significant subject.
•Researchers like to answer the question –
how do you know?
Sources of knowledge
Untested opinion
•This is a source of knowledge that most
people cling to despite contrary evidence.
•For example it is not unusual for new
students to hear the phrase; that’s the way
we have always done it here .
•Such opinions are based on myths, habits
and traditions and maybe a serious
competitor for scientific thinking
 Sources of knowledge cont.,
2. Self- evident truth
•This is a way of knowing based on
propositions that appear reasonable to one
person but may not necessarily be true
•For example most people may feel that
women make inferior managers or that men
are poor cooks
•Is this always true?
 Sources of knowledge contd.,
•3. Authority
•Authorities serve as important sources of
knowledge.
•However authority should be judged by
their integrity, quality of evidence they
present and their willingness to present an
open and balanced case.
• Many may not meet these thresholds and
may depend on status or position and not
true expertise.
 Sources cont.,
•4. Experience
•Human beings learn through their
experiences in life
•As the saying goes, experience is the best
teacher.
•For example a marketing manager knows
best what products to be selling during a
rainy season
 Sources of knowledge cont.,
5. Intuition
•This is a feeling gotten that may precede
an occurrence.
•Intuition however does not lead to the
occurrence of fact or phenomena.
•It is usually referred to as the sixth sense
and is believed to be common with women
 Sources cont.,
•6. Research/ empiricism
•This is a source of knowledge gained
through careful observation, manipulation
of variables and taking in data to interpret
and come up with a conclusion.
•It is statistical justification of truth
•It is thus based on facts collected and
analyzed to arrive at conclusions
 Sources of knowledge
•Which is the a more preferred source of
knowledge?
•There is no single best perspective from
which to view reality or to do science, only
preferred perspectives
•One should thus be aware of the vantage
points selected to find the strengths and
weaknesses of such a position before
opting for the same.
 Values of research to man
Importance of research to man;
•Research improves the quality of life
•Research improves instruction
•Research improves students achievements
•Research improves teachers competence
 Values of research to man
•Research satisfies man’s needs
•Research reduces the burden of work
•Research train graduates to become
responsive to the economic development of
the country and to compare globally
THE
THOUGHT
PROCESS
 Deductive versus inductive
reasoning
•Deductive and inductive reasoning are two
methods of logic used to arrive at a
conclusion based on information assumed
to be true.
•Both are used in research to establish
hypotheses.
•Deductive reasoning arrives at a specific
conclusion based on generalizations, while
inductive takes events and make
generalizations.
 Deductive reasoning
•Deductive reasoning involves a hierarchy of
statements or truths.
•In deductive reasoning one starts from the
general law (premise) and applies it to a
particular instance;

• e.g All men are mortal

• John is a man
• John is mortal (conclusion)
 Deductive cont.,
•For a deduction to be correct, it must be
both true and valid.

•That is reasons given for the conclusion

must agree with the truth.

•The premises must also be arranged in

such a way that conclusions follow from the
premise(s)
 Inductive reasoning
•Is opposite of deductive
•Involves trying to create general principles
by starting with many specific instances
•To induce is that to draw a conclusion from
one or more facts or pieces of evidence
•The conclusions explain the facts and the
facts support the conclusions
 Example of inductive
•John is a man
•John is mortal
•Therefore all men are mortal

•Class to illustrate using individual examples

 TYPES OF RESEARCH
•There exist different kinds of problems

•Consequently different types of research

are conducted to solve these problems

•Research can thus be classified into many

categories with the following as the basic

modes of classification
 Classification of research
•According to the field of study e.g
marketing, educational, medical e.t.c

•Place where research is being conducted

e.g laboratory of field research

•Application of research i.e how findings will

be used e.g basic or applied research
 Classifications of research
•Objectives of undertaking research e.g
descriptive or exploratory
•Inquiry mode e.g quantitative or qualitative
•Time frame e.g cross-sectional or
longitudinal research
•Class to research and understand the
above
COMMON
TERMINOLOGIE
S IN RESEARCH
 1. Concepts
•Concepts are used to communicate
information about objects and events
•A concept is a bundle of meanings or
characteristics associated with certain
events
•In research special problems grow out of
concept precision and inventiveness
• i.e how best researchers try to explain a
concept to give it common meaning
 2. Operational definition
• If one word may have different meanings to
different people, then it can cause confusion
• A researcher may thus need to clarify it using
observable characteristics, thus making any
person using them to classify them in the same
way
• Operational definitions thus provide an
understanding and measurement of concepts
• e.g richness / income
 3. Variable
•A variable is defined as anything that is
susceptible of fluctuation or change in
value under different conditions.
•It is any symbol to which numerals or
values can be assigned
•e.g high cost, 3 children
•It is a measurable characteristic which
assumes different values among subjects
 Types of variables in research
•Independent variable- is the stimulus
variable chosen by the researcher to
determine the relationship to an observed
phenomena.
•It is that which the researcher manipulates
to determine its influence on another
variable
•It influences the dependent variable
positively or negatively
 Types of variable cont.,
•Dependent variable – this is the response
variable which is observed and measured
to determine the effect of the independent
variable
•That which is a function of the independent
•It is the variable expected to change due to
presence or absence of independent
variable
 4. Hypothesis
•this is a tentative explanation for a certain
behavior which has or will occur
•It states the researchers expectations
concerning the relationship between
variables
•It is what a researcher thinks will be the
outcome of research to be undertaken
 Sources of research hypothesis
•Existing theories
•Previous research
•Personal observation
•Experiences

•N.B hypothesis have to be tested to be

proved or disapproved
 Examples of hypothesis
•Null hypothesis ( Ho)
•Is a statement that no relationship exists
between the research variables

•Alternative hypothesis (Ha)

•Expresses that a relation or influence exist
between variables of a study
 Importance of hypothesis
•provide direction by bridging gap between
problem and evidence needed to provide
its solution
•Helps researcher to understand problem
with greater clarity
•Forms framework for ultimate conclusions
of study
Characteristics of good hypothesis
•Express clearly and briefly expected
relations between variables
•Must have both dependent and
independent variables
•Based on sound rationale from theory or
previous research
•Must be consistent with generally accepted
traits/ common sense
•Simple and precise
 5. Objectives
•This refers to what the researcher intends
to do about the problem being investigated
•Objectives are goals that the researchers
sets out to attain by conducting research
•They inform the reader what the researcher
want to establish by conducting study
•There are broad/ general and specific
objectives
 Specific objectives
•Numerically listed
•SMART objectives
•Only one aspect in objective
•Must be derived from general objective
•Stated in action words e.g to determine,
establish, investigate
THE
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
 Proposal defined
•Is a statement in writing, spelling out ones
intention of carrying out a research in a
given area
•The proposal outlines the approach,
strategy and techniques to be followed
when conducting research
 Importance / purpose of the research
proposal
•1. Makes known ones intentions in getting
involved with research
•2. Allows researcher to plan and review the
steps to be undertaken in the project
•3. Provides justification for study / funding
•4. If approved act as guide to research
throughout study
•5. Provides a basis for evaluation of the
document
 Why proposal?
•6. Forces time management and budget
estimate
•7. Provides an opportunity to discuss
research of other researchers in the same
field
•8. Suggests data necessary for solving the
problem and how it will be gathered and
interpreted
 Evaluating a research proposal
•1. Neatly presented
•2. Major topics easily found and logically
organized
•3. Must meet specific guidelines set by
sponsors
•4. Must include the technical aspects e.g
problem statement, design, methodology
clearly outlined
•5. Financial budget and time schedule kept
in mind to meet requirements
THE
RESEARCH
PROCESS
 The research process / steps

• 1. Identification of research problem

• 2. Literature review
• 3. Hypothesis
• 4. Research objectives / Questions
• 5. Data collection
• 6. Data analysis and interpretation
• 7. Summary, conclusions and
recommendation
•8. Report writing and presentation
 1. Identification of research
problem
•A problem refers to any situation where a
gap exists between the actual and the
desired or ideal states.

•A problem refers to some difficulty which a

researcher experiences either in practice or
theory
 Research problem cont.,
•According to Kothari, a research problem
exists if the following conditions are met:
•a) There must be an individual or group to
which the problem can be attributed.
•b) There must be at least two possible
courses of action to be undertaken.
•c) There must be two possible outcome of
which one is more preferred.
 Research problem cont.,
• A good problem should answer the 5W’s of
questioning i.e
• What is the problem?

• To who is it a problem?

• When is it a problem?

• How is it a problem?

• And why is it a problem?

 Problem statement
• Is a statement about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved upon or a difficulty to be
eliminated.

• Problem statement will outline the problem, why

the problem matters and what solutions would be
used to resolve problem.

• Problem statement should be concise, simple,

clear and with scope under control.
• Remember the 5 w,s of questioning
 3 steps in problem statement

• Describe the ideal state of affairs – what it would

be like if there was no problem’

• Explain the problem clearly and articulately / the

actual and why the state of affairs is not
favorable.

• Identify the gaps to be filled if problem was to be

resolved
 Sources of research problem
•Concepts in specialization area / area of
study
•Current and past researches i.e gaps
•Original or creative ideas based on
problems met in the locality
•Real life scenarios that affect humanity or
organizations
•Recommendations from research theses,
dissertations
Criteria of a good research problem
•Interesting
•Innovative
•Cost-effective
•Relevant to the needs and problems of the
people
•Relevant to government thrusts
•Measurable and time-bound
LITERATURE
REVIEW
 What is literature review?
• This involves identifying locating and
analyzing
•Information related to the research
problem being investigated
•There is need to conduct theoretical,
conceptual and empirical review of literature
•Researchers should focus on not only
relevant but also recent literature (decade
old or less).
 Sources of literature

•Books
•Journals (published works)
•Experts in the field (consulting with
professors)
•Newspapers and magazines
•Government publications
•Organizational reports
•Articles from the internet
 How to review literature efficiently
•Locate the information you need fast and
efficiently using titles, topics, indexes,
bibliographies, table of contents and search
engines
•Summarize information from different
sources, always jotting their sources
•Integrate that information and back it up
with your critical evaluating comments or
refer to other literature reviews to prove a
point or explain something
 Importance of literature review
•Avoid re- inventing the wheel(duplication)
•To get valuable information to support
study
•To establish gap
•Helps generate hypothesis / objectives of
study
•To justify the reason for your research/ is
study needed and timely?
 Importance of literature review
•Allows you to establish the theoretical
framework / problem statement
•Allows you to know methodologies
necessary for research
•Literature review becomes your
springboard for whole research
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Research design
• A Research design is the plan and
structure of investigation conceived to
obtain answers to research questions.
•It is an outline of what the investigator will
do from writing hypothesis to final data
analysis.
•Phillips (2004) notes that, a research
design constitute the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of
data
A research design answers the
following questions;
• What is the study about?

• Why is the study being made?

• Where will the study be carried out?

• What type of data is required?

• What will be the sampling design?

• What techniques of data collection will be used?

• How will data be analyzed?

A research design must contain the
following aspects;
• Clear statement of research problem

• Procedures and techniques to be used for data

gathering

• Population to be studied and sampling technique

• Methods to be used in processing and analyzing

data
Research designs
Descriptive R. designs Exploratory R. designs

• Undertaken to ascertain • Undertaken when not so

and describe the much information is known
characteristics of about a phenomena
variables • Answers the question why
• Answers the questions; of a phenomena? e.g why
who, what, when, how of crime rate is high in some
a topic regions than others
• The goal is to offer the • Exploratory studies
researcher a profile or to undertaken to better
describe relevant aspects comprehend the nature of a
of phenomena problem
Research designs continued
Descriptive
• Rigid design that protects
against bias
• Uses probability research
designs
• Elicits quantitative data
• Structured data collection
instruments
• Utilises quantitative
methods of analysis
Exploratory
• Flexible design i.e allows
opportunity to include
different aspects of problem
• Uses non probability
sampling designs
• Elicits qualitative data
• Unstructured instruments to
collect data
• Qualitative analysis
measures
Other designs
•Causal studies – Relates to studies on
how a variable affects or is responsible
changes in a given variable e.g causes of
malaria (mostly used in experimental
studies)

•Correlation designs – how one variable

relates to another e.g relationship between
HIV AIDS and drug abuse
Importance of a research design
•Gives direction for study i.e what has to be
done, when it should be done and how it
will be done
•Enable researcher to consider before hand
what decisions to be made e.g sources of
data, population of study
•Prevents blind searching and indiscriminate
data gathering
Importance of a research design cont..
•Defines boundaries of research activities
and enable researcher to channel energies
to the same
•Design enables researcher to anticipate
potential problems and how they will be
overcome
•Helps in time planning and time
management
•Outlines the necessary resources for the
study
SELECTING THE
RESPONDENTS
Population
•All items in any field of inquiry constitute a

population or a universe.

•A population is a complete set of

individuals, cases or objects with some

common observable characteristics e.g
research methods class, safaricom
employees e.t.c
Population and sampling
•A target population is that which a

researcher wants to generalize the results

of a study

•A complete enumeration of all items in the

population is known as a census survey
Census versus sampling

•Since its not usually easy to work with the

whole population, a sample should be
drawn from the larger population.
• A sample is a subset or segment of
the whole population
•While it has been assumed that a census
survey gives the perfect accuracy, this
has been proved otherwise
Why sample?
A sampling survey is preferred to census
survey due to;
• a) cost
• b) time
• c) energy / tedious
• d) accuracy of information
Characteristics of a good sample
•Should be truly representative

•Should minimize sampling error

•Should be viability in terms of time

•Should be viable in terms of cost

• should control for systematic bias

•Results of the study can be generalized

Key steps in the sampling
procedure
A researcher should follow the following steps
when drawing a sample from a population:
• 1. Define the population

• 2. Decide on the sampling frame

• 3. Determine the sampling procedure

• 4. Decide on the appropriate sample size

• 5. Select the sampling elements

Steps explained
•The researcher must identify the population
in a manner that another researcher would
be able to justify it i.e whether the
population consists of individuals such as
employees, students.
•The researcher should then decide the
sampling frame which refers to a list of
study objects from which the sample will be
drawn.
Steps cont.,
•Then decide on the sampling procedure
(To be discussed).

•The researcher then decides the

appropriate sample size using the rule of
thumb or given formulaes
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• Also known as chance • Also known as biased

sampling or random sampling
sampling • Not every item given
• Every item in the chance of inclusion
population has an equal • Judgement of researcher
chance of inclusion in the plays an important role in
sample selecting sample
• Considered best • Most useful in qualitative
technique.. Why? studies
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
EXAMPLES
Probability Non-probability
•Simple random •Convenience

•Systematic random sampling

•Stratified random •Purposive

•Cluster sampling •Quota sampling

•snowballing
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
1. Simple random sampling
•Method involves giving a number to every
subject or member
•Place the written numbers in a concealed
container, reshuffle and then pick any
number at random until the desired sample
size is achieved
•Though this method is simple, cheap and
easy to administer, it may have limitations
such as selecting members of the same
genre.
2. Systematic random sampling
•Every Nth case in the population frame is
selected for inclusion in the sample

•To obtain a truly representative sample, a

list of all members is randomized (not
alphabetically)
Systematic sampling contd.,
•Steps are;
1. List all the population in random order
2. Determine the sample size e.g 20
3. Determine the sample interval e.g 100/20
= 5th (n/ss)
4. Blindly select starting point
5. Pick every 5th student until required
sample size is achieved
3. Stratified random sampling
•Goal of stratified is to achieve desired
representation from various sub-groups in
the population
•Steps involve;
•Divide population into two or more
sub-groups using a given criterion
•Then a given number of cases are then
selected proportionately / equally
•Select using random numbers until desired
sample is achieved
4. Cluster sampling
• Used when area of interest is large
• Divide area into smaller non overlapping areas e.g a
study of malaria cases in Kenya;
• Divide into provinces, select one then divide into districts
Select one and further then into divisions and randomly
select a cluster from the same to constitute sample size
Then all the items in the cluster constitute the sample
Here it’s the groups or clusters that are randomly selected
and not individuals or cases
It is assumed that clusters are similar in characteristics
NON - PROBABILITY

SAMPLING

TECHNIQUES
NON
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
1. Convenience sampling
•Also known as unrestricted sampling as
researcher has freedom to choose whoever
they find convenient
•Though least reliable it is the easiest and
cheapest method
•Can be adopted for early stages of
research ( pilot study)
2. Judgmental sampling
•Occurs where a researcher selects a
sample to conform to some criterion
•Researcher may only want to talk to
individuals who may have experience e.g
stigmatization of HIV and AIDS

•Researcher use his/her judgement to pick

the desired sample for the study
3. Quota sampling
•Kind of purposive sampling but used to
improve representativeness of a population

•Example is to sample group as per their

proportion i.e if ratio of male to female is
3:1 then the sample should represent the
same
•The aim is to seek proportionate response
according to gender
Snowballing
• Used where respondents are difficult to identify and
are best located through referral networks

• The first individuals are discovered who are then

used to locate others who have similar
characteristics

• This further locate others with the same

characteristics

• The snowball gathers the subjects as it rolls along

DATA
COLLECTION
DATA
COLLECTION
Types of data
•There are two types of data;

•Primary data - collected for the first time

•Secondary data – those which have

already been collected and analyzed by
someone else
Methods of primary data collection
•Observation method

•questionnaires

•Interviews

•Focus group discussions

•Experimental methods
1. Observation methods
• Commonly used in behavioral sciences
• It involves gathering primary data by investigators
own direct observation of relevant people, actions
and situations without asking questions from the
respondent
• e.g a hotel chain sends observers posing as
guests into its coffee shop to check on its
cleanliness and customer service
• Marketer observe shopping patterns of buyers at
a supermarket store.
• A researcher may use structured or unstructured
observation
Observation methods cont..
• Advantages
• Observation can yield information which people are
normally unwilling or unable to provide
• Easy to use and does not require expertise

• Limits;
• a) Some information e.g feelings, beliefs and attitudes
that motivate human behavior cannot be observed
• b) Expensive method
• c) Time consuming
• d) People respond differently when they know they are
being observed.
Survey methods
• Approach is most suitable for gathering descriptive
information
• There are;
• A) structured - surveys which use formal lists of questions
of all respondents in the same way
• B) Unstructured surveys –let the interviewer probe
respondents and guide the interview according to their
answers
. Survey methods cont.,
• Examples include 1. THE QUESTIONNAIRE;

• This is a group of printed questions which have been

deliberately designed and structured to be used to gather
information from respondents
• The respondents reads the questions, interprets what is
expected and then write down the answers themselves
• It is called an interview schedule if the researcher asks
the questions and then record the respondents reply on
the interview schedule
Questionnaire cont.,
advantages disadvantages

• Used to gather information • Some questionnaires may

from many respondents at not be returned
the same time
• Does not allow researcher
• Time saving method
• Cost effective
to correct
• Avoids interviewer bias
misunderstanding
• Greater feeling of anonymity • Some questions may be
thus open responses misinterpreted
• Effective in reaching distant
places
• Easy to analyze
2. Interviews
• An oral administration of a questionnaire
or interview schedule
Intervew can be a) face to face
b) via telephone / skype

Advantages
•Telephone interview is a quick method
• and allows respondents to ask for clarification when not
sure,
•some questions can be skipped while others answered
(flexible)
Interviews contd.,
• Personal interviews are flexible and can be used to collect
large amounts of data.
• The interviewer can also clarify difficult questions
• Interviewer can guide interview and probe as situation
requires
• Disadvantages
• Telephone interview is however expensive method
• Some people may feel uncomfortable using interviews
• May incorporate interviewer bias
• Requires skilled personnel / not everyone can conduct
interviews
3. Focus group discussion
•Used by inviting 6-10 people to gather for a
few hours with a trained moderator to talk
about a product / service / topic or
organization with the aim of generating
information.
•The meeting is held in a pleasant
environment and refreshments served to
create a relaxed atmosphere
Focus group discussion
•The moderator starts off with a broad
question before moving on to more specific
issues, encouraging open and easy
discussions to bring out true feelings and
thoughts of group members.
•Comments are recorded through note
taking or videotaped and studied later or
used for analysis.
•E.g used by managers with stakeholders
e.g customers, suppliers to get important
information
Focus group discussion cont.,
•Drawbacks
•Expensive method
•Due to small sample may be difficult to
generalize study results
•Allows interviewer bias
•May be difficult to control group
•Some respondents may dominate
discussion at expense of others.
Guidelines for constructing a research
tool
• The questions should relate to objectives of study to be
considered valid
• Steps
• 1. clearly define and individually list all specific objectives
• 2. For each objective/ R. Q list all the associated
questions that you want to answer through your study
• 3. take each R.Q listed in step 2 and list the information
required to answer it
• 4. Formulate questions to obtain this information
Guidelines in constructing a
questionnaire
•Use both open and closed ended
questions.
•Questions should be clear and
unambiguous.
•Avoid double- barreled questions e.g two
questions in one.
•Ask relevant questions.
•Short but precise items preferred
•Avoid negative items e.g should not
•Avoid biased items and terms.
Questionnaire guidelines
• Number each question
• Use both closed and open ended questions
• Develop sections / headings for questions
• Give guidelines or instructions
• Be polite / courteous
• Include demographic data
Piloting the questionnaire
•Once the research instrument is made,
researcher uses a few respondents to pilot
the instrument.
•This is to look out for any irregularities that
might prevent the collection of needed
data.
•The questionnaires are then assessed and
any changes made before actual data
collection commences
Factors to consider when choosing tool
for data collection
•Type of study
•Type of respondents e.g literacy levels
•Time available to collect data
•Amount of resources by researcher
•Cost of research
•Ease of analysis
DATA ANALYSIS
AND
REPORTING
Data analysis
• In most social research data analysis involves
three major steps
• 1. Cleaning and organizing data for analysis
• The collected data is checked for completeness,
errors, then numbered and coded ready for
analysis
• 2. Entering data into the computer / SPSS
• the data is then entered into a computer package
like latest version of spss ready for analysis
taking into account the type of data e.g nominal,
ordinal or grouped data e.t.c
a) Descriptive statistics
• The descriptive statistics e.g percentages, means ,
standard deviations are performed on data to
describe the basic features of the data in a study
• Such may also provide simple summaries about the
population samples
• The researcher describes what the data is and what
the data shows (interpretations)
• Descriptive statistics is organized into summary
tables and figures such as graphs, charts e.t.c
• Both tables and graphs should be labeled well as per
the APA styles
• The findings are further supported using related
empirical researches
b) Inferential statistics
• Investigates research questions and hypothesis
• Inferential statistics include use of correlation and
regression analyses
• Conclusions from inferential statistics extend
beyond one immediate data alone to cover more
objectives
• E.g infer from the sample data what the
population thinks i.e use inferential statistics to
generalize study to larger population.
Data analysis cont.,
•Most social researches can be analyzed
using the most recent version of SPSS e.g
version 17 to 22.
•The researcher then presents the
information in tables, pie charts , bar
graphs (figures) and a discussion and
supportive data done for the same is done
in the discussion section.
•Summary and conclusions are drawn from
the findings and recommendations made.
Presenting the report
•Once analyzed , the final report is made
•This is the final but most important part of
research.
• A research report reflects in whole, the
research that has been undertaken.
• The researcher presents both the oral and
written report and emphasis on;
• a} clarity
• b} simplicity and
• c} completeness
Oral reporting
•It is the report that reflects in good measure
what the researcher has been undertaking.
• The oral presentation should show a
mastery of work and researcher should
exude confidence and orderliness in a wrap
up of the research.
•A good report is an icing on the cake for the
research while a poorly presented one may
dilute a lot of good work done during
research
Research ethics
•The dos and don’ts of research
•Class discussion
Group Assignment
•In groups of 4-6 members in your area
of specialization;
•Develop a 20 page research proposal
(20mks).