WEATHER STUDIES

AIR MASSES

-an air mass is a large body or volume of air with uniform temperature and humidity

Classification of air masses

a) Latitude/Place of origin

-tropical (T) air masses are those that originate in the lower Latitude (near the equator)

-these air masses are hot or warm(w)

-Polar(P) air masses are those that originate in the higher latitudes (far away from the equator)

-polar air masses are cold(k)

b) Surface of origin

-continental (c) air masses are those that originate over landmasses or continents

-these air masses are dry

-martime air masses are those that originated over oceans and seas and are moist or wet

Examples of air masses

1.Tropical continental(Tc) -warm, dry, unstable

2. Tropical maritime (Tm) - warm, moist, unstable

3. Polar continental (Pc) - cold, dry, stable

4. Polar maritime (Pm) - cold, moist, stable

AIR MASSES AFFECTING ZIMBABWE

a) South East Trade Winds

-are cool moist prevailing winds which blow throughout the year

-they are associated with continuous light showers and drizzle

-they bring clear blue skies during the winter season

b) North East Trade winds

-they only blow in summer

-they bring a lot of rainfall to the northern parts of Zimbabwe because they pick up a lot of moisture
from the Indian Ocean

c) Congo Airstream or the North west monsoons

-they blow during the summer season

-they are drawn into Zimbabwe by the intense low pressure of the ITCZ

-they bring a lot of rainfall to Zimbabwe and Southern Africa as they collect moisture from the Atlantic
Ocean

The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ)

-is a belt of low pressure that moves from hemisphere to hemisphere following the seasonal migration
of the overhead sun

Position of the ITCZ in January

-the ITCZ will be in the Southern Hemisphere where temperatures are high and pressure is low

-the ITCZ forms a broad belt over Southern Africa

-the South East Trade Winds, North East Trade Winds and Congo Airstream converge over the low
pressure area(the ITCZ)

-these air masses rise, expand, cool and condense to form towering cumulonimbus clouds clouds which
bring heavy afternoon thunderstorms

-in the northern hemisphere there will be high pressure which give rise to stable weather conditions of
clear blue skies

Position of the ITCZ in July

-in July the ITCZ wil be in the Northern Hemisphere due to high temperatures

-the South East Trade Winds and the North East Trade Winds converge over the low pressure zone (the
ITCZ) to give heavy rainfall accompanied by lightning and thunder

-in the Southern Hemisphere it will be winter and temperatures will be low and pressure high

-the high pressure results in stable weather conditions of clear blue skies

TYPES OF RAINFALL

a) Convectional rainfall

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-occurs when sun heats up the ground and the water bodies

-warm moist air rises, expands, cools and condensed to form towering cumulonimbus clouds

-the cumulonimbus clouds bring heavy rainfall accompanied by lightning, thunder, violent winds and
hail.

-the top of the cloud is characterised by ice crystals which form an anvil head

-lightning is the visible discharge of electricity between the cloud and the ground

-thunder is the sound caused by rapid expansion of air due to movement of lightning

b) Orographic rainfall

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-occurs when warm moist maritime air is forced to rise when it meets a mountain barrier

-the warm moist air rises, expands, cools and condenses to form clouds

-heavy rainfall occurs on the windward side

-when the air descends on the leeward side it will be dry hence giving little or no rainfall

c) Frontal rainfall

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-occurs when two air masses meet in an area of low pressure

-warm, moist and lighter air meets cold, dry and heavy air

-the warm moist air is pushed up from the ground by cold heavy air

-it then rises, expands, cools and condenses to form clouds which give frontal rainfall

Thunderstorms

-a thunderstorm is an intense local storm accompanied by lightning, thunder, violent winds, heavy
rainfall and hail

-thunderstorms develop from cumulonimbus clouds

-thunderstorms are a product of intense heating of the ground and are usually common in the late
afternoon and early evening

Measures to reduce the effects of thunderstorms

-education of people on dangers of thunderstorms

-weather forecasting so that peole are better prepared for thunderstorms

-sending early warning signs.

-construction of strong houses

-wearing rubber shoes

-staying indoors

-switching off electrical gadgets

-planting trees around homes

-construction of storm drains in urban areas to prevent flooding

-installing lighting conductors

-seeking shelter under short trees of a group

-provision of rescue teams

-minimise being closer to tall objects

FRONTAL SYSTEMS

-a front is a boundary separating two air masses of different temperature and density

Types of fronts

a) Warm front

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-occurs when warm air moves towards cold air

-warm air which is lighter will rise over cold air and form nimbostratus clouds

-the nimbostratus clouds bring prolonged rainfall

b) Cold front

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-occurs when cold air approaches warm air

-the heavier and denser cold air is pushed under warm air

-warm air rises rapidly to form towering cumulonimbus clouds which bring heavy rainfall of short
duration
c) Occluded front

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-occurs when the cold front catches up with the warm air

-the warm air is lifted off the ground and the frontal system dies

TEMPERATE DEPRESSIONS

-temperate depressions develop over areas of low pressure in the temperate regions

-most depressions develop when cold, dense polar air converges with warm lighter air from the tropics

Cross section of a temperate depression

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Weather associated with the passage of a temperate depression

-before the warm front arrives, it would be cold and there will be high Cirrus clouds

-as the warm front approaches, the nimbostratus clouds appear in the sky and there will be prolonged
rainfall

-after the passage of the warm front, the sky clears and it becomes sunny. The warm sector has no
rainfall

-temperatures rise due to warm air

-as the cold front arrives, cumulonimbus clouds appear in the sky and heavy rainfall accompanied by
thunder and lightning occurs

-after the passage of the cold front, the sky clears up and it remains cool

TROPICAL CYCLONES

-these are areas of low pressure found in the tropical areas

-there are formed due to convergence of trade winds over tropical oceans

-they are also called typhoons, hurricanes and willy-willies

Conditions necessary for the development of tropical cyclones

-presence of warm moist air near the ocean surface

-the temperatures of the air must be above 26 degrees to allow evaporation of water

-pressure must be low on the ocean surface

-air must blow inwards and rise rapidly to form cumulonimbus clouds

-there must be outward flow of air at upper levels

-there must be convergence of trade winds

Weather associated with a cyclone

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-before the arrival of the cyclone, the air will be still and humidity will be high. Pressure will be low.

-as the front vortex arrives dense cumulonimbus clouds appear in the sky and heavy rainfall
accompanied by thunder, lightning and hail occurs

-as the front vortex arrives gusty or violent winds of upto 240km/hr occurs

-after the front vortex, the eye arrives bringing calm weather of sunny and clear skies

-the rear vortex brings dense cumulonimbus clouds, violent winds, heavy rainfall, lightning, thunder and
hail

-the wind changes direction and blows in the opposite direction

-after the cyclone has passed the sky clears up

Effects of tropical cyclones

-Loss of life as a result of flooding and drowning e.g Cyclone Eline of Mozambique in 2000
-High velocity destroys infrastructure eg Cyclone Idai in 2019
-Violent winds disrupt lines of communication e.g. roads and telephone lines
-Heavy rainfall cause mudslides and landslides which destroy settlements and kill people e.g. in
Indonesia
-Flooding destroys farmland resulting in low agricultural production and starvation
-Outbreak of water borne diseases such as cholera since clean water supplies of water are
contaminated
-Lightning veldfires and kill people
-Storm surges cause flooding of coastal areas
-Hail destroys crops and buildings
-severe soil erosion
-destruction of large areas of forests
Measures taken to reduce the effects of cyclones
-Evacuation of people from cyclone hit areas
-Cyclone prediction
-sending early warning systems
-Settling on higher ground
-constructing storm drains so as reduce flooding
-Education and awareness campaigns on tropical cyclones
-Reinforcement of buildings so that they withstand cyclone winds
-Practising cyclone tracking e. g. Radar tracking system
-Cloud shooting or dispersal
-Insurance of property against possible damage
-setting up rescue teams and emergency services
-provision of aid in the form of shelter, medicines, clean water and food
-staying indoors
PEOPLE AND WEATHER
Good effects of people on weather
a) Dam construction
-dams help environment to have water through evaporation
-this then leads to an increase in the amount of rainfall in an area
-dams also moderate local temperatures through land and sea breezes
b) Artificial rain making /cloud seeding
-occurs when people assist the atmosphere to produce rainfall by injecting condensation nuclei
into the atmosphere
-silver iodide and dry ice are injected or sprayed into clouds
-this makes the clouds to grow bigger
-cloudy seeding is very expensive and sometimes clouds cause rainfall outside intended areas
c) Afforestation and reforestation
-planting trees increases moisture in the atmosphere through transpiration
-this increases amount of rainfall in an area
Bad effects of people on weather
a) Acid rain

-this is formed when industrial gases like carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
react with rain water in the atmosphere to form carbon acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid

-this then falls to the ground as acid rain

-this is common in the developed countries where there are many industries, vehicles and
thermal power stations

Causes of acid rain

-exhaust gases from vehicles

-gases from industries and thermal power stations

-carbon dioxide produced by veld fires

-gases produced when burning crop residues

-smoke from dumpsites

-naturally occurring carbon dioxide

Effects of acid rain

-death of aquatic life eg fish

-destruction of vegetation

-death of micro organisms in the soil

-causes skin diseases

-destroys crops leading to low yields

-corrodes metal structures and stone works

-causes waterborne diseases

Measures to reduce acid rain

-use of alternative sources of energy eg solar, HEP, wind power

-passing strict environmental laws/legislation eg Polluter Pays Principle

-education and awareness compaigns on acid rain

-afforestation and reforestation to reduce carbon dioxide levels

-use of electric cars

-heavy fines for law offenders

Problems faced when implementing measures

-lack of capital to buy energy substitutes

-resistance from people

-lack of knowledge or ignorance

-lack of skilled labour

-fines are too small to deter offenders

-absence of energy substitutes

b) The greenhouse effect /phenomenon

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-the greenhouse effect occurs when there is an increase in the concentration of industrial gases
in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, chrorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and methane

-these gases allow short wave radiation from the sun to pass through but prevent longwave
radiation from the Earth’s surface from escaping back to space

-the heat is then trapped between the ground and greenhouse gases thus resulting in an
increase in global temperatures

Global warming

-is an increase in the Earth’s temperatures due to high concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere

Causes of the greenhouse effect and global warming

-burning fossil fuels e. g. coal and oil

-exhaust fumes from vehicles

-use of perfumes

-cattle ranching

-rice farming

-use of refrigerants
-industrial gases

Effects of greenhouse effect and global warming

-occurence of heat waves

-melting of polar ice

-rise in sea levels.

-flooding of coastal areas

-occurence of droughts

-occurence of extreme weather hazards such as thunderstorms and tropical cyclones

Measures to reduce the greenhouse effect and global warming

-use of alternative sources of energy eg solar, HEP, wind power

-passing strict environmental laws/legislation eg Polluter Pays Principle

-education and awareness compaigns on acid rain

-afforestation and reforestation to reduce carbon dioxide levels

-use of electric cars

-heavy fines for law offenders

-reduction in the use of fossil fuels such as coal

c) Deforestation

-people cut down trees for timber, firewood and when creating space for roads, farmland and
settlements

-cutting down of trees reduces evapotranspiration resulting in lower rainfall

-carbon dioxide levels increase leading to global warming

-Deforestation also increases windspeeds

EFFECTS OF URBAN AREAS ON WEATHER

-heat from factories and car engines increases temperatures in urban areas

-smoke from industries and vehicles absorb heat from the sun thus increasing temperatures of
urban areas
-dark surfaces such as tarred roads, pavements and roofing materials also absorb heat from the
sun

-heat released by human beings (anthropogenic heat) also increase temperatures in urban
areas

-tall buildings increase friction thus causing low wind speeds

-streets cause channelisation of winds

-there are more incidences of fog due to smoke that acts as condensation nuclei

-tall buildings cause orographic uplift of air and higher rainfall

CLIMATE CHANGE

-is the alteration of the climate attributed directly or indirectly to human activities and natural
factors

Causes of climate change

-volcanic eruptions release large quantities of sulphur dioxide and aerosols into the atmosphere

-El Nino effect which alters the global weather patterns

-increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide from industries, power
stations and vehicles

-Deforestation which increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

-methane from rotting waste and rice fields

-plate tectonics which leads to redistribution of landmasses

Effects of climate change

-melting of polar ice

-rise in sea levels

-flooding of coastal

-increase in the number of severe storms and tropical cyclones

-droughts leading to water shortages

-increase in tropical diseases e. g. malaria

-extinction of plants and animals due to high temperatures and dry conditions

WEATHER HAZARDS
-is a dangerous atmospheric condition that threatens and destroys life

-examples include floods, hailstorms, blizzards, frost , heatwaves and tropical cyclones

1. DROUGHTS

-is the severe shortage of rainfall when it is expected

-is the shortage of rainfall during the rainy season

Causes of droughts

-anti-cyclonic condition that cause winds to diverge

-Elnino effect which alters wind patterns

-Deforestation resulting in reduced evapotranspiration

-overgrazing

-poor irrigation methods which cause salinisation

-greenhouse effect

-climate change

Effects of droughts

-low crop yields resulting in shortage of food

-lack of pastures and water for livestock resulting in their death

-migration of some animal species

-malnutrition eg Kwashioker

-water rationing in urban areas

-death of vegetation

-strain on the economy as money mearnt for development is used to import food

Measures to reduce the effects of droughts

-construction of large dams to store water

-practising paddocking and destocking

-sending early warning signs

-practising afforestation and reforestation

-importing food from other countries

-practising water rationing in urban areas

-relocation of animals to areas with better pastures

-practising cloud seeding

-rearing drought tolerant animals

-growing drought tolerant crops

-provision of food aid

-practising irrigation

-provision of supplemenatary feeding for livestock

-education of people on droughts

2. FLOODS

-occurs when dams and rivers fail to contain water resulting in water overflowing in the water
reservoirs

Causes of floods

-too much or excessive rainfall

-tsunamis caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

-ice and snow melts in summer in the temperate regions.

-Deforestation which speeds surface runoff

-tropical cyclones and tropical storms

-overgrazing

-poor farming methods such as streambank cultivation which results in siltation of rivers and
dams

Effects of floods

-crops are washed away leading to starvation

-cause soil erosion

-animals and people are killed by drowning

-destroy buildings leaving people homeless

-disrupt lines of communication eg roads

-pollute water sources leading to outbreak of water borne diseases eg cholera

Measures to reduce the effects of floods

-sending early warning signs

-practising afforestation and reforestation

-education of people on floods

-provision of aid in the form of food, shelter, clean water and medicines

-Building higher bridges

-practising cloud shooting to disperse clouds

-construction of check dams to act as flood controls

-widening river channels

-building strong reinforced houses

-Evacuation of people from flood prone areas

-construction of artificial levees

-dredging silted dams and rivers

-terracing steep slopes to reduce surface runoff

-straightening river channels

3. FROST

Measures to protect crops and livestock from frost

-growing crops in greenhouses

-keeping young livestock indoors

-weather forecasting

-sending early warning signs

-mulching

-spraying crops with ash

-spraying crops with water

-placing bottles with water next to crops

-covering crops with plastics and grass(frost barriers)

-growing frost tolerant crops.

-education of people on frost

-planting trees around gardens to act as wind breaks

-heating crops using electric heaters and smudge pots

4. HAILSTORMS

Measures to reduce the effects of hailstorms

-sending early warning signs

-keeping livestock indoors

-staying indoors

-education of people on hailstorms

-growing crops in greenhouses

WEATHER FORECASTING

-is the ability to predict how weather will be like in future

-weather forecast is important to people because it helps them to :

 decide on when to plant and harvest

 decide on what to wear
 decide on when to spray and irrigate
 plan their journeys
 plan their work
 decide on when to apply fertilizers

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS USED TO PREDICT WEATHER

-presence of a huge ring (halo) around the sun or moon indicates heavy rains

-presence of dew signifies that it will not rain

-movement of bees indicates coming of heavy rains

-the hornbill (insingizi) is associated with cold weather or heavy rains

-presence of birds such as swallows is a clear indicator of heavy rains approaching

-appearance of many whirlwinds is a sign of good rains to come

-presence of bull frogs is a sign of good rains

-presence of plenty of mopane worms is a sign good rains

-presence of plenty of butterflies is a sign of good rains

-the pain felt by the elderly grandmothers is a sign of cloudy and cool conditions the next day

-Building of large anthills by termites indicates that bad weather is approaching eg a cyclone

-ripening of matmba indicates onset of rains

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