Tst1501 - Study Guide

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Only study guide for TST1501
University of South Africa
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TST1501/1/2021–2023
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CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTIONvii
LEARNING UNIT 1: STRESSES AND STRAINS1
Learning outcomes1
1.1 Introduction1
1.2 Stress2
1.3 Direct stress and strain: Young's modulus2
1.4 Stress-strain curve for mild steel4
1.5 Working stress, stress factor and load factor6
1.6 Poisson's ration9
1.7 Bars in series axially loaded14
1.8 Composite bars17
1.9 Temperature stress in composite bars21
1.10 Bending stress27
1.11 Torsional stress28
1.12 Tutorial28
LEARNING UNIT 2: SECTIONAL PROPERTIES30
Learning outcomes30
2.1 Introduction30
2.2 Cross-sectional area31
2.3 Centroid31
2.4 Second moment of area (moment of inertia)34
2.5 Parallel axes theorem37
2.6 Radius of Gyration44
2.7 Section modulus (elastic)44
2.8 Section modulus (plastic)45
2.9 Properties of common plane areas47
2.10 General examples of the concepts discussed48
2.11 Tutorial54
Page
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T ST15 01/1
iii 2 0 21 – 2 0 2 3
Page
LEARNING UNIT 3: SAMPLE BEAMS57
Learning outcomes57
3.1 Introduction57
3.2 Types of supports58
3.3 Types of beams60
3.4 Types of loads61
3.5 Calculation of reactions64
3.6 Shear force66
3.7 Shear force diagram68
3.8 Bending moment70
3.9 Relationship between load, shear force and bending moment73
3.10 Bending moment diagram76
3.11 Point of contraflexure79
3.12 Tutorial90
LEARNING UNIT 4: THEORY OF ELASTIC BENDING93
Learning outcomes93
4.1 Introduction93
4.2 Derivation of fundamental formula94
4.3 Section modulus96
4.4 Principle of superposition105
4.5 Composite beams111
4.6 Tutorial114
LEARNING UNIT 5: MATHEMATICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS116
Learning outcomes116
5.1 Introduction116
5.2 Derivation of formulae116
5.3 Macaulay's notation122
5.4 Boundary conditions127
5.5 Propped cantilever beam130
5.6 Encastré beam134
5.7 Tutorial136
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iv
Co nte nt s
Page
LEARNING UNIT 6: STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED FRAMES138
6.1 Introduction138
6.2 Reactions139
6.3 Conditions for determinancy140
6.4 Types of frames142
6.5 Determination of forces in members of a frame143
6.6 Analytical methods143
6.7 Method of sections145
6.8 Method of resolution of forces at a joint156
6.9 Method of tension coefficients162
6.10 Tutorial166
LEARNING UNIT 7: ANALYSIS OF STRESS168
7.1 Introduction168
7.2 Shear stress in a bar in direct tension168
7.3 Failure of materials in compression170
7.4 General two-dimensional stress system170
7.5 Stresses on an inclined plane172
7.6 Values of maximum principal stresses173
7.7 Maximum shear stress174
7.8 Mohr's circle of stress175
7.9 Tutorial177
LEARNING UNIT 8: PRACTICAL GUIDE179
PRACTICAL LEARNING182
Preamble182
Rights of students182
Obligation of Unisa students182
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vi
INTRODUCTION
Theory of Structures (TST1501) provides essential background for all other

structural modules in that it introduces you to the analysis of structural compo-
nents. You will need these analyses when you design structural components.
This module is part of the diploma programme in Civil Engineering, and is
offered at NQF Level 6.
This module is set to satisfy the following two Engineering Council of South
Africa (ECSA) graduate attributes:
Graduate Attribute 1: Students must apply engineering principles to systemati-

cally diagnose and solve well-defined engineering problems.
Graduate Attribute 4: Conduct investigations of well-defined problems through

conducting standard tests, experiments and measurements.
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viii
LEARNING UNIT
1 1
1 Stresses and strains
Learning outcomes
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
• Interpret the different stages of steel failure by using data from a tension test.
• Define the relationship between a stress and a strain, and obtain mechanical
properties associated with it.
• Calculate stresses and strains in bars that are subjected to axial loads/change
in temperature and connected in series/parallel.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This learning unit deals with the effects of forces. A force changes or tends
to change the position of rest or motion of a body. It is a vector quantity,
which means that it has magnitude as well as direction. It can be represented
graphically by a straight line drawn to scale, with an arrowhead indicating the
direction of the force.
The learning unit of force is the newton (N), which is defined as a force that
accelerates 1 kilogram mass 1 metre per second2. The acceleration due to
gravity equals 9.81 metres per second2. Thus, 1 kilogram mass exerts a force
of 9.81 newtons.
Graphical representation of a force of 4 kilonewtons acting horizontally

from left or right
The moment of a force F about a point A is equal to the force multiplied by

the shortest (perpendicular) distance between point A and the line of action
of the force.
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1 T ST15 01/1

)
a(m
Moment of F about A = Fa Nm or Ma = Fa Nm
1.2 STRESS
Stress is defined as force per unit area.
F
σ=
A
The basic unit of stress is the pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Stress may be due to any of the following:
(1) direct or axial force

(2) bending
(3) shear force
(4) torsion
1.3 DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN: YOUNG’S MODULUS

Direct stress may be either tensile or compressive.
Tensile stress σ F Compressive stress σ F

t = C =
A A

FIGURE 1.1
Direct stress
Where: F = Direct axial force (either tensile or compressive)

A = Cross-sectional area
Stress causes deformation of the body in which it occurs. Direct stress causes:
(1) lengthening if it is tensile

(2) shortening if it is compressive
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2
L E AR N I N G U N I T 1: St r e ss e s a n d s t r a i ns
Strain ε is defined as change of length per unit length:
Where: l = Original length

δ = Change of length
Young’s modulus E (or modulus of direct elasticity)
According to Hooke’s law:
Strain α stress
Hence, E x Strain = Stress (E = constant)
That is: E = Stress

Strain
E is termed Young’s modulus, and since strain is dimensionless, E is usually

expressed in kN/mm2 (i.e. in GPa).
The above relationship holds good for any elastic material within its elastic
range.
Values of E for different materials are found experimentally. The following are
typical values for E:
Structural or mild steel: E = 210 kN/mm2 = 210 GPa

Concrete: E = 14 – 28 kN/mm = 14 – 28 GPa
2
Structural grade timber: E = 6 – 16.5 kN/mm2 = 6 – 16.5 GPa
NOTE: 1 GPa = 1 000 000 000 Pa

= 1 000 000 000 N/m2
= 1 000 N/mm2
= 1 kN/mm2
Example 1.3.1
A bar of sectional area 1 250 mm2 and 2 m in length extended 0.4 mm when
an axial load of 52.5 kN was applied. Calculate Young’s modulus for the
material of the bar.
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Solution
Example 1.3.2
A short timber post of rectangular section has one side of its section twice
the size of the other. When the post is loaded axially with 9.8 kN, it contracts
0.119 mm per metre length. If E for the timber = 8.4 GPa, calculate the cross-
sectional dimensions of the post.
Solution
Let x be the smaller side
Then 2x = larger side
Area of section = 2x2 mm2
1.4 STRESS–STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

If the changes in length of a test specimen as a result of different loads are
measured, the stress–strain curve can be plotted. For mild steel, a tensile
load is usually applied, the curve for a compressive load being virtually the
same up to the point when the change in cross-section of the test specimen
becomes substantial.
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4
The ends of the test specimen are gripped in the jaws of a special testing
machine in which measurable tensile loads can be applied. A strain gauge is
attached over a length (l) on the test specimen and read for various increasing
loads until the specimen breaks.
The stress–strain curve can then be plotted. For mild steel, it has the form as
shown in Figure 1.2.
FIGURE 1.2
Stress–strain curve for mild steel
From 0 to the elastic limit (limit of proportionality), A is a straight line and

Hooke’s law (which states that stress is proportional to strain) applies. If the
load is removed before the elastic limit is reached, the test specimen will revert
to its original dimensions – between 0 and A is the elastic range. After the
elastic limit has been passed the strain is semi-plastic, and on removal of the
load some extension will remain, called the permanent set.
When the load is further increased, the yield stress is reached at point B, where
a sudden elongation from C to D and a rapid drop in stress from B to C takes
place. Point B is called the upper yield point and C is the lower yield point.
Beyond D, strain hardening occurs, and stress again increases with strain and
reaches a maximum value, known as the ultimate stress σult at point E, where
the phenomenon of necking occurs. This is a rapid reduction in cross-sectional
area at some weak point in the test specimen. From E to F, there is a reduction
in nominal stress (load/original area) until fracture occurs at F.
For mild steel and other ductile materials
Ultimate tensile strength = maximum load

original cross sectional area
Nominal fracture stress = load at fracture

original cross sectional area
True fracture stress = load at fracture

final cross sectional area at fracture
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Example 1.4.1
A tensile test is carried out on a mild steel bar with a 20 mm diameter. The
bar yields under a load of 80 kN. It reaches a maximum load of 150 kN and
finally breaks at a load of 70 kN. The diameter at the fracture is measured as
10.2 mm.
Calculate: (a) the tensile stress at yield point

(b) the ultimate tensile stress
(c) the nominal fracture stress
(d) the true fracture stress
Solution
(a) Nominal tensile stress at yield point
(b) Ultimate tensile stress
(c) Nominal fracture stress
(d) True fracture stress
1.5 WORKING STRESS, STRESS FACTOR AND LOAD FACTOR

The stresses that are present in a component of a structure under normal
working conditions are called working stresses (σw). The ratio of the yield
stress of the material of the component to the working stress is the stress factor
against yielding.
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6
Stress factor against yielding = σy

σw
Previously this ratio was called the factor of safety. Modern literature prefers
the term “stress factor,” since this defines more precisely that working stress
is compared with yield stress.
In practical problems, working stresses can only be estimated approximately

in stress calculations. For this reason, the stress factor may give little indication
of the safety of a component. A more realistic estimate of safety can be made
by finding the extent to which the applied or working loads may be increased
before collapse or fracture occurs. A working load F to which a load factor n
is applied becomes a factored load nF.
Example 1.5.1
(a) A mass of 200 kg is suspended from a metal rod that is 14 m long and
has a diameter of 5 mm. Find the change of length of the rod if E for the
metal is 180 GPa.
(b) If the yield stress of the metal is 380 MPa, find the largest mass that the
rod can support if a stress factor of 2.5 is applied.
Solution
(a)
Change in length = +7.8 mm
(b)
Mass = 305.3 kg
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Example 1.5.2
A strut that is 2 m long and 20 mm in diameter is subjected to a compressive

force of 40 kN. Find the stress and the change in length if E = 210 GPa.
Solution
δl = 1.21 mm (shortening)
Example 1.5.3
A tie that is 12 m long and 25 mm in diameter is stressed to 140 MPa. The

total extension of this stress is 9.8 mm. Find E for the tie and the total load.
Solution
Load = 68.7 kN
NOTE: In section 1.4, the stress–strain curve for mild steel (which is a ductile
material) is described. In brittle materials, such as high tensile steel, there is
no marked yield point. The stress–strain graph is a straight line until the limit
of proportionality is reached. Thereafter it curves upward until fracture occurs
at ultimate stress, as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
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8
FIGURE 1.3
Stress–strain curve for mild steel
Whereas the stress factor on yielding is for mild steel, it is more

convenient to use the term “proof stress” for high tensile steel.
The proof stress is found by drawing the line parallel to the linear-elastic line
at the appropriate proof strain, as illustrated in Figure 1.4.
FIGURE 1.4
Proof stress
1.6 POISSON’S RATIO

When a body is subjected to tension (or compression), the stretching (or
contraction) in the direction of the force is accompanied by a smaller contraction
(or expansion) at right angles to the force.
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FIGURE 1.5
Contraction and expansion
Let σ = Applied stress
Let ε = Strain in direction of applied stress
Then: Lateral strain = ε

m
Where 1 = Poisson’s ratio ν

m
The value of ν is found experimentally; for metals, it is approximately 0.3.
NOTE: Although we might well apply a positive or negative sign to , it is

accepted usage not to give a sign, but rather to state “increase” or “decrease”.
TA K E N OT E :
• The longitudinal/axial strain (ε Longitudinal) is the strain in the direction of the
applied force.
• The lateral/transverse strain (ε Lateral) is the strain not in the direction of the
applied force.
• Poisson’s ratio (ν) is the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain. It
can be written in the form 1/m, where m is a constant.
Hence:
Example 1.6.1
In a house there is a strut that is 1.6 m long with a cross-section of 3 cm ×

5 cm. If a compressive force of 220 kN acts along the long axis of the strut,
find the change in the longitudinal and lateral dimensions. Poisson’s ratio =
1
/3 and E = 200 GPa.
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Solution
Example 1.6.2
A cube of sides 12 cm is subjected to a compressive force of 2 000 kN in the

x direction, a tensile force of 1 500 kN in the y direction and no force in the
z direction. Calculate the change of dimensions in each direction if Poisson’s
ratio = 1/2.9 and the modulus of elasticity E is 80 GPa. Also calculate the new
dimensions.
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11 T ST15 01/1

Solution
Consider the force in the x direction: Fx = 2 000 kN compression
Consider the force in the y direction: Fy = 1 500 kN tension
Total changes of dimension

x direction: -0.209 – 0.054 = -0.263 mm
y direction: +0.072 + 0.156 = +0.228 mm
z direction: +0.072 – 0.054 = +0.018 mm
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12
New dimensions
x direction: 120 – 0.263 = 119.737 mm

y direction: 120 + 0.228 = 120.228 mm
z direction: 120 + 0.018 = 120.018 mm
Example 1.6.2 in reverse
If we know the strains in three mutually perpendicular directions, as well as

the values for Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio for the material, we
can find the stresses in the three directions (and hence the stress in any other
direction, if required).
Let stresses σx, σy and σz occur in three mutually perpendicular directions x,

y and z. The strains ex, ey and ez resulting in each direction will consist of
the following:
(a) longitudinal strain due to stress in the given direction; plus

(b) lateral strains due to the stresses in each of the other two directions
Let tensile stress be positive and compressive stress negative. Let the increase
in dimension be positive and the decrease be negative.
The following equations will hold good:
In x direction
In y direction
In z direction
If εx, ey and εz are known, and also E and , then the three equations above
can be solved for σx, σy and σz.
Now again consider Example 1.6.2 in reverse. Suppose the strains are now
given and E and 1/m are known, and it is necessary to determine the stresses
in the three directions and hence the loads.
Let us first determine the total strains in the three directions:
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13 T ST15 01/1

By using these total strains, we can find the stresses by substituting in equations
(1), (2) and (3) above:
We now have three equations with three unknowns, which on solving give:
σx = -139.1 MPa
σy = +104 MPa
σz = 0
These are the same stresses we had at the start.
1.7 BARS IN SERIES AXIALLY LOADED

Consider three bars in series axially loaded, as shown in Figure 1.6(a) forming
member AB.
FIGURE 1.6(a)
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14
FIGURE 1.6(b)
The member as a whole is in equilibrium: ΣP = 0
That is: –P1 – P2 – P3 + P4 + P5 = 0
Each part of the member must be in equilibrium.
Considering the free body diagram to the left (or right) of MM
FM = P1 (= –P2 –P3 + P4 +P5)
Similarly:
FN = -P1 – P2 (= P3 – P4 – P5)
F0 = –P1 – P2 – P3 (= –P4 – P5)
FR = –P1 – P2 – P3 + P4 (= –P5)
The total change in the length of the member is equal to the algebraic sum of
the change in the length of each part.
TA K E N OT E :
• Bars in series are subjected to the same force.
• The change in length under load is different for each constituent bar.
• The total change in length is the sum of the change in length of each
constituent bar.
Hence:
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Example 1.7.1
Two round mild steel (m.s.) bars AB and CD are connected by a square
copper bar BC. The lengths, diameters and sizes are shown in the sketch.
The compound bar is subjected to a tensile axial force P. If the total elongation
of the compound bar is 1.2 mm, find:
(a) the force P

(b) the forces in the bars
Young’s modulus for mild steel is 200 GPa and for copper 100 GPa.
Solution
The applied force P is transmitted throughout the length AD.
\ FAB = FBC = FCD = P
Also: δLAB + δLBC + δLCD = 1.2 mm
(a)
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16
(b)
1.8 COMPOSITE BARS

A composite bar consists of two or more different materials connected in such
a way that the change in length under load is the same for each constituent
material, as seen in Figure 1.7.
(a) Under tension (b) Under compression
FIGURE 1.7
Composite bars
Because the constituent members of a composite bar under load remain the
same length:
Strain, is the same for all the constituent members
But strain =
∴ If a composite bar consists of materials A, B, C ...
then
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17 T ST15 01/1

If FA, FB, FC ... are the forces carried by A, B, C ...
and A A, AB, AC ... are the cross-sectional areas of A, B, C ...
The above two equations can be solved to find the portion of the total load
carried by each material of which the composite bar is made.
TA K E N OT E :
Composite bars
• These are bars consisting of two or more materials.

• They are connected so that change in length under load is the same for each
constituent member.
• The total load (P) on the composite is the sum of the load carried by each
constituent member (PA + PB).
• Strain is the same for all the constituent members.
Hence:
Example 1.8.1
A strut consists of three strips of metal glued together. The first strip is steel with
E = 210 GPa and cross-section 8 cm × 2 cm; the second strip is an aluminium
alloy with E = 70 GPa and cross-section 8 cm × 3 cm; and the third strip is
bronze with E = 110 GPa and cross-section 8 cm × 1 cm. If the whole strut
is subjected to a compressive force of 0.3 MN, find the force carried by each
strip and the stress in each. Also find the change in length of the strut if it is
0.6 m long.
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Solution
From the above:
On solving the three equations with three unknowns, we get the following:
Check: FS + FA + FB = 300 kN
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19 T ST15 01/1

Change in length: The strain is the same for S, A and B.
Using steel:
Change in length δl = 0.304 mm
Example 1.8.2
The figure below shows the cross-section of a short reinforced concrete column.
Calculate the stress in the concrete and the stress in the steel if an axial load of
735.5 kN is applied to the column. Assume that the bond between the steel
and the concrete is sufficient to prevent slip.
Given: E for steel = 210 GPa

E for concrete = 14 GPa
4φ20 steel bars as reinforcement
Solution
Strain is the same for the steel and the concrete.
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20
Substitute: σS = 15σC in:
15σC × 1.257 × 10 -3 + σC × 106.74 × 10 -3 = 735.5 × 103
σC (125.6 × 10 -3) = 735.5 × 103 N/m2
σC = 6 × 106 N/m2 σC = 6 MPa

From σC = 15σC σS = 90 MPa
1.9 TEMPERATURE STRESS IN COMPOSITE BARS

In composite bars consisting of materials with different rates of thermal
expansion, internal stresses are set up by temperature changes.
Consider a simple composite bar consisting of two members: a solid round

bar B contained inside a circular tube T. The coefficients of linear thermal
expansion are αB and αT respectively.
If the ends of the bar and tube are attached rigidly to each other, longitudinal
stresses are set up by a change of temperature.
If the bar and tube are not attached, each of them will extend freely:
Bar B will extend αB Lo t

and Tube T will extend αT L0 t
where t = change in temperature
L0 = original length of B and T
If the members are attached to each other and the temperature increases, the
one with the higher coefficient of expansion will have the tendency to expand
more than the one with the lower coefficient of expansion. Therefore, the one
with the higher coefficient of expansion will be compressed by a force F, while
the one with the lower coefficient of expansion will be extended by an equal
force F as shown in Figure 1.8 to maintain equilibrium.
In the case of lowered temperature, the one with the higher coefficient of
expansion will have the tendency to compress more than the one with the
lower coefficient of expansion. Therefore, the one with the higher coefficient
of expansion will be extended by a force F, while the one with the lower
coefficient of expansion will be compressed by an equal force F (as shown in
Figure 1.9) to maintain equilibrium.
The two forces must be equal and opposite in order to maintain equilibrium
of internal forces.
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21 T ST15 01/1
For increased temperature:
Original member Temperature raised t °C
Cross-sectional areas: Members free Members

Bar B: A(B) to expand attached
Tube T: A(T) separately to each other
FIGURE 1.8
Temperature stresses in composite bars at increased temperature
We now have two equations with two unknowns, σB and σT, which can be solved.
NOTE: The original length l0 is immaterial, as it cancels out in the

equation.
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22
For lowered temperature:
Original member Temperature lowered t °C
Cross-sectional areas: Members free Members

Bar B: A(B) to expand attached
Tube T: A(T) separately to each other
FIGURE 1.9
Temperature stresses in composite bars at lowered temperature
TA K E N OT E :
• Internal stresses are set up by temperature changes in composite bars made
of materials with different rates of thermal expansion.
• If the bars (let us say A and B) are separated, each bar will extend separately.
A will extend by αa lot and B will extend by αBLOt
where
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
t = increase in temperature
LO = original length of A and B
• If the bars (let us say A and B) are joined together under increased temperature,
– the one with higher α will be compressed by a force F
– the one with lower α will be extended by an equal force F
• If the bars (let us say A and B) are joined together under lowered temperature,
– the one with higher α will be extended by a force F
– the one with lower α will be compressed by an equal force F
If αA > αB, Total extension δla + δlb = αALOt – αBLOt
• If both bars (let us say A and B) have the same α, each will extend/contract
by the same amount of δla so that
δla = αALOt and δlb = αALOt
And total F will be the sum of the forces in A and B
F = FA + FB
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23 T ST15 01/1
Example 1.9.1
An aluminium rod with a 2.2 cm diameter is threaded at the ends and passes
through a steel tube with a 2.5 cm internal diameter and wall thickness of
0.3 cm. Both are heated to a temperature of 140 °C when the nuts on the rod
are lightly screwed onto the ends of the tube. Calculate the stress in the rod
and in the tube when the common temperature has fallen to 20 °C.
Given: ES = 200 GN/m2 αS = 1.2 × 10 -5 per °C

EA = 70 GN/m2 αA = 2.3 × 10 -5 per °C
Solution
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24
Substituting in :
20 (0.694) σS + 7 σS = 1848 × 106 N/m2

20.88 σS = 1848 × 106 N/m2
σS = 88.5 MPa
And σA = 61.4 MPa
Example 1.9.2
A brass bar with a 25 mm diameter is enclosed in a steel tube with a 50 mm

external diameter and 25 mm internal diameter. The bar and tube are both
initially 1 m long and are rigidly fastened at both ends. Find the stresses in the
two materials if the temperature rises from 15 °C to 95 °C.
If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN, find the
resulting stresses and the increase in length from the original state.
Given: ES = 200 GN/m2 EB = 100 GN/m2 σS = 11.6 × 10 -6/°C σB =

18.7 × 10 -6/°C
Solution
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25 T ST15 01/1

Substituting in :
6σS + sS = 113.6 × 106 N/m2

σS = 16.23 MPa
σB = 48.69 MPa
The composite bar is now subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN.
Total force = force in brass + force in steel
50 × 103 = σB AB + σS AS
Also: Extension of bronze = Extension of steel
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26
Substituting in :
σs
+ 3σs = 101.56 × 106 MPa
2
giving sS = 29.02 MPa

sB = 14.51 MPa
Resultant tension in steel = 29.02 + 16.23 = 45.25 MPa

Resultant tension in brass = 14.51 + 48.69 = 63.2 MPa
1.10 BENDING STRESS

Consider a member AB subjected to bending due to an applied bending
moment M, as shown in Figure 1.10. The top of the beam reduces in length
and is, therefore, in compression. The bottom of the beam increases in length
and is, therefore, in tension. At a certain plane between the top and bottom
fibres, the length remains the same. This plane is called the neutral axis, where
the stress is zero.
(a) Elevation (b) Cross-section (c) Stress diagram
FIGURE 1.10
Member subject to bending
From the stress diagram above, it can be seen that the bending stress is a
maximum in compression at the top of the cross-section. It gradually reduces
to zero at the neutral axis and then again gradually increases to a maximum
tensile stress at the bottom.
Bending stress is dealt with in more detail in learning unit 4.
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1.11 TORSIONAL STRESS
(a) Elevation F (b) View X F
FIGURE 1.11
Torsion
Consider a solid circular shaft AB fixed at A and with a pulley of radius A rigidly
attached at B. Twisting moment (or torque) on shaft: T = FA.
It can be shown that, subject to certain assumptions, the following relationship

holds good:
where: T = twisting moment or torque

J = polar moment of inertia (see section 2.8)
t = shear stress
r = distance from axis of shaft in a plane perpendicular to it
G = shearing modulus (or modulus of rigidity)
φ = relative angle of twist of the two ends of the shaft
L = length of shaft
The above relationship is analogous to the basic formula for

elastic bending (see unit 4). We do not deal further with torsional stress in
this course.
1.12 TUTORIAL
(1) A compound bar consists of a steel core (15 mm diameter) within an alloy
bar (25 mm square). If the coefficient of thermal expansion for both metals
is the same, and equal to 12 × 10 -6 per °C, find the stress in each if the
two ends are fixed in position and the temperature rises 60 °C above
that at which the bar is unstressed. Also find the total force in the bar.
ES = 200 GPa, Ealloy = 90 GPa
Answer: σS = 144 MPa; σalloy = 64.8 MPa; F = 54.5 kN
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28
(2) A rod with a diameter of 25 mm and a length of 500 mm is subjected to an

axial force of 50 kN, which causes an elongation of 0.25 mm. Determine
(a) the stress in the rod; (b) the strain; and (c) the modulus of elasticity of
the material.
Answer: 101.86 MPa; 50 × 10 -5; 203.7 GPa
(3) A composite rod with a total length of 200 mm consists of a steel rod
that is 120 mm long and 10 mm in diameter, which is rigidly attached to
the end of a brass rod that is 80 mm long and 20 mm in diameter. The
rod is used as a tie in a link mechanism and the strain in the brass rod is
limited to 0.53 × 10 -3. Given that the total extension of the composite rod
must not exceed 0.1624 mm and E for the steel is 200 GPa, calculate the
(a) strain in the steel rod; (b) load carried by the steel rod; (c) load carried
by the brass rod; and (d) modulus of elasticity for the brass.
Answer: 1 × 10 -3; 15.71 kN; 15.71 kN; 94.35 GPa
(4) An aluminium rod that is 20 mm in diameter is screwed at the ends and

passes through a 25 mm bore steel tube that is 3 mm thick. Rigid washers
and nuts are then fitted to the screwed ends of the aluminium rod and
the whole system is heated to 140 °C, at which time the nuts on the rod
are lightly tightened to take up any slack. Calculate the stress in the rod
and in the tube when the assembly has cooled to 20 °C (EST = 200 GPa;
EAL = 70 GPa; αST = 12 × 10 -6/°C; αAL = 23 × 10 -6/°C).
Answer: σAL = 65.23 MPa (T); σST = 77.625 MPa (C)
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29 T ST15 01/1

LEARNING UNIT
2 2
2 Sectional properties
Learning outcomes
AAfter studying this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
• Determine the position of the centroid of a built-up section.

• Explain what the second moment area of a section and the neutral axis of
a section are.
• Calculate the second moment of area passing through the centroid of a
built-up section about the horizontal and vertical axes.
• Determine the section modulus of the cross-section of a beam.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Sectional properties are based on the geometry of a particular structural section
which will be used in the design and analysis of the section. These properties
are used to determine the allowable stresses that may be applied on a section.
By virtue of their shapes alone, various structural sections have the following
properties:
(1) cross-sectional area (A)

(2) position of the centroid
(3) second moment of area (I)
(4) radius of gyration (r)
(5) section modulus (elastic) (Ze)
(6) section modulus (plastic) (Zp)
Comprehensive tables that show the sectional properties of common sections

are given in the South Africa Steel Construction Handbook (Red Book). In this
unit, we look at each sectional property and show how it can be calculated
for a given section without consulting the Red Book.
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30
L E AR N I N G U N I T 2: S e c t i o n a l p r o p e r ti e s
2.2 CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA

This is the total area of the cross-section of a structure. For example, the
cross-section of the cylinder below is a circle, so the area of the circle is the
cross-sectional area.
For a complex structure, such that the cross-section does not form a simple
shape, the cross-section can be divided into simple shapes and the area of
the cross-section will be the sum of the areas of the individual simple shapes
(as illustrated below).
Cross-sectional area (A) = Area of segment a (Aa) + Area of segment b (Ab)

A = Aa + A b
2.3 CENTROID
As the centre of gravity is to a given complete body, so the centroid is to a
structural section. The centre of gravity is a point on the body where the
resultant weight of the body acts for all the positions of the body. The centre
of gravity of a body is not necessarily inside the body itself; it can be outside.
The cross-section of a structural section is a plane figure without mass (hence it

cannot have weight) and a point inside or outside the section where the moment
of area about an axis passing through that point is zero is called a centroid.
Knowing the position of the centroid of a structural section is important for
ensuring the stability of the structure.
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31 T ST15 01/1

Characteristics of a centroid
• If a section has a line of symmetry, the centroid lies on that line of symmetry.
• If a section has two lines of symmetry, the centroid lies at the intersection
of the points.
The axis that determines the centroid is known as the neutral axis (NA).
To determine the centroid of a compound cross-section that consists of different

parts, proceed as follows:
(1) Divide the cross-section into its different parts whose areas and positions
of centroids are known/can be calculated.
(2) Assume the area of each part to act as a force through its centroid.
(3) Assume the total area to act through the centroid of the total cross-section
at a distance y from the top or bottom of the section for a horizontal
centroidal axis. Let the total area be A and the areas of the parts be a1, a2
... distant y1, y2 ... from the top or bottom of the section.
(4) Take moments of all areas about the top or bottom of the cross-section.
Then: A y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 + ...
Solve for y
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32
(5) Follow the same steps for a vertical centroidal axis to solve for, taking
moments about the left-hand or right-hand edges.
Example 2.3.1
Find the position of the centroid of the following figure.
Solution
a1 = 20 × 150 = 3 000
a2 = 80 × 30 = 2 400
A = 5 400
Moments about the bottom edge:
5 400 y = 3 000 × 75 + 2 400 × 15

= 225 000 + 36 000
= 261 000
y = 48.33
Moments about the left-hand edge:
5 400 x = 3 000 × 10 + 2 400 × 60

= 30 000 + 144 000
= 174 000
x = 32.22
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33 T ST15 01/1

Example 2.3.2
Find the position of the centroid of the following figure.
Solution
a1 = 1/2 (40 × 50) = 1 000

a2 = 60 × 50 = 3 000
A = 1 000 + 3 000 = 4 000
Moments about the bottom edge:
4 000 y = 1 000 × 50/3 + 3 000 × 25

= 16 666.67 + 75 000
= 91 666.67
y = 22.92
Moments about the right-hand edge:
4 000 x = 1 000 (60 + 40/3) + 3 000 × 30

= 73 333.33 + 90 000
= 163 333.33
x = 40.83
2.4 SECOND MOMENT OF AREA (MOMENT OF INERTIA)

The second moment of inertia is also referred to as the moment of inertia (I). It
is a geometrical property that measures the effectiveness of a structural section
to resist bending caused by loading. It is directly related to the cross-sectional
area of the section and the displacement of the area from the centroid.
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34
Calculating the second moment of area
In Figure 2.1 below, δA is an element of area, distant y from any axis XX.
FIGURE 2.1
Total area A = Σ δA
First moment of area about XX = Σ y2δA
I = Second moment of area about XX = Σ y2δA
or Ixx = ƒ y2dA for a continuous area
Example 2.4.1
Find Igg
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35 T ST15 01/1

Solution
Consider an element of area δA = bδy, distant y from GG.
IGG for this element = δA.y2

= bδy.y2
Example 2.4.2
Find Igg
Solution
Using the same method as for Example 2.4.1 above, we find that:
If the sections in Examples 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 are compared, with d = 2b, we
get the following result:
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36
It can be seen that the moment of inertia of the upright beam is 4 x the moment
of inertia of the flat beam, but they have equal cross-sectional areas. This is an
important result, as will be seen later when we deal with resistance to bending
and the deflection of beams.
2.5 PARALLEL AXES THEOREM
FIGURE 2.2
The parallel axes theorem states:
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37 T ST15 01/1

Proof:
Since the area would balance about G-G if it had mass:
Σ (+y) δA = Σ (-y) δA
∴ Σ yδA =0
Iqq = Σ (e + y)2 δA
= Σ ( e2 + 2 ey + y2) δA
= Σ e2 δA + Σ2ey δA + Σy2 δA
= e2 ΣδA + 2e ΣyδA + Σy2 δA
= e2 A + 0 + IGG
∴ IQQ = Igg + Ae2
Example 2.5.1
Find IBB, IQQ and IYY of the rectangular cross-section d × b.
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38
Solution
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39 T ST15 01/1

Example 2.5.2
Find Ixx of the I-section shown below.
Solution
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40
Example 2.5.3
Find IXX of the I-section below.
Solution
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41 T ST15 01/1

Example 2.5.4
Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis XX of the T-section below.
Solution
For a rectangle, I-section and so on, the position of the centroid is known
without calculation. For a T-section or other asymmetrical section, it is necessary
first to calculate the position of the centroid.
NOTE: The centroidal axis of the web is G1G1.

The centroidal axis of the flange is G2G2.
Find the position of centroidal axis XX.
Take moments about AB:
Ay = A1 y1 + A2 y2
(14 × 2 + 10 × 1)y = 14 × 2 × 8 + 10 × 1 × 0.5
38y = 224 + 5
y = 229
38 cm
y = 6.03 cm
Web: Ixx = IGG + Ae2

= 1/12 (2)(14)3 + (14 × 2) (8 – 6.03)2 cm4
= 457.3 + 108.7 cm4
= 566 cm4
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42
Flange: Ixx = IGG + Ae2

= 1/12 (10) (1)3 + (10 × 1) (6.03 – 0.5)2
= 0.8 + 305.8 cm4
= 306.6 cm4
Total Ixx = 566 + 306.6

Ixx = 872.6 cm4
Example 2.5.5
The cross-section of a structural member has the dimensions shown in the

figure below. Calculate the position of the centroid and second moment of
areas about the horizontal and vertical axis shown.
Solution
NOTE: The section is symmetrical about the vertical axis; therefore x can
easily be seen to be 65 mm.
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43 T ST15 01/1

I = IGG + Ae2
IXX = 2[1/12 × 50 × 203 + 1 000(90 – 73.47)2] + 1/12 × 30 × 1303 + 3 900(73.47
– 65)2
= 6 666.67 + 5 464 818.8 + 5 492 500 + 279 789.51 =
63 885 437.98 mm4 = 638.54 cm4
IYY = 1/12 × 20 × 503 + 1 000(65 – 25)2 + 1/12 × 130 × 303 + 0 + 1/12 ×
20 × 503 + 1 000(105 – 65)2
= 208 333.33 + 1 600 000 + 292 500 + 208 333.33 + 1 600 000 =
3 909 166.66 mm4 = 390.92 cm4
2.6 RADIUS OF GYRATION

The radius of gyration of a section is the distance from the centroid of the
section which would give the same second moment of area if the whole area
was concentrated at that distance. The radius of gyration is useful in estimating
the stiffness of a column. It can be calculated as follows:
FIGURE 2.3
If the radius of gyration = r, then
I = Ar2
That is:
2.7 SECTION MODULUS (ELASTIC)

This is based on the understanding that maximum bending caused by maximum
stress occurs at either the top or the bottom fibres of the section. The section
modulus is used in the design of beams or flexural members. The distance
from the extreme fibre to the centroid is incorporated in the calculation. The
larger the elastic section, the stronger the beam.
The elastic section modulus Ze of a cross-section is defined as:
Ze = I
y
Where: I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the centroidal axis

Y = Extreme fibre distance from the centroidal axis
This property will be used later in the bending stress calculation.

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44
2.8 SECTION MODULUS (PLASTIC)

The plastic section modulus (Zp) is a geometric property that applies to materials
where plastic behaviour can be observed and assumed to be an acceptable
limit. Most designs are done to remain below the plastic limit so to avoid
unrecoverable deformation. The plastic section modulus depends on the
plastic neutral axis (PNA). This is an axis where compression force from the
area in compression equals the tension force from the area in tension so that
for constant yielding stress, the area above and the area below the PNA are
equal. This might not always be the case for composite sections. The plastic
section modulus is also called the first moment of area about the PNA.
Plastic section modulus calculation
The plastic section modulus is calculated by adding the product of the area
of the cross-section on each side of the PNA and the distance from the local
centroids of the two areas to the PNA, as shown below.
AC = AT
ZP = ACyC + ATyT
Example 2.8.1
Calculate the plastic section modulus of the section below.
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45 T ST15 01/1

Solution
The first step is to find the position of the equal-area axis (PNA).
Total area = (300 × 20) + (430 × 15)
A = 12 450 mm2
XX represents the position of PNA
Therefore: 15a = ½ (12 450)

which gives a = 415 mm
Then: Zp(xx) = First moment of area about XX

= 300 × 20 × 25 + (15 × 15) × 15 + (15 × 415) × 415
2 2
= 1 443 400 mm 3
RECTANGLE
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46
2.9 PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLANE AREAS

TRIANGLE
CIRCLE
HOLLOW CIRCLE
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47 T ST15 01/1

I-SECTION
SEMICIRCLE
2.10 GENERAL EXAMPLES OF THE CONCEPTS DISCUSSED

Example 2.10.1
The figure below shows a built-up section. Calculate the following with MM
as reference point:
(a) the position of the centroid of the section

(b) the second moment of area about the horizontal and the vertical axis
(Ixx and Iyy)
(c) the radius of gyration, rx and r y
(d) the elastic section modulus, Ze
(e) the plastic section modulus, Zp
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48
Solution
Since YY is an axis of symmetry, its position is known: x = 150 mm.
(a) Calculating the position of the centroid of the section
(b) Calculating the second moment of area
OR
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49 T ST15 01/1

Sub- Area y Ay A e2 Ixx = IGG + Ae2

section (mm2) (mm4)
(rectangle)
1 300 × 50 = 25 375 000 3 125 000 15 000 (45 – 25)2 = 9 428 750
15 000 6 303 750
2 110 × 30 = 65 214 500 247 500 3 300 (65 – 45.5)2 = 1 502 325
3 300 1 254 825
3 70 × 50 = 115 402 500 1 429 166.67 3 500 (115 – 45.5)2 = 18 335 041.67
3 500 16 905 875
Total 21 800 992 000 29 266 116.67
y = 99 200 = 45.5 mm
21 800
Sub- Area x Ax A e2 Iyy = IGG(y) + Ae2

section (mm2) (mm4)
(rectangle)
1 300 × 50 = 150 225 000 112 500 000 15 000 (150 – 150)2 112 500 000
15 000 =0
2 110 × 30 = 150 495 000 3 327 500 3 300 (150 – 150)2 3 327 500
3 300 =0
3 70 × 50 = 150 525 000 729 166.67 3 500 (150 – 150)2 729 166.67
3 500 =0
Total 21 800 3 270 000 116 556 666.67
x = 3 270 000 = 150 mm

21 800
(c) Calculating the radius of gyration, rx and ry
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50
(d) Calculating the elastic section modulus
(e) Calculating the plastic section modulus
Let us take the distance that cut the figure into two equal areas to be P from MM.
Example 2.10.2
The figure below shows a built-up section. Calculate the following with XX
and YY as reference points:

(b) the second moment of area about the horizontal and the vertical axis (Ixx
and Iyy)
(c) the radius of gyration, rx and r y
(e) the plastic section modulus, Zp
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51 T ST15 01/1

Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
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52
Example 2.10.3
Compute the following sectional properties of the section shown:

(b) the second moment of area about the horizontal and vertical axis (Ixx and Iyy)
(c) the radius of gyration, rx and ry
All dimensions are in mm
Solution
(a)
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53 T ST15 01/1

(b)
(c)
(d)
2.11 TUTORIAL
Calculate the position of the centroids and the second moment of areas about
a horizontal axis (from the bottom) and vertical axis (from the left) through
the centroid for the following built-up sections (Questions 1 and 2). (All the
dimensions are in millimetres.)
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54
Question 1
Answer: x = 80 mm; y = 45.71 mm; Ix = 13.928 × 106 mm; Iy = 16.85 ×

106 mm4
Question 2
Answer: x = 194.03 mm; y = 170 mm; Ix = 299.68 × 106 mm4; Iy = 284.34

× 106 mm4
(3) The figure below shows a built-up section. Calculate the following with
XX and YY as reference points:

(b) the second moment of area about the horizontal axis (Ixx)
(c) the radius of gyration, rx
(d) the elastic section modulus
NOTE: Assume that the triangle and the hollow parts share the same centroid.
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55 T ST15 01/1

Answer: x = 40.36 mm; y = 31.21 mm; Ix = 2 918 593.69 mm4; r x =

24.81 mm; Zex = 93 514.7 mm3
(4) A non-standard I-section is shown in the figure below.
(a) Decide the centroid point.

(b) Decide the second moment of area about x-x, IXX
(c) Decide the second moment of area about y-y, IYY
(d) Decide the radius of gyration, rx and ry
(e) Decide the elastic section modulus.
(f) Decide the plastic section modulus.
Answer: x = 55 mm; y = 50.91 mm (from the bottom); Ix = 9 183 030.31

mm4; Iy = 2 796 666.67 mm4; r x = 45.68 mm; r y = 25.21 mm; Zex =
180 377.73 mm3; Zey = 180 000 mm3
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56
LEARNING UNIT
3 3
3 Simple beams
Learning outcomes
• Explain what shear force and bending moment are.

• Calculate shear force and bending moment values at any given point on a
beam and determine the maximum shear force and bending moment.
• Relate together load, shear force and bending moment.
• Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for statically determinate
beams.
• Obtain where the point of contraflexure of a beam lies.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Beams are horizontal structural members (Figure 3.1) which carry loads from
the roof and slab to the columns, walls or girders.
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57 T ST15 01/1

FIGURE 3.1
Cross-section of a beam
Beams are members that are subjected to loads transverse to the axis. They
are classified according to the way they are supported and their locations in
a structural system.
3.2 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

The three major types of beam supports are explained below.
(1) Pinned or hinged support
FIGURE 3.2
Pinned or hinged support
When loaded, pinned or hinged support
• can resist vertical and horizontal movement; therefore, there are vertical
and horizontal resisting forces at the support
• can undergo rotation; therefore, there is no resisting moment at the support
The free body diagram (FBD) for pinned or hinged support is shown in Figure
3.3.
FIGURE 3.3
Free body diagram of pinned or hinged support
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58
L E AR N I N G U N I T 3: Si m p l e b e a ms
(2) Roller support
FIGURE 3.4
Roller support
When loaded, roller support
• can resist only vertical movement but can be displaced horizontally;

therefore, there is only vertical resisting force at the support
• can undergo rotation; therefore, there is no resisting moment at the support.
The free body diagram (FBD) for roller support is shown in Figure 3.5.
FIGURE 3.5
Free body diagram of roller support
(3) Fixed support
FIGURE 3.6
Fixed support
When loaded, fixed support can resist vertical, horizontal and rotational
movement; therefore, there are vertical and horizontal resisting forces, as well
as a moment that resists the rotational displacement, at the support.
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59 T ST15 01/1

The free body diagram (FBD) for roller support is shown in Figure 3.7.
FIGURE 3.7
Free body diagram of fixed support
3.3 TYPES OF BEAMS

Beams can be grouped into two classes: determinate and indeterminate.
Simple beams are statically determinate beams, in other words, all reactions
can be found by considering the three basic conditions for static equilibrium:
(1) ΣV = 0
(2) ΣH = 0
(3) ΣM = 0
NOTE: If ΣV ≠ 0, the beam would move up or down.

If ΣH ≠ 0, the beam would move to the left or right.
If ΣM ≠ 0, the beam would rotate clockwise or anti-clockwise.
Types of simple beams:
(1) Simply supported beam
FIGURE 3.8
Simply supported beam
• It is supported at the two ends: there is a pin support at one end and a
roller support at the other end.
• It resists applied load by reacting forces at the supports; there is no resisting
moment at the support.
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60
(2) Overhanging beam
FIGURE 3.9
Overhanging beam
• One or both ends of the beam extend beyond the support.
• It resists applied load by reacting forces at the supports; there is no resisting
moment at the support.
(3) Cantilever beam
FIGURE 3.10
Cantilever beam
• It is rigidly fixed at one end.
• It resists applied load by reacting forces at the supports and a moment.
Other types of beams (such as continuous beams, built-in beams and beams
fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end) are classified as statically
indeterminate beams. This means that they have more than three reactions at
the support and cannot be analysed by using static equilibrium equations only.
We will not be talking about statically indeterminate beams in this unit.
3.4 TYPES OF LOADS

(1) Concentrated/point load
FIGURE 3.11
Concentrated load
The load acts on a small area of the beam.
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61 T ST15 01/1

(2) Uniformly distributed load (UDL)
FIGURE 3.12
Uniformly distributed load
The load is distributed over the entire length of the beam.
(3) Linear varying load
FIGURE 3.13
Linear varying load
The load varies linearly over the beam.
A beam can be subjected to any of the above loads or a combination of them.

For example:
(a) This beam is subjected to both

concentrated load and UDL.
(b) This beam is subjected to both

UDL and linearly varying loading.
FIGURE 3.14
Combination of loads
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62
3.4.1 Effect of load on a beam

The loading of a beam tends to cause failure in two ways:
(1) By shearing the beam across its cross-section
FIGURE 3.15
Positive and negative shear
(a) A positive (+ve) shear occurs when external forces tend to push the
portion of the member on the left of the section upward in relation
to the portion on the right of the section.
(b) A negative (-ve) shear occurs when external forces tend to push the
portion of the member on the left of the section downward in relation
to the portion on the right of the section.
(2) By bending the beam to an excessive degree
FIGURE 3.16
Positive and negative bending
(a) Positive (+ve) bending occurs when the external forces and couples
tend to bend the beam concave upward, causing compression in the
upper fibres and tension in the lower fibres of the beam at a section.
(b) Negative (-ve) bending occurs when the external forces and couples
tend to bend the beam concave downward, causing tension in the
upper fibres and compression in the lower fibres of the beam at a
section.
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63 T ST15 01/1
3.5 CALCULATION OF REACTIONS
The reactions are found by considering the three basic conditions for static
equilibrium: ΣH = 0, ΣV = 0 and ΣM = 0.
Example 3.5.1
Calculate the reactions for the loaded simply supported beam shown below.
Solution
ΣMB = 0:5VA – 800 = 0 \ VA = 160 kN
ΣMA = 0:5VB – 1 200 = 0 \ VB = 240 kN
Check: ΣV = 0: VA + VB = 400 kN
ΣH = 0: HA = 0
ALTERNATIVELY:
VA = 160 kN as calculated above
ΣV = 0: VA + VB = 400
VB = 400 – 60
VB = 240 kN
NOTE: VA and VB are the reactions to the external loading system.
Example 3.5.2
Calculate the reactions for the loaded simply supported beam with overhang
shown below.
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64
Solution
NOTE: For UDL, load/m must first be converted to the actual magnitude of the
load acting at the centroid of the shape. Therefore, the magnitude of 50 kN/m
will be 50 × 8, acting at 4 m.
Hint: UDL takes the shape of a rectangle.
ΣMC = 0: 6VB – (120 × 8) – (70 × 4.5) – (70 × 1.5) – (50 × 8 × 4) = 0

6VB = 2980
VB = 496.67 kN
ΣMB = 0: -6VC – (120 × 2) + (70 × 1.5) + (70 × 4.5) + (50 × 8 × 2) = 0

6VC = 980
VC = 163.33 kN
Check: ΣV = 0:
VB + VC – 120 – 70 – 70 – (50 × 8) = 0
496.67 + 163.33 – 660 = 0
ALTERNATIVELY:
VB = 496.67 kN as calculated above
ΣV = 0: 496.67 + VC = 120 + 70 + 70 + 400

VC = 163.33 kN
NOTE: VA and VB are the reactions to the external loading system.
Example 3.5.3
Calculate the reactions for the loaded cantilever.
Solution
ΣV = 0: VA = 100 + 50 + (20 × 3) kN VA = 210 kN

ΣM = 0: MA = (100 × 3) + (50 × 6) + (20 × 3 × 4.5) MA = 870 kNm
ΣH = 0: HA = 0
NOTE: VA, HA and MA are the reactions to the external loading system.
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65 T ST15 01/1

3.6 SHEAR FORCE

Shear force is the internal force which occurs in a beam, resisting the external
loading system. It acts perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam and
is transmitted from point to point along the beam.
A beam, as a whole, must satisfy the three basic conditions for static equilibrium.
Similarly, any portion of a beam must satisfy the same conditions. A diagram
of a portion of a beam showing the external loading system as well as the
internal forces is called a free body diagram (FBD).
Consider the free body diagram of portion LX of beam LR as shown in Figure

3.17.
FIGURE 3.17
The internal force at X resisting the external loading system = Shear force S
For equilibrium ΣV = 0
∴ S = VL – W – wx
Definition
The shear force (SF) value at any section of a beam is the resultant vertical
force of all the forces acting on one side of the section.
Sign convention
Shear force up on left and down on right = +
Shear force down on left and up on right = –
Clockwise moment on left and anti-clockwise moment on right = +
Anti-clockwise moment on left and clockwise moment on right = –
Example 3.6.1
Calculate the SF at A and at 2 m from A for the beam shown.
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66
Solution
Find reactions
Σ MB = 0: 5VA = (400 × 2) + (300 × 2.5 × 3.75)

VA = 722.5 kN
S MA = 0: 5VB = (400 × 3) + (300 × 2.5 × 1.25)

VB = 427.5 kN
Check: SV = 0: 722.5 + 427.5 – 400 – (300 × 2.5) = 0 √
SF immediately to the left of A = 0, since there are no forces to the left of A

(see the definition of SF).
SF immediately to the right of A
ΣV = 0: SA = VA
SA = + 722.5 kN
(SF is positive, since force is up on the left and down on the right.)
SF at 2 m from A
ΣV = 0: S = 722.5 – 2 × 300
S = 122.5 kN
...........
67 T ST15 01/1

3.7 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

A shear force (SF) diagram is a scale representation of the shear force at any
point along the beam. If the SF at various points is calculated and plotted, this
will give rise to the SF diagram.
For UDLs and point loads, the SF diagram will consist of straight lines, so that
the only shear forces that need to be calculated and plotted are those at point
loads and at the ends of UDLs.
NOTE:
(1) At point loads, the SF changes from just left of the load to just right of the
load by an amount equal to the load.
(2) For the purpose of the SF diagram, the reactions at the supports are taken
as loads.
Example 3.7.1
Calculate the shear forces and draw the SF diagram for the beam shown below:
Solution
VA and VB were calculated in Example 3.5.1.
SA = 722.5 kN
SC = 722.5 – (300 × 2.5) = -27.5 kN
SD (L) = 722.5 – (300 × 2.5) = -27.5 kN
SD (R) = 722.5 – (300 × 2.5) – 400 = -427.5 kN
SB = 722.5 – (300 × 2.5) – 400 = -427.5 kN √
...........
68
Example 3.7.2
Draw the SF diagram for the beam below.
Solution
From inspection, the beam is symmetrical. Therefore:
VB = VC = 120 + 70 + 5 × 50 = 440 kN
SA = -120 kN
SB (L) = -120 – (2 × 50) = -220 kN
SB (R) = -220 + 440 = +220 kN
SE (L) = +220 – (50 × 1.5) = +145 kN
SE (R) = 145 – 70 = +75 kN
SF (L) = +75 – (3 × 50) = -75 kN
SF (R) = -75 – 70 = -145 kN
SC (L) = -145 – (1.5 × 50) = -220 kN
SC (R) = -220 + 440 = +220 kN
SD (L) = +220 – 2 × 50 = +120 kN
SD(R) = +120 – 120 = 0
...........
69 T ST15 01/1

3.8 BENDING MOMENT

Bending moment (BM) is the internal moment that occurs in a beam, resisting
the moments of the external loading system. It acts in the vertical plane through
the longitudinal axis of the beam and is transmitted from point to point along
the beam.
Consider the free body diagram of portion LX of beam LR as shown in Figure

3.18.
FIGURE 3.18
Internal moment at X resisting moments of external loads = Mx
For equilibrium ΣM = 0
Definition
The bending moment M at a point in a beam equals the sum of the moments
about the point considered of all external forces to the left (or to the right) of
the point.
...........
70
Sign convention
Sagging BM is taken as positive:
Hogging BM is taken as negative:
Example 3.8.1 (Point load only)
Find the BM at any distance x from A in the beam shown in the figure below.
Solution
From inspection
The expressions for BM differ for values of x < a and x > a.
...........
71 T ST15 01/1

Example 3.8.2 (Point load + UDL)

Find the bending moment at any distance x from A in the beam shown in the
figure below.
Solution
Find VA and VB
Σ MB = 0: 9VA = 2 000 × 6 + 400 × 9 × 4.5

VA = 3 133.33 kN
Σ MA = 0: 9VB = 2 000 × 3 + 400 × 9 × 4.5
VB = 2 466.67 kN
Check: VA + VB = 3 133.33 + 2 466.67 = 5 600 kN √
Example 3.8.3 (Cantilever)
Find the bending moment at any distance x from A in the beam shown in the
figure below.
...........
72
Solution
Reactions: VB = W
MB = Wl
Considering moments of forces to the left of C about C:
Mx = -Wx
OR
Considering moments of forces to the right of C about C:
Mx = -MB + W (l – x)
= -Wl + Wl – Wx
= -Wx (which, of course, is the same as above)
NOTE: There is hogging in the beam, ∴ -BM
3.9 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING

MOMENT
The relationship between load, SF and BM is very useful when you are
calculating shear force and bending moment values throughout the entire
length of a beam and also when you are constructing shear force and bending
moment diagrams.
Consider the simply supported beam shown below, carrying a uniformly
distributed load w per unit length. Taking a small section AB from the beam
with distance dx, let V and M be the shear force and bending moment at point
A respectively and V + dV and M + dM be the shear force and bending
moment at point B respectively.
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73 T ST15 01/1

Applying static equilibrium equations:
ΣFy = 0
V – wdx – (V + dV) = 0
V – wdx – V – dV = 0
– wdx = dV
– w = dV Also by integration: V = ∫ wdx + C
dx
• This represents the slope of the SF diagram.
ΣM = 0
M + Vdx – wdx2 – (M + dM) = 0
2
M + Vdx – wdx2 – M – dM = 0
2
Vdx – wdx – dM = 0
2
If we ignore the squares of small values, the equation becomes:
Vdx – dM = 0
Vdx = dM
V = dM Also by integration: M = ∫ Vdx + C
dx
• This represents the slope of the bending moment diagram (BMD).
These are important results, and the following deductions can be made:
(1) BM is a maximum when dM = 0

dx
But dM = V
dx
Thus, BM is a maximum at the point where the shear force = 0.
(2) If w (loading intensity) can be expressed in terms of x, then expressions

for shear force V and bending moment M can be obtained by integration.
(3) If the load is uniform and w is constant:
...........
74
Example 3.9.1
Find the point where the maximum bending moment occurs in the beam
below and calculate its value.
Solution
VA and VB were calculated in Example 3.7.2.
The SF diagram can now be drawn:
SA = 3 133.33 kN
Sc (L) = 3 133.33 – 3 × 400 = 1 933.67 kN
Sc (R) = 3 133.33 – 3 × 400 – 2 000 = -66.67 kN
SB = -66.67 – 6 × 400 = -2 466.67 kN
Position of maximum BM is where δ.F. = 0 (i.e. at point load)
Mmax = 3 133.33 × 3 – (400 × 3 × 1.5)

= 7 600 kNm
...........
75 T ST15 01/1

ALTERNATIVELY USING CALCULUS:
3.10 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

A diagram representing bending moments (BM) at any point along the beam
can be drawn similarly to SF diagrams. A BM diagram is the distribution or
variation of the bending moment values along the beam.
You should be familiar with the following standard cases of bending moment
diagrams as shown in Figures 3.19(1)–(7).
(1) Simply supported beam with central point load
...........
76
(2) Simply supported beam with UDL over whole span
Simply supported beam with two equal point loads equidistant from
(3)
supports
(4) Simply supported beam with single non-central point load
...........
77 T ST15 01/1

(5) Simply supported beam with UDL over whole span as well as central
point load
(6) Cantilever with point load at end
...........
78
(7) Cantilever with UDL over the whole length
FIGURE 3.19
3.11 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE

A point of contraflexure is a point where the curvature of a beam under loading
changes from concave upwards to concave downwards, or vice versa. Thus
for an infinitely small length the beam is straight, and BM = 0.
FIGURE 3.20
To find the point/s of contraflexure, an expression for the bending moment at

any point x must be developed, equated to zero and solved for x.
Example 3.11.1
Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the cantilever beam below. Calculate the value of the shear force and
bending moment at K.
...........
79 T ST15 01/1

Solution
Reactions
ΣV = 0: VA = 30 + 40 + 20 + (8 × 4) = 122 kN
ΣM = 0: MA – (20 × 2) – (40 × 4) – (30 × 5) – (8 × 4 × 2) = 0
MA = -414 kNm
Shear forces Bending moments
SA = 122 kN MA = -414 kNm

SB(L) = 122 – (8 × 2) = 106 kN MB = -414 + 122 × 2 – (8 × 2 × 1) = -186 kNm
SB(R) = 106 – 20 = 86 kN MK = -30 × 2.5 – (40 × 1.5) – (8 × 1.5 × 0.75)
= -1444 kNm
SK = 86 – (0.5 × 8) = 82 kN MC = -30 × 1 = -30 kNm
SC(L) = 82 – (8 × 1.5) = 70 kN MD = 0
SC(R) = 70 – 40 = 30 kN
SD(L) = 30 kN
SD(R) = 0
NOTE:
You will have noticed that positive bending moments are shown below the
beam line and negative bending moments above the beam line, which is
contrary to normal practice in mathematics. This convention will be adhered
to where bending moment diagrams are concerned, as the deflected shape
of the beam can be more easily visualised.
Example 3.11.2
Find the equations for the shear force and the bending moment for the beam
with uniformly increasing UDL shown below, and sketch the SF and BM
diagrams, showing values and the positions at which they occur.
...........
80
Solution
Find reactions
Equation for SF
Solving gives: x = +3.12 m or -19.12 m
Ignore the -19.12 m value.
...........
81 T ST15 01/1

Equation for BM
Mx is a maximum at SF = 0 (i.e. at x = 3.12 m)
ALTERNATIVELY:
maximum BM. Solve for x.
Example 3.11.3
Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown
below, and calculate the maximum values and the positions at which they
occur. Also calculate the position of contraflexure.
...........
82
Solution
Find reactions
Σ MB = 0: 10VA = (150 × 12 × 4) – (2 500 × 2)

VA = 220 kN
S MA = 0: 10VB = (150 × 12 × 6) + (2 500 × 12)
VB = 4 080 kN
Check: 220 + 4 080 = 150 × 12 + 2 500 √
Sketch SF diagram
SA = 220 kN
SB(L) = 220 – (10 × 150) = -1 280
SB(R) = -1 280 + 4 080 = 2 800
SC(L) = 2 800 – (2 × 150) = 2 500
Calculate x (position where SF = 0)
220 – 150x = 0 x = 22 m
15
ALTERNATIVELY: Mx = 220x – 150x

2
2
dMx
220 – 150x = 0 for maximum BM
dx
Solve for x
...........
83 T ST15 01/1

Sketch BM diagram
BM diagram (values in kNm)
Point of contraflexure
Contraflexure occurs where M = 0 (i.e. at point D).
As the BM diagram from A to D is parabolic,
Mx = 220 × -150x = 0 at contraflexure

2
ALTERNATIVELY:
2
Solve for x
Example 3.11.4
For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate the position and magnitude
of the maximum sagging bending moment and also the positions of the points
of contraflexure.
...........
84
Solution
Find reactions
Σ MB = 0: 4VA + (40 × 1) – (30 × 1.5) – (3.1 × 24 × 3.05) = 0

4VA = -40 + 45 + 226.92
VA = 57.98 kN
Σ MA = 0: 4VB – 40 × 5 – (30 × 2.5) – (24 × 3.1 × 0.95) = 0
4VB = 200 + 75 + 70.68
VB = 86.42 kN
Check: 57.98 + 86.42 = (24 × 3.1) + 30 + 40 √
Find shear forces
SC = 0
SA(L) = -24 × 0.6 = -14.4 kN
SA(R) = -14.4 + 57.98 = 43.58 kN
SD(L) = 43.58 – (24 × 2.5) = -16.42 kN
SD(R) = -16.42 – 30 = -46.42 kN
SB(L) = -46.42
SB(R) = -46.42 + 86.42 = 40 kN
SE(L) = 40 kN
...........
85 T ST15 01/1

Find bending moments
MA = -24 × 0.6 × 0.3 = -4.32 kNm

MB = -40 × 1 = -40 kNm
Mmax occurs where SF = 0 (i.e. at 1.82 m from A)
Mmax = (57.98 × 1.82) – (24 × 2.42 × 1.21) = 35.24 kNm
Find points of contraflexure P and Q (where BM = 0)
P: Mx1 = 57.98 (x1 – 0.6) – 24x1 = 0

2
2
Solving gives x1 = 0.70 or 4.1 m
The value 4.1 m is untenable, as it falls outside the range for Mx1.
That is: P lies 0.7 – 0.6 = 0.1 m from A
Q: Mx2 = 86.42 (x2 – 1) – 40 x2 = 0

Solving gives x2 = 1.86 m
That is: Q lies 1.86 – 1 = 0.86 m from B
ALTERNATIVELY:
The position of Q can be obtained by taking moments from the left. This,
however, entails more work with a higher chance of making an error in the
calculation. The simpler solutions should always be sought.
Example 3.11.5
For the beam shown in the figure, draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams and calculate the following:
(a) The position and magnitude of the maximum positive and negative
bending moments
(b) The points of contraflexure
...........
86
Solution
Find reactions
Σ MD = 0: 2VL = (20 × 2 × 2) – (80 × 1 × 0.5)

VL = 20 kN
Σ MB = 0: 2VR = 80 × 1 × 2.5
VR = 100 kN
Check: 20 + 100 = 20 × 2 + 80 × 1 √
Find shear forces
SA = 0
SB(L) = -20 × 1 = -20 kN
SB(R) = -20 + 20 = 0
SC = 0 – (20 × 1) = -20 kN
SD(L) = -20 kN
SD(R) = -20 + 100 = 80 kN
SE(L) = 80 – (80 × 1) = 0
Bending moments
MA 0
MB = -20 × 1 × 0.5 = -10 kNm
MC = (20 × 1) – (20 × 2 × 1) = -20 kNm
MD = (20 × 2) – (20 × 2 × 2) = -40 kNm
ME = 0
...........
87 T ST15 01/1

There are no points of contraflexure, since the bending moment remains

negative throughout.
Example 3.11.6
A beam ABCDEF of constant flexural rigidity (EI) is loaded as shown. An anti-

clockwise moment is applied at point C as shown. Draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams and find the position of the point of contraflexure.
Solution
ΣMA = 0: (VD × 7) + 15 = (12 × 12) + (8 × 25 × (5+1))

giving VD = 161.3 kN
ΣMD = 0: (VA × 7) + (12 × 5) + 25 × 2 × 1 = 15 + (25 × 6 × 3)
giving VA = 50.7 kN
Check: SV = 0: 161.3 + 50.7 = (25 × 8) + 12 √
Find shear forces
SA = 50.7 kN
SB = 50.7 kN
SD(L) = 50.7 – (25 × 6) = -99.3 kN
SD(R) = -99.3 + 161.3 = +62 kN
SE = +62 – (25 × 2) = +12 kN
SF(L) = +12 kN
...........
88
Find bending moments
MA = 0
MB = 50.7 kNm
MC(L) = (50.7 × 4) – (25 × 3 × 1.5) = +90.3 kNm
MC(R) = +90.3 – 15 = 75.3 kNm
MD = (50.7 × 7) – (25 × 6 × 3) – 15 = -110.1 kNm
ME = (50.7 × 9) – (25 × 8 × 4) – 15 + (161.3 × 2) = -36.1 kNm
MF = 0
Find Mmax
Assume Mmax to occur in range 0 < x < 4m.
NOTE: If x should fall outside the range assumed, choose the next range.
ALTERNATIVELY: Mmax occurs where SF = 0. From simple geometry, it will

be found that q = 2.028 m. (See the SF diagram.)
This is where BM = 0.
Find x (see the BM diagram) 0 < x < 7
Solving gives x = 5.67 m or 0.39 m
∴ Point of contraflexure occurs 5.67 from A.
...........
89 T ST15 01/1

3.12 TUTORIAL
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams, and find the maximum
shear force, maximum bending moment and point(s) of contraflexure (PCF)
of the following beams:
...........
90
(1)
Answer: R A = 9.33 kN; RD = 10.67 kN; Vmax = -10.67 kN, C–D; Mmax =
21.3 kNm, C
(2)
Answer: RC = 48 kN; RF = 16 kN; Vmax = 26 kN, C–D; Mmax = -70 kNm, C;

PCF 6.87 m from F
(3)
Answer: Vmax = -30kN, B; Mmax = -30 kNm, B
...........
91 T ST15 01/1

(4) A beam ABCDE has AB = 2 m, BC = 2 m, CD = 2 m and DE = 6 m.

One of the supports is at point B. The beam carries the following loads:
at A, a concentrated load of 8 kN; at C, a concentrated load of 5 kN; at
D, a concentrated upward force 3.4 kN; and at E, a concentrated load
of 5 kN. There is a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m from point D
to point E. If there is a point of contraflexure 4.5 m from A, calculate the
position of the other support. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams and determine the magnitude and position of all the relevant
points.
Answer: RB = 17.4 kN; RF = 31.2 kN 7 m from B; Vmax = 17 kN, F; Mmax

= -33 kNm, F; PCF 3.7 m from A.
...........
92
LEARNING UNIT
4 4
4 Theory of elastic bending
Learning outcomes
• Explain the term “neutral axis of a section”.

• Apply the beam formula to determine the bending stress at any point in a
statically determinate beam.
• Determine the section modulus of the cross-section of a beam.
• Apply the principle of superposition.
• Apply the beam formula and modular ratio to determine the stresses
in composite bars.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Bending stress is briefly mentioned in learning unit 1: Stresses and strains.
(See section 1.10.) In this unit, we analyse bending and bending stresses in
more detail.
...........
93 T ST15 01/1

Basic assumptions of the theory of elastic bending:
(1) The material is homogeneous, and Young’s modulus (E) is the same in
both tension and compression.
(2) Plane cross-sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam
remain plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis after bending
(Bernoulli’s hypothesis).
(3) The stress–strain relationship is linear for the loading considered.
4.2 DERIVATION OF FUNDAMENTAL FORMULA
Consider an elemental length of beam dx with moment M applied at each

end, the plane of the moment coinciding with the axis of symmetry. The initial
straight shape and the shape after bending are shown in Figure 4.1.
FIGURE 4.1
It is clear from the deformed shape of the beam that the fibres at the top (convex
side) extend (i.e. they are in tension), while those at the bottom (concave side)
shorten (i.e. they are in compression).
...........
94
L E AR N I N G U N I T 4: T h e o r y o f e l as t i c b e n d i n g
Between the top and bottom fibres, therefore, there must be one layer which
neither extends nor shortens, but remains the same length, and is therefore
unstressed. This layer is known as the neutral axis (E1F1 = E F).
If the deformed shape is such that the neutral axis is bent in the form of a
circular arc of radius R, then, since δφ is very small, δx = Rδφ i.e.
Consider a layer GH at distance y from the neutral axis as shown. Under

bending, its length increases to G1H1
Position of neutral axis (na)
Let δA be the area of a strip of beam distance y from the na.
For equilibrium, total tension = total compression
That is: 1st moment of area above na = 1st moment of area below na.
∴ The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section.
...........
95 T ST15 01/1

Again, for equilibrium:
Moment of resistance provided by internal forces about na = Externally

applied moment
4.3 SECTION MODULUS

For extreme fibre on the compression side:
For extreme fibre on the tension side:
If a section is symmetrical about the neutral axis (na)
For a section that is symmetrical about the neutral axis yc = yt
If σ is the maximum allowable stress, M is the maximum allowable bending

moment on the section and is called the moment of resistance of the section
(i.e. the maximum bending moment the section is able to resist).
If the section is not symmetrical about the na, there will then be two section
moduli.
...........
96
FIGURE 4.2
For a rectangular section
FIGURE 4.3
NOTES:
(1) Like I, section modulus Z is given in the Red Book in mm units, for example
for a 152 × 15 × 23 H section Ze about the xx axis = 165 × 103 mm3
(2) In practice, bending is accompanied by shear force and the bending
moment varies along the beam. Although the basic assumptions no longer
hold good completely, experimental evidence shows that the formula
deduced gives sufficiently accurate results.
Example 4.3.1
A simply supported beam of span 4 m carries a UDL of 15 kN/m. If the cross-

section of the beam is rectangular (150 mm deep × 50 mm wide), find the
maximum stress due to bending.
...........
97 T ST15 01/1
Solution
The maximum bending moment occurs at midspan:
Example 4.3.2
A beam has a cross-section as shown. The ultimate stress is 240 MPa for the
material of which it is made. Find the maximum bending moment the beam
can take if a stress factor of 2 is applied. 120 mm
...........
98
Solution
Example 4.3.3
(a) A uniform beam, having a cross-section as shown in the figure below, is

6 m long and is simply supported at its ends. Find the maximum UDL,
self-weight included, which it can carry over its whole length in addition
to a point load of 20 kN at midspan if the permissible bending stress is
20 MPa.
(b) A steel wire of 6 mm diameter is coiled round a 6 m diameter drum
without being left under tension. Determine the maximum bending stress
set up in the wire.
E = 200 GPa.
...........
99 T ST15 01/1

Solution
Hint: To get the Ixx, take the bigger rectangle as a unit and subtract the effect
of the two smaller rectangles, the four small triangles and the two small holes
(circles).
Find Ixx
Ixx = 1/12 (30)(35)3 – 2(1/12)(10)(16)3 – 4 [1/36 (10)(4.5)3 + 1/2 (10)(4.5)(9.5)2] – 2 [π /4

(2.5)4 + π /4 (5)2 (12.5)2]
= 107 188 – 6 827 – 4(25 + 2 031) – 2(31 + 3 068)
= 107 188 – 6 827 – 8 224 – 6 198 = 85 939 cm4
Mmax = (3w + 10) 3 – 3w (3/2) kNm
...........
100
NOTES:
Wire is bent to radius of curvature R = 3 m
y = 3 mm: E = 200 GPa
Example 4.3.4
A beam has a rectangular section 40 mm wide, 120 mm deep and a span

of 1 m. The beam is simply supported, carries a concentrated load of 10 kN
at midspan and is subjected to an axial compressive force of 50 kN applied
on the centroid of the cross-section. Calculate the maximum resultant stress
and stress at 0.8 m from the left of the beam and plot the stress distribution
diagrams for these sections. What can you deduce from the result?
Solution
...........
101 T ST15 01/1

Bending moment diagram
Maximum resultant stress
...........
102
Stress at 0.8 m from left of beam
VA = VB = 10 = 5 kN (1 mark)
2
Bending moment at this section = VA(0.8) – 10(0.3) = 4 – 3 = 1 kNm (1 mark)
The result shows that there is no tensile stress at the point 0.8 m from the left
of the beam.
Example 4.3.5
For the simply supported beam shown in the figure below, draw the shear force
diagram and calculate the maximum bending moment. With e a permissible
bending stress of 160 MPa, calculate the elastic modulus required.
Solution
Find reactions
5RB = (10 × 6) + (15 × 1 × 5.5) + (12 × 2 × 4) + (20 × 3 × 1.5) – (20 × 0.5)

– (20 × 0.5 × 0.25)
= 60 + 82.5 + 96 + 90 – 10 – 35 = 316
...........
103 T ST15 01/1

RB = 63.2 kN
5RD = (20 × 5.5) + (20 × 0.5 ×5.25) + (20 × 3 × 3.5) + (12 × 2 × 1) –

(15 × 1 × 0.5 – 10 × 1)
= 110 + 52.5 + 210 + 24 – 7.5 – 10 = 379
RD = 75.8 kN
Check: ΣV = 0: 63.2 + 75.8 = 10 + 15 + 24 + 60 + 10 + 20 √
Draw the SF diagram
VA = -10
VB(L) = -10 – 15 = -25
VB(R) = -25 + 63.2 = +38.2
VC(K) = +38.2 – 24 = +14.2
VD(L) = +14.2 – 60 = -45.8
VD(R) = -45.8 + 75.8 = +30
VE(L) = +30 – 10 = +20
Find x (i.e. where SF = 0)
14.2 – 20x = 0
x = 0.71 m
That is: SF = 0 at 2.71 m from B
That is: BM is a maximum at 2.71 m from B
Mmax = (63.2 × 2.71) – (10 × 3.71) – (15 × 1 × 3.21) – (12 × 2 × 1.71) +

(20 × 0.71 × 0.355)
= 39.9 kNm
Check: Mmax = 75.8 × 2.29 – 20 × 2.79 – 20 × 2.79 × 1.395
= 39.9 kNm √
...........
104
4.4 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

If a material is elastic and obeys Hooke’s law, it follows that
(a) Stresses are proportional to strains

(b) Loads are proportional to deflections
(c) Moments are proportional to rotations
The principle of superpositions states:
The effect on an elastic structure of any loading system will be the algebraic sum
of the effects of the individual components of the loading system. The principle
of superposition can also be applied to members subject to a combination of
stresses. A beam under a combination of axial thrust and bending moment
might at some section have a distribution of stress across the section as follows:
FIGURE 4.4
...........
105 T ST15 01/1

Further examples of the principle are as follows:
Loading
(1)
(2)
(3)
FIGURE 4.5
Bending moment
FIGURE 4.6
...........
106
Example 4.4.1
A cantilever beam ABC is 3 m long and has a rectangular cross-section

100 mm wide × 300 mm deep. It carries a uniformly distributed load (including
self-weight) of 4 kN/m and an axial compressive load of 150 kN, as shown
in the sketch.
(a) Calculate the bending moments at A and at midspan B and draw the
bending moment diagram.
(b) Find the top and bottom fibre stresses at A, B and C.
(c) Calculate the distance from C where the tensile stress in the top fibres = 0.
Solution
(a) MA = -4 × 3 × 1.5 = -18 kNm

MB = -4 × 11/2 × 0.75 = -4.5 kNm
Bending moment diagram
(values in kNm)
(b) Point A
Bending:
Direct force:
...........
107 T ST15 01/1

Point B
Point C
Bending σb = 0
σC = 5 MPa as before
(c) Let distance from C = x
...........
108
Working in N and m:
giving x = 1.936 m
Example 4.4.2
The figure shows the cross-section of a short hollow column. The diameter of
the drain pipe running through the column is 125 mm and the centre line of the
pipe is displaced 20 mm from the centre of the column. Calculate the maximum
and minimum stresses resulting from the application of a comprehensive force
of 1 MN applied along the longitudinal axis through the centre line of the
column. Use the principle of superposition of stresses.
100 mm
100 mm
...........
109 T ST15 01/1

Solution
Find the centroid of the column
which gives yt = 91.15 mm (i.e. yc = 108.85 mm)

P = 1 MN = 1000 kN
eccentricity e = 100 – 91.15 = 8.85 mm
Bending: M = Pe
= 1 000 × 8.85 = 8 850 kN/mm
Find IXX (cm units)
...........
110
OR
4.5 COMPOSITE BEAMS

The flitched beam is the simplest type of composite beam. A flitched beam is
a beam of (for example) timber that is strengthened by adding (for example)
a steel plate to the upper and lower surfaces or on either side in such a way
that there is no slip between the two materials, as shown in Figure 4.7.
FIGURE 4.7
Strain in steel = Strain in timber
is called the modular ratio m
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111 T ST15 01/1

The sketches below show two ways of considering the composite (or flitched)
beam.
FIGURE 4.8
Figure 4.8(a) shows how the composite beam is transformed to an equivalent

steel beam and Figure 4.8(b) shows how the composite beam is transferred
to an equivalent timber beam.
NOTE: Only horizontal dimensions can be altered. Alteration to vertical

dimensions will change the value of the strain.
Example 4.5.1
A composite beam is formed using a 400 mm × 180 mm timber beam with a

300 m × 12 mm steel plate securely fixed to each side, as shown in the sketch.
...........
112
300 mm
400 mm
The maximum stress in the steel and timber may not exceed 140 and 9 MPa
respectively, and the modular ratio is 20.
(a) What will be the actual stresses used for (i) the steel and (ii) the timber?
(b) What is the safe moment of resistance in kNm for the beam section?
Solution
200 mm
150 mm
300 mm
400 mm
...........
113 T ST15 01/1

I of equivalent steel beam
4.6 TUTORIAL
(1) Figures a and b show a loaded beam and its section respectively.
(a) Calculate the reactions at A and E.
(b) Draw the shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
(c) What is the maximum shearing force and bending moment, and their
positions?
(d) Calculate the maximum bending stress.
(e) Draw the bending stress distribution diagram of the section.
FIGURE A FIGURE B
Answer: R A = 61.88 kN; RE = 23.12 kN; y = 170 mm; Max. SF = 61.88

kN at A; Max. BM = 127.63 kNm at 4.13 m from A; Max. bending
stress (tension) = 1 536.83 MPa; Max. bending stress (compression)
= 2 854.11 MPa
(2) Find the moment-carrying capacity of the trapezoidal section shown in the
figure below if the permissible stress in the material is 80 MPa in tension
and compression.
Answer: M = 282.86 kNm
...........
114
(3) A beam of rectangular section 300 mm × 600 mm carries a uniformly

distributed load of 50 kN/m over the whole span of 6 m. Find the maximum
bending stresses at the midspan and at quarter span points.
Answer: σ at midspan = 12.5 N/mm2; σ at quarter span = 9.375 N/mm2
...........
115 T ST15 01/1

LEARNING UNIT
5 5
5 Mathematical method of analysis
Learning outcomes
• Define the terms “slope”, “deflection”, “flexural rigidity” and “boundary

conditions” as they relate to a beam.
• Derive and apply a moment differential equation, which will be used to
calculate the slope and deflection at any section on a straight beam.
• Apply Macaulay’s notation or method to determine the slope and deflection
at any given point on a beam that is statically determinate or statically
indeterminate to the first degree or built in at both ends..
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Macaulay’s method is a structural analysis technique that can be used to
determine the deflection and slope of beams (determinate and indeterminate).
It allows a single equation for the bending moment to be written for the full
length of the beam. The expression can be integrated to find the equation for
the slope and at further integration, the equation for deflection will be written.
5.2 DERIVATION OF FORMULAE

Based on the Euler-Bernoulli theory of bending:
Moment equation at distance x
M and EI are functions of x and may change along the length of the beam.
Slope = Deflection = EIxy
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116
L E AR N I N G U N I T 5: M at h e m at i c a l m e t h o d o f a n a l y sis
Proof
At any point on the beam
Rδφ = δS
Rδφ = δx for small δy
...........
117 T ST15 01/1

From the fundamental formula of bending as explained in unit 4 (section 4.2):
Combining (a) and (b)
In the limit,
From the equations derived in sections 3.8, 4.2 and 5.2, the following
relationships can be deduced:
Alternatively, starting with deflection y:
y = deflection
Hint: Maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shear force, maximum
slope occurs at the point of zero moment and maximum deflection occurs at
the point of zero slope.
...........
118
The following examples show how general equations can be written for shear
force, bending moment, slope and deflection of beams.
Example 5.2.1
Develop general expressions for shear force, bending moment, slope and
deflection for a simply supported beam of span L, loading w/unit length and
constant EI. Also find the values of these at critical points.
Solution
...........
119 T ST15 01/1

Example 5.2.2
Develop general expressions for shear force, bending moment, slope and
deflection for a cantilever of length L, loading w/unit length and constant EI.
Also find the values of these at critical points.
...........
120
Solution
...........
121 T ST15 01/1

5.3 MACAULAY’S NOTATION

Consider a uniform beam, simply supported, span l, with a point load on it
as shown.
FIGURE 5.1
With the origin at the left-hand end, consider any section distant x from the
origin. There are two possibilities: / x > a and / x < a.
...........
122
If [x-a] is put = 0 when x < a, the right-hand set of equations will give bending
moment, shear force, φ and y anywhere in the beam.
The use of the square brackets, and equating these to zero if x < a, is called
Macaulay’s notation.
Macaulay’s notation: Partial UDL
(1) Load extending to the extreme right-hand end of a simply supported beam
FIGURE 5.2
...........
123 T ST15 01/1

Using Macaulay’s notation:
This will give the correct bending moment anywhere along the span subject
to Macaulay’s rules.
(2) Load not extending to the right-hand end of a simply supported beam.
Add positive and negative load as shown:
FIGURE 5.3
Other combinations of loads are treated in a similar manner, for example:
FIGURE 5.4
...........
124
(3) Treatment of applied bending moment
FIGURE 5.5
FIGURE 5.6
Using Macaulay’s notation:
...........
125 T ST15 01/1
Thus, if the expression is used, subject to Macaulay’s
rules, etc will be obtained anywhere along the beam.
Macaulay’s notation: Summary
FIGURE 5.7
Rules for the use of Macaulay’s notation
(1) Take the origin as being at the left-hand end of the beam.
(2) Define all positions by their distance from the origin.
(3) Write down an expression for the bending moment at a section x from
the origin, x being just to the left of the right-hand end of the beam, and
by considering loads and reactions to the left of the section.
(4) Write terms of the type (x-a), (x-a)2 etc. as [x-a], [x-a]2 and so on, and equate
these terms to zero if x < a.
(5) Integrate the square bracket terms in the following form:
(6) Use Macaulay’s notation only for beams of constant EI.

(7) Macaulay’s notation does not work for terms of the type (a-x).
...........
126
5.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Understanding boundary conditions is necessary for Macaulay’s method of
analysis. There are different boundary conditions for different support types,
as shown below.
At pinned/hinged support
• There are resisting vertical and horizontal forces.

• There is no resisting moment.
Therefore:
deflection = 0, slope ≠ 0
y = 0, dy/dx ≠ 0
At roller support
• There is a resisting vertical force.

• There is no resisting moment.
Therefore:
deflection = 0, slope ≠ 0
y = 0, dy/dx ≠ 0
At fixed support
• There are resisting vertical and horizontal forces.

• There is a resisting moment.
Therefore:
deflection = 0, slope = 0
y = 0, dy/dx = 0
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127 T ST15 01/1

Example 5.4.1
Find the maximum deflection in the beam shown below. EI is constant.
Solution
Find reactions
ΣMB = 0
VA(10 – 100(8)) – 50(5) – 50(3) = 0
10VA = 1 200
VA = 120 kN
ΣV = 0
VA + VB = 100 + 50 + 50
120 + VB = 200
VB = 80 kN
At section x from the left-hand end:
...........
128
The maximum deflection will occur where ; to find this position certain
Macaulay’s terms must be eliminated from the expression for .
Assume where 2 < x < 5
For this section of the beam:
That is: x2 + 20x – 122 = 0
giving x = -24.9 or x = 4.9
x = 4.9 m falls within the chosen range,
∴ Maximum deflection occurs at x = 4.9 m from the left-hand end,
At x = 4.9 m
Example 5.4.2
A simply supported beam consisting of a 533 × 210 × 109 I-section spans 7 m

and is loaded as shown. Using Macaulay’s method, calculate the deflection at
the point load. E = 200 GPa. Ignore the self-weight of the beam.
Solution
...........
129 T ST15 01/1

7VA = 40 × 7 × 31/2 + 300 × 2 VA = 225.71 kN
At x = 5m
5.5 PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM

This is a beam that is rigidly fixed at one end and simply supported at the
other end. This is a statically indeterminate beam.
Consider the propped cantilever AB shown in the figure below. EI is constant.
...........
130
At section x from the left-hand end:
Also SMB = 0
Example 5.5.1
(a) A horizontal cantilever AC, of length 2.4 m, is built in at A. It carries a

UDL of 12 kN/m from the fixed end A to point B, which is 1.8 m from A.
Determine the deflection of the free end C in terms of EI.
(b) If the cantilever is now propped at B so that A and B are on the same
level, determine the reaction at the support B.
(c) Determine the deflection of C in terms of EI, with the support B in position.
...........
131 T ST15 01/1

Solution
(a) ΣV = 0: VA = 1.8 × 12 VA = 21.6 kN
ΣMA = 0: MA = 12 × 1.8 × 0.9 MA = 19.44 kNm
At x = 0, y = 0 ∴ B = 0
At the free end, x = 2.4
(b)
...........
132
At x = 1.8, y = 0
Divide through by 0.972
...........
133 T ST15 01/1

(c) Find the deflection at C
At C, x = 2.4 m
MA = 1.8(13.503) – 19.44 = 4.865 kNm
5.6 ENCASTRÉ BEAM

An encastré beam is a beam both ends of which are rigidly fixed so that the
slope remains horizontal and the total change of slope along the span is zero.
The slopes at both ends are zero. Both ends of an encastré beam are usually
on the same level. This beam is statically indeterminate.
Example 5.6.1
An encastré beam AB spans 4 m and carries a point load of 100 kN at 1 m

from A. Use Macaulay’s method to find the value of the fixing moments. EI
= constant.
...........
134
Solution
At x = 4, y = 0
From beam, ΣV = 0 ∴ VB = 15.625 kNm
Substitute VA = 84.375 in equation :
4 MA – 8 (84.375) = -450
Which gives MA = 56.25 kNm
ΣMB = 0: 84.375 × 4 – 56.25 – 100 × 3 + MB = 0
Which gives MB = 18.75 kNm
...........
135 T ST15 01/1

5.7 TUTORIAL
(1) Determine the deflection of the free end A of the simply supported beam
shown below. Use Macaulay’s method. Take EI = 5 MN m2.
(2) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the propped
cantilever shown below. Indicate values. Use Macaulay’s method.
(3) Draw dimensioned bending moment and shear force diagrams for the
encastré beam shown in the figure. Also find the maximum deflection
of the beam. Use Macaulay’s method of integration. E = 210 GPa,
I = 5 × 106 mm4.
(4) Use Macaulay’s method to find the reactions for the encastré beam shown
in the figure below, then draw dimensioned bending moment and shear
force diagrams for the beam. E = 200 GPa, I = 100 × 106 mm4.
...........
136
(5) A beam spanning 12 m is fixed at one end and simply supported at the
other end, and it carries a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m over the
whole span. The simply supported end sinks 5 mm under load. Draw
dimensioned shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
E = 210 GPa, I = 200 × 106 mm4.
...........
137 T ST15 01/1

LEARNING UNIT
6 6
6 Statically determinate pin-jointed frames
Learning outcomes
• Identify different frame types.

• Obtain the force and/or moment at the support(s) of any statically determinate
body subjected to various kinds of loads using the conditions of static
equilibrium.
• Draw the free body diagram of a statically determinate pin-jointed structure.
• Apply the joint, section, graphical and tension coefficient methods to
determine the internal forces of a statically determinate pin-jointed structure.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A pin-jointed frame is a structure that consists of straight members joined
together at their ends by pins or hinges. Since the joints are able to rotate, no
bending moments can occur at the joints, and no bending moments can be
transmitted. In the ideal frame, the joints are assumed to be frictionless and
the loads are applied at the joints. In practice, the ideal condition is seldom
...........
138
L E AR N I N G U N I T 6: St at i c a ll y d e te r m i n ate p i n - j o i nte d f r a m e s
attained because of the presence of friction, because of continuity of members,

and because of the presence of riveted or bolted connections which do not
allow free rotation at the joints. Furthermore, it is not always possible to apply
the loads at the joints. Generally, the self-weight of a frame is small compared
to the applied load, and is neglected in the calculations.
The configuration of a frame is important. Consider the following four
arrangements of pin-jointed members, where m = number of members and
j = number of joints.
(a) Stable (b) Unstable (c) Stable (d) Redundant member

m = 2j – 3 m < 2j – 3 m = 2j – 3 m > 2j – 3
FIGURE 6.1
The triangle is the basic stable shape. The rectangle in Figure 6.1(b) is unstable,
since a small force at any joint will cause collapse. The addition of a diagonal
member shown in Figure 6.1(c) stabilises the rectangular shape. A further
diagonal makes the rectangle “over-stiff”, with one redundant member.
The following equation is used to establish the stability of an isolated frame
(i.e. one not attached to or supported by a foundation):
m = 2j – 3
where: m = number of members and j = number of joints
6.2 REACTIONS
A pin-jointed frame will usually be supported at two joints, although there
may be more. There are two kinds of supports:
(a) Pinned reaction (b) Roller reaction

TWO REACTION ELEMENTS ONE REACTION ELEMENT
FIGURE 6.2
...........
139 T ST15 01/1

The pinned reaction in Figure 6.2(a) can resist a force on it in any direction.
This mean the pinned reaction may have a V and H component. It has two
reaction elements.
The roller reaction in Figure 6.2(b) cannot resist a force in the direction in
which it rolls. This mean a roller can only provide a reaction perpendicular to
the direction in which it rolls. It has only one reaction element.
6.3 CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINANCY

Provided the members of the frame are satisfactorily arranged, the frame will
be statically determinate if the following equation is satisfied:
m + r = 2j
where: m = number of members

r = possible number of reaction elements
j = number of joints (including reaction points)
In general, the members should be arranged to form triangles.
Examples of statically determinate frames
FIGURE 6.3
...........
140
Examples of frames with redundant members
FIGURE 6.4
Examples of unstable (or deficient) frames
FIGURE 6.5
It is clear that an addition of one member (shown dotted) will make each of
the above frames stable and statically determinate.
...........
141 T ST15 01/1

Examples of frames satisfying the equation m + r = 2j, yet unstable
FIGURE 6.6
In the above two frames, the equation m + r = 2j is satisfied. It is clear that

an arrangement of members is not satisfactory.
6.4 TYPES OF FRAMES

There are two types of frames:
(1) Plane frames: All members lie in one plane (i.e. two-dimensional).
(2) Space frames: Members do not lie in one plane (i.e. three-dimensional).
A frame that spans an opening is called a truss (e.g. a bridge truss, a roof truss).
The nature of forces in members
The members of a truss are subjected to either tensile or compressive force.

The representation of the applied forces within the member shows the internal
resistance forces developed, which are opposite to the direction of the applied
forces. For example: If a member is subjected to tensile forces at the joint, the
representation of this force within the member will be an arrow away from
the joint, showing the resistance of the member to the applied tensile force.
For compressive force, it will be an arrow in the member towards the joint,
showing the resistance of the member to the applied compressive force. See
Figure 6.7(a) and (b).
...........
142
(a) Effect of force on joints (b) Internal resistance to the forces
FIGURE 6.7
6.5 DETERMINATION OF FORCES IN MEMBERS OF A FRAME

The forces in members may be found either graphically or analytically. The
methods used to find the forces are as follows:
(1) graphical method

(2) analytical methods
(i) the method of sections
(ii) the method of resolution of forces at a joint
(iii) the method of tension coefficients (This method is indispensable in
the analysis of space frames.)
NOTE: Analytical methods are covered in this module because the graphical
method is covered in the drawing module.
6.6 ANALYTICAL METHODS

A structure as a whole is a body in equilibrium. Any part of a structure is also
a body in equilibrium. A portion of a structure can (in theory) be cut free
from the whole, and this portion will be in equilibrium under the action of
the applied loads acting on it and of the internal forces in the members that
have been cut.
...........
143 T ST15 01/1

Consider the following truss:
FIGURE 6.8
Figure 6.8(b) shows the free body diagram of joint C of the frame in Figure
6.8(a). Figure 6.8(c) shows the free body diagram for the portion of the structure
to the right of cut
Both free bodies are in equilibrium, and the usual conditions for static
equilibrium apply:
ΣV = 0
ΣH = 0
ΣM = 0
In most cases, we can (by applying these conditions) set up two equations with
two unknowns and, by solving, find these unknown forces.
NOTE: In Figure 6.8(a), we can – by inspection – see that FBF = FGH = 0 and
FDH = W3.
...........
144
6.6.1 General assumptions adopted for analytical methods in this study

guide are:
• The load acts only on the joints.
• Self-weights of the members are negligible.
• The cross-section of the members is uniform.
• Before the analysis, all the members are assumed to be in tension. For
example:
FIGURE 6.9
• After analysis, a positive (+ve) result will denote that the member is in tension,
while a negative (-ve) result will denote that the member is in compression.
6.7 METHOD OF SECTIONS

The procedure is as follows:
(1) Calculate the reactions at the supports.

(2) Construct a free body diagram, cutting the frame through the members
for which the forces are required.
(3) Apply the three equilibrium equations (ΣV= 0, ΣH = 0 & ΣM = 0) to
solve for the unknown forces.
...........
145 T ST15 01/1

Example 6.7.1
Find the forces in DE, EN and PL in the truss shown in the figure below.
Solution
(1) Calculate the reactions VA and VJ.
ΣMA = 0: 16VJ = 10(AE) + 20(AD) + 20(AC) + 20(AB)

or more simply: 16VJ = 80(AC)
...........
146
(2) Make cut section Z-Z through DE, EN and PL, and consider the free body
diagram to the left of section Z-Z.
(3) Take moments about the intersection of two unknown forces:
ΣMp = 0: 46,2(AP) – 10(AC) – 20(BC) + 20(CD) + FDE (CP) = 0
∴ 46.2 × 5.33 – 10 × 4.62 – 20 × 2.31 + 20 × 2.31 + FDE × 2.667 = 0
which gives: FDE = -75 kN
(The negative sign means that the arrow was chosen in the wrong
direction.)
∴ FDE = 75 kN compression
ΣME = 0: 46.2(AX) + 40(EX) – 10(AE) – 20(BE) – 20(CE) – 20(DE)

– FPL (EX) = 0
∴ 46.2 × 8 – 40 × 4.62 – 10 × 9.24 – 20 (3 × 3.31) – 20 × 4.62 –

20 × 2.31 – FPL × 4.62 = 0
which gives FPL = +40 kN
...........
147 T ST15 01/1

(The positive sign means that the arrow was chosen in the correct
direction.)
∴ FPL = 40 kN tension
We can find FNE by taking moments about A (ΣMA = 0).
However, it will be quicker using ΣV = 0
From inspection LPE = 60°
ΣV = 0: 46.2 – (10 + 20 + 20 + 20) cos 30 + FNE sin 60 – FDE Sin 30 = 0
which gives FNE = +60kN
FNE= 60 kN tension
NOTES:
(1) If pinned at J, the frame becomes redundant and is not statically determinate.
(2) Normal notation is used (not Bow’s).
(3) Forces in other members can be found by making another cut.
(4) It would have been easier to consider the free body diagram to the right
of section Z-Z, as there are fewer forces. You should do this as an exercise.
Example 6.7.2
Use the section method to calculate the forces in all the members of the truss
shown below.
...........
148
Solution
HA = -20 kN
...........
149 T ST15 01/1

Section M-M
From (1),
0.707 AD = 40 – 0.316 AB
AD = 56.577 – 0.447 AB
Substitute in (2)
0.949 AB + 0.707[56.577 – 0.447 AB] = 20

0.949 AB + 40 – 0.316 AB = 20
0.633 AB = -20
AB = –31.6kN
AD = 56.577 – 0.477(1–31.6) = +70.7kN
Section P-P
...........
150
Substitute (4) into (3)
-0.707CD – 0.316(-0.745CD) = -20

-0.707CD + 0.235CD = -20
-0.472CD = -20
CD = +42.37 kN (1 mark)
CB = -0.745(42.3) = -31.57 kN
Section Z-Z
MEMBER FORCE (kN) NATURE
AB 31.60 Compression
AD 70.70 Tension
BC 31.57 Compression
BD 19.98 Compression
CD 42.37 Tension
...........
151 T ST15 01/1

Example 6.7.3
Using the method of section, calculate the magnitude of the forces in all the
members of the truss shown below.
Solution
...........
152
Section O-O
...........
153 T ST15 01/1

Section P-P
Section Z-Z
...........
154
Section X-X
Section M-M
...........
155 T ST15 01/1

AB 11 Compression
AF 8 Compression
BC 0 None
FC 0 None
FE 8 Compression
FB 0 None
DC 0 None
DE 8 Compression
EC 20 Compression
6.8 METHOD OF RESOLUTION OF FORCES AT A JOINT

The procedure is as follows:
(1) Calculate the reactions.
(2) Draw the free body diagram for each joint, indicating known and unknown
forces, and resolve the forces vertically and horizontally. Then ΣV = 0
and ΣH = 0.
(3) Start with a joint with fewer unknowns.
Example 6.8.1
Using the method of joints, calculate the forces in all the members of the truss
shown below.
...........
156
Solution
...........
157 T ST15 01/1

Joint method
Joint A
From (1),
0.8944 AB = -55 – 0.4472 AD
AB = -61.494 – 0.5 AD
Substitute in (2)
0.4472 (-61.494 – 0.5AD) – 0.8944AD = -30
-27.5 – 0.2236 AD + 0.8944 AD = -30
0.6708 AD = -2.5
AD = -3727 kN (1 mark)
AB = -61.494 – 0.5(–3.727) = -59.73 kN
Joint D
...........
158
Joint C
AB 59.630 Compression
AD 3.727 Compression
BD 3.334 Compression
DC 3.727 Compression
CB 7.454 Tension
...........
159 T ST15 01/1

Example 6.8.2
Use either the joint or the section method to calculate the forces in members
AB, AD, DF, DE and DB of the truss shown below.
Joint method
Joint A
...........
160
Joint F
Substitute in (1)
-FE – FE = 56.577
FE = -28.289 kN
FD = -28.289 kN
...........
161 T ST15 01/1

Joint D
AB 35 Tension
AD 49.5 Compression
DF 28.289 Compression
DE 10 Compression
DB 7.07 Compression
6.9 METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS

This method is of a perticular value in space frames. The fundamentals will,
however, be illustrated using a plane frame.
...........
162
FIGURE 6.10
Consider member AB, length lAB, carrying a tensile force TAB. Let the positive
x and y directions be as shown in Figure 6.10.
Consider end A
Component of TAB in (+ve) X direction = TAB cos φ =
Component of TAB in (+ve) Y direction = TAB sin φ =
Let t AB = where t AB = tension coefficient for member AB
Now: Component of TAB in (+ve) X direction = t AB ∆x
And: Component of TAB in (+ve) Y direction = t AB ∆y
Consider end B
Similarly: Component of TAB in (-ve) X direction = -t AB ∆x
And: Component of TAB in (-ve) Y direction = -t AB ∆y
Equilibrium of a joint
If several members AB, AC, AD ... and external forces X, Y in the X and Y
directions all meet at A:
For equilibrium SV = 0 and SH = 0
∴ t AB ∆xAB + t AC ∆xAC + t AD ∆xAD + ..... + X = 0

(x is (+ve) to the right)
And: t AB ∆yAB + t AC ∆yAC + t AD ∆yAD + ..... + Y = 0
(y is (+ve) upward)
...........
163 T ST15 01/1

Important:
∆x and ∆y must have the appropriate sign in each case. If A is to the left of the
other end of the member, then ∆x is (+ve) and vice versa. If A is at the lower
end of the bar, then ∆y is (+ve) and vice versa.
Similar pairs of equations can be set up for each joint in the frame. This will give
sufficient equations to solve for the tension coefficients for all the members,
plus the reactions, in a statically determinate frame.
If the reactions are found by other methods, the extra equations can be used
as a check.
Once we have solved the equations and thus found the tension coefficients,
the forces in the members are:
t AB lAB , tBC lAC , t AD lAD ....... etc.
NOTE: t AB =
If the member is in compression, the tension coefficient will be (-ve).

(1) Make a diagram of the frame with the external forces acting on it.
(2) Mark all the reaction elements on the frame (i.e. two for a pinned reaction
and one for a roller reaction) in the positive x- and y-directions if the
reactions are to be found by tension coefficients, or in the directions
they actually occur (with values) if they are found first by other methods.
(3) Write down the equations for each joint in the frame for the x- and
y-directions, taking care that ∆x and ∆y have the correct sign. Note that
since each member has two ends, t AB is the same as tBA, but ∆x must be
(+ve) at one end and (-ve) at the other. This also applies to ∆y.
(4) Check to ensure that each tension coefficient appears twice with the same
value behind it, but of the opposite sign. See (3) above. It is useful at this
stage, seeing that there is no difference between t AB and tBA, to change all
subscripts of t into the same order (e.g. tBC and tCB both become tBC, etc).
(5) Solve the equations for the tension coefficients.
(6) Calculate forces: F = tl
Example 6.9.1
...........
164
Use the method of tension coefficients to find the forces in the members of
the frame shown.
Solution
The reaction elements are calculated:
ΣH = 0: HA = 4 MN
ΣMA = 0: 15 VB = 1 × 10 + 1 × 5 + 2 × 4 + 2 × 2 = 27 MNm
VB = 1.8 MN
ΣV = 0: VA = 2 – 1.8
VA = 0.2 MN
Set up the equations for each joint in a table as follows, checking before solving
as in procedure (4) above. For convenience, AB has been used in place of t AB
to denote the tension coefficients. Complete the last column as the tension
coefficients are obtained.
Joint Direction Equations Tension

coefficient
A x -5AD – 7AE – 4 = 0 2 AE = 0.818

y -2AD – 5AE + 0.2 = 0 AD = -1.948
D x +5AD – 5CD – 2DE + 2 = 0...................... 3 CD = -1.22

y +2AD – 2DC – 3DE – 1 = 0...................... 4 DE = 0.818
C x +5CD – 5BC + 3CE + 2 = 0 ................... 5 CE = -0.815

y +2CD – 2BC – 1CE – 1 = 0 .................... 6
B x +5BC + 8BE = 0 ........................................ 7 BC = -1.31

y +2BC + 1 × BE + 1.8 = 0........................... 8 BE = 0.82
E x +7AE + 2DE – 3CE – 8BE = 0 ............. 9 AE = 0.82

y +5AE + 3DE + 1 × CE – 1 × BE = 0 ..... 10
Solving the equations
1 × 2: -10AD – 14AE – 8 = 0 11
2 × 5: -10AD – 25AE + 1 = 0 12
11 – 12 11AE – 9 = 0
AE = 0.818
Substitute in 1 : -10AD – 14(0.818) – 8 = 0
giving AD = -1.948
...........
165 T ST15 01/1

In order to find the forces, we multiply the tension coefficients by the lengths
of the relevant members. Negative values indicate compression. A table is
again convenient.
Member Length (m) Tension Force Compression

coefficient (MN) or tension
AD -1.948 10.50 C
DC -1.22 6.60 C
DB -1.31 7.06 C
AE +0.82 7.05 T
BE +0.82 6.60 T
CE -0.815 2.57 C
DE -0.818 2.95 C
6.10 TUTORIAL
Determine the forces in the labelled members and the reactions at the supports
for trusses shown below.
(1)
...........
166
Answer: FAB = 17 kN (C); FCD = FBC = 12 kN (C); FFG = 13 kN (T); FHG = FAH
= 14.72 kN (T); R A = 8.5 kN; RE = 7.5 kN
(2)
Answer: FAB = 6.67 kN (T); FAD = 9.43 kN (C); FBC = 6.67 kN (T); FBD = 10
kN (T); FCD = 7.45 kN (C); R A = 6.67 kN; RC = 3.33 kN
(3)
Answer: FAB = 21.21 kN (C); FAD = 5 (T); FBD = 7.07 kN (C); FBC = 0 kN; FCD
= 0 kN; R A = 15 kN; RD = 5 kN
...........
167 T ST15 01/1

LEARNING UNIT
7 7
7 Analysis of stress
Learning outcomes
• Explain a plane stress condition.

• Distinguish between uniaxial and biaxial stress conditions.
• Determine from first principles and/or with the aid of formulae the direct and
shear stresses, the orientation and magnitude of the principal stresses, and
maximum shear stress at any point in a material in a plane stress condition.
• Construct Mohr’s circle to determine graphically the direct and shear stresses,
the orientation and magnitude of the principal stresses, and maximum shear
stress at any point in a material in a plane stress condition.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the effect of the combination of stresses (tensile, compressive
and shear) in a system.
7.2 SHEAR STRESS IN A BAR IN DIRECT TENSION

Consider a uniform bar of cross-sectional area A, the edges of the bar being
parallel to the OX, OY and OZ axes.
FIGURE 7.1
...........
168
L E AR N I N G U N I T 7: A n a l y sis o f s t r e ss
Let the bar be uniformly stressed with a tensile stress σx, as shown.
FIGURE 7.2
Now consider forces parallel and perpendicular to the inclined cross-section:
The result at the end of the cross-section of the bar is P = Aσx, acting parallel
to OX.
For equilibrium, an equal and opposite force must act on the inclined
cross-section.
The two components of this force acting perpendicular and parallel to the
inclined plane will be Aσxcosφ and Aσxsinφ respectively.
∴ Stresses σ and τ will be
and
Where σ = direct stress on inclined plane
τ = shear stress on inclined plane

At φ = 0o, τ = 0
τ increases as φ increases until it attains a maximum value at φ = 45°. τ then

diminishes as φ increases further, until it is again zero at φ = 90°.
Therefore, on any inclined cross-section of a bar in direct tension, shear stresses

are always present. The shear stresses reach maximum values on planes at 45°
to the longitudinal axis of the bar.
...........
169 T ST15 01/1

Example 7.2.1
A bar with cross-section 2 cm × 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 16 kN.

Calculate the normal stress and the shear stress on a plane at an angle of 60°
to the axis of the bar, the plane being perpendicular to one face of the bar.
σ = σX cos2 φ
7.3 FAILURE OF MATERIALS IN COMPRESSION

Shear stresses are also developed in a bar under axial compression. The
failure of some materials in compression is caused by the development of
critical shear stresses on planes at approximately 45o to the longitudinal axis.
This can be seen clearly even when a test specimen is tested to destruction
under compression.
FIGURE 7.3
Compression test specimen tested to destruction
7.4 GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM

A two-dimensional stress system is one in which the stresses at any point in
a body act in the same plane.
...........
170
Consider a rectangular block of material ABCD, of thickness unity, two faces

of which are parallel to the XY plane. A two-dimensional state of stress exists
if the stresses on the remaining four faces are parallel to the YX plane.
FIGURE 7.4
Arbitrary forces acting on the faces of a two-dimensional block
Now replace the system of forces by its equivalent system of stresses. Let the
lengths of the two sides be a and b. Consider the equilibrium of the block.
FIGURE 7.5
General two-dimensional state of stress
Take moment about D:
τxy (axl)b = τyx (bx1)a

i.e. τxy =τyx
∴ Shear stresses on perpendicular planes are equal and complementary.
...........
171 T ST15 01/1

7.5 STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Now consider the stresses on an inclined plane making an angle φ with OY.
FIGURE 7.6
Stresses on an inclined plane in a two-dimensional stress system
Resolve forces normal and parallel to face c.
Normal
Parallel
NOTE: In the calculation above the following trigonometric identities were used:
...........
172
In a two-dimensional stress system there are two planes, separated by 90o, on

which the shear stress = 0. These planes are called the principal planes, and
the corresponding values of σ are called the principal stresses.
The direct stress σ is a maximum when
Thus the principal stresses are also the maximum and minimum direct stresses
in the material.
7.6 VALUES OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESSES

The direction of the principal planes is given by equation (A). For any two-
dimensional stress system in which the values of σx, σy and τxy are known, tan2φ
can be calculated from (A). Two values of φ, separated by 90o, are obtained. The
principal stresses are then calculated by substituting these values in equation (1).
Alternatively, the principal stresses can be calculated more directly without
first finding the principal planes. We define a principal plane as one on which
there is no shear stress (i.e. τ = 0).
FIGURE 7.7
For equilibrium
...........
173 T ST15 01/1

Eliminate φ from equations (3) and (4) by (3) x (4):

(σ – σx)(σ – σy) = τ2xy
This is a quadratic equation in σ:

σ2 – σ(σx – σy) + σxσy – τ2xy = 0
Solving gives:
σ1 and σ2 are the values of the principal stresses, and they occur on mutually
perpendicular planes.
7.7 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

The principal planes define directions of zero shear stress. On some intermediate
planes, the shear stress attains a maximum value.
From equation (2):
For maximum
That is:
The planes of maximum shear stress are thus inclined at 45o to the principal
planes, substituting this value of cot 2φ in equation (2):
But from (5) and (6):
...........
174
∴ Maximum shear stress = ½ x difference between principal stresses of the

systems.
Example 7.7.1
At a point in a material, the two-dimensional stress system is defined by:
σx = 60 MPa tensile
σy = 45 MPa compressive
τxy = 37.5 MPa shear
where these stresses refer to Figure 7.5. Evaluate the values and directions of
the principal stresses and calculate the greatest shear stress.
Principal stresses
7.8 MOHR’S CIRCLE OF STRESS

Consider equations (1) and (2) in section 7.5.
Take two mutually perpendicular axes 0σ and 0τ. On this coordinate system,
plot the points having the coordinates (σx, τxy) and (σy, –τxy), corresponding to
the known stresses in the x and y directions.
...........
175 T ST15 01/1

FIGURE 7.8
Mohr's circle of stress
The line PQ joining these two points is bisected by the 0σ axis at 01. With
the centre 01, construct a circle passing through P and Q. The stresses σ and
τ on a plane at any angle φ to 0σ are found by drawing a radius of the circle
at an angle 2φ to PQ, 2φ being measured in a clockwise direction from 01P.
The coordinates of point P (σ, τ) give the direct and shear stress on the plane.
The above two equations may be written in the following form:
Squaring each equation and adding, we get
Compare this with the general form for the equation of a circle:
(x – a)2 – (y – b)2 = r2
The corresponding values of the variables σ and τ, therefore, lie on a circle

of radius
with its centre at the point (½(σx – σy), 0).
This circle, defining all possible states of stress, is known as Mohr’s circle of
stress. The principal stresses are defined by points A and B, where τ = 0, while
the maximum shear stress is given by point C (i.e. the radius of the circle).
...........
176
Example 7.8.1
At a point in a material the stresses forming a two-dimensional stress system are:
σx = 50 MPa
σy = 30 MPa
τxy = 20 MPa
Draw a Mohr’s circle of stress and deduce the values of the principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress in the plane of the stresses.
Solution
σ1 = 62.4 MPa (scaled)

σ2 = 17.6 MPa (scaled)
τmax = radius of the circle
= ½ (62.4 –17.6) = 22.4 MPa
7.9 TUTORIAL
(1) Use the formulae to calculate the direct and shear stress on the oblique
planes shown in Figures (a), (b) and (c) below.
...........
177 T ST15 01/1

Answer: (22.43 MPa (T); 10.78 MPa); (30.2 MPa (T); 1.15 MPa); (31.52 MPa
(C); 79.07 MPa)
(2) Calculate the principal stresses, the maximum shearing stresses, and their
orientation for the stress system shown in Figures (a), (b) and (c) as shown
in Question (1) above. Check your answer against Mohr’s circle.
Answer: (24.32 MPa (T); 39.32 MPa (C); ±31.82 MPa); (30.23 MPa
(T); 13.23 MPa (C); ±21.73 MPa); (65.78 MPa (T); 95.78 MPa (C);
±80.78 MPa)
...........
178
LEARNING UNIT
8 8
8 Practical guide
Learning outcomes
• To show that the experimental shear force at a section of a beam is equal to

the calculated shear force at the same section.
• To show that the experimental bending moment at a section of a beam is
equal to the calculated bending moment at the same section.
• To show that the shear force at a section of a beam is equal to the algebraic
sum of the forces to one side of that section.
• To show that the bending moment at a section of a beam is equal to the
algebraic sum of the moment to one side of that section.
THEORY
Beams can fail both in shear and bending. The shear force and the bending
moment values at a section on a beam indicate the limit at which the beam
can withstand shear and bending at that section. The shear force at a section of
a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of the forces to one side of that section.
The bending moment at a section of a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of
the moment to one side of that section.
...........
179 T ST15 01/1

APPARATUS
FIGURE 8.1 FIGURE 8.2

Beam in structures frame. Hanger loaded with masses
How to set up the experiment
(1) Place an assembled test frame on a workbench. Make sure the window
of the test frame is easily accessible.
(2) There are four securing nuts in the top member of the frame. Slide them
to approximately the positions shown.
(3) With the right-hand end of the experiment resting on the bottom member
of the test frame, fit the left-hand support to the top member of the
frame. Push the support on to the frame to ensure that the internal bars
are positioned squarely on the frame. Tighten the support in position by
screwing two of the thumbscrews provided into the securing nuts (on the
front of the support only).
(4) Lift the right-hand support into position and seat the two remaining
thumbscrews into the securing nuts. Push the support on to the frame
squarely. Position the support horizontally so that the rolling pivot is in
the middle of its trajectory. Tighten the thumbscrews.
(5) Make sure the Digital Force Display is on. Connect the mini DIN lead from
‘Force Input 1” on the Digital Force Display to the socket marked “Force
Output Display” on the left-hand support of the experiment. Ensure that
the lead does not touch the beam.
(6) Carefully zero the force meter using the dial on the left-hand beam of the
experiment. Use your finger to gently apply a small load to the centre
of the beam, and release. Zero the meter again if necessary. Repeat to
ensure that meter returns to zero.
...........
180
L E AR N I N G U N I T 8 : Pr a c t i c a l g u i d e
NOTE:
You will receive the details of the experiments that you are required to
perform in your tutorial letter. You must bring your tutorial letter to the
laboratory during the practical session.
...........
181 T ST15 01/1

9 Practical learning
10 Code of Conduct
PREAMBLE
Cooperative education is an educational approach that integrates practical
sessions into the educational programme to ensure the applied competence
of graduates. Practical sessions, whatever form they take, are an extremely
important component of the formal learning components of the programme.
They form part of the overall educational programme and offer an opportunity
for learners to verify, in a practical way, what they have learnt, while serving
as a vital foundation for learning that will follow.
The objective of this code is to publicly set out the conduct expected of Unisa
students during practical sessions.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS
Students, like any members of a community, have both rights and obligations,
for example:
• The right to equal education irrespective of race, sex, colour, disability,

religion or national origin. However, because practical sessions may take
place at another institution, Unisa cannot be held liable for damages, cost
and injury at another institution
• The right to be informed of Unisa policies and academic programme
requirements.
• The right to privacy of personal matters and possessions.
• The right to freedom of expression, within the parameters of the law.
• The right to fair disciplinary procedures, which includes the right to know
what they are accused of and the right to respond with their side of the
situation.
OBLIGATIONS OF UNISA STUDENTS

An obligation is a responsibility, which, among other things, ensures that the
rights of others are protected. The following obligations are not an exhaustive
list, but serve to express what is expected of Unisa students during practical
sessions.
...........
182
Pr a c t i c a l l e a r ni n g: Co d e o f co n du c t
(1) Registration
It is mandatory for every student who registers at Unisa to familiarise herself/
himself regarding the practical session components of the programme registered
for and to comply with Unisa’s procedures and requirements in this regard.
(2) Assessment and progression

Each student is responsible for compliance with the requirements relating to the
practical sessions forming part of her/his educational programme and to follow
the relevant procedures with regard to the assessment of practical sessions.
(3) Compliance with employer’s policies, rules and regulations

Students are required to observe and uphold the policies, procedures and
rules of the institution providing practical session opportunities. This includes
being present for laboratory sessions as per agreement with the institution, no
absence without leave, punctuality, and respecting the person and property
of the institution and fellow students.
(4) Active and positive participation

Unisa expects enthusiasm from its students. Students need to participate
actively in the practical sessions, learn from practical work undertaken, and
ask questions so as to optimise their learning. Students must also actively
source information necessary to complete practical reports. Materials necessary
to complete reports must be actively sought and legitimately obtained.
(5) Intellectual property, honesty and individual work

Students may not intentionally submit for evaluation material that contains
another person’s work without due acknowledgement, as this constitutes
plagiarism. Students may not copy another person’s work and submit it as
their own.
(6) False information, forgery, alteration or misuse

False information or information furnished with the intent to deceive will not
be tolerated. Neither will forgery, alteration or misuse be tolerated. Students
must not make themselves guilty of any form of abuse or unauthorised use
of computer equipment or systems.
(7) Confidentiality
Students are required to respect all information relating to or made available
by their practical session providers and not to disclose this information nor
permit any unauthorised person to have access to the guideline documents of
the institution in their possession or care. If need be, special arrangements may
be made between Unisa and a practical session provider to formally protect
confidential or sensitive information.
...........
183 T ST15 01/1

(8) Monitoring own progress (continuous self-assessment)

Students are required to make the requisite progress relating to their practical
sessions and to ensure that reports are submitted on time. Should a student
experience any difficulty, he/she should contact the relevant Unisa staff for
assistance or guidelines.
(9) Serving as ambassadors of Unisa

Students serve as ambassadors of Unisa and will refrain from any abusive
physical contact or any disorderly conduct. No form of harassment, sexual
or other, will be tolerated. Students may not misrepresent or contradict Unisa,
and students are at all times expected to act in such a way that respect for the
rights and privileges of others is demonstrated.
...........
184

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Only study guide for TST1501

University of South Africa

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University of South Africa

LEARNING UNIT 1: STRESSES AND STRAINS1

LEARNING UNIT 2: SECTIONAL PROPERTIES30

LEARNING UNIT 3: SAMPLE BEAMS57

LEARNING UNIT 4: THEORY OF ELASTIC BENDING93

LEARNING UNIT 5: MATHEMATICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS116

LEARNING UNIT 6: STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED FRAMES138

LEARNING UNIT 7: ANALYSIS OF STRESS168

LEARNING UNIT 8: PRACTICAL GUIDE179

Theory of Structures (TST1501) provides essential background for all other

Graduate Attribute 1: Students must apply engineering principles to systemati-

Graduate Attribute 4: Conduct investigations of well-defined problems through

1 Stresses and strains

Graphical representation of a force of 4 kilonewtons acting horizontally

The moment of a force F about a point A is equal to the force multiplied by

The basic unit of stress is the pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Stress may be due to any of the following:

(1) direct or axial force

1.3 DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN: YOUNG’S MODULUS

Tensile stress σ F Compressive stress σ F

Where: F = Direct axial force (either tensile or compressive)

(1) lengthening if it is tensile

Strain ε is defined as change of length per unit length:

Where: l = Original length

Young’s modulus E (or modulus of direct elasticity)

According to Hooke’s law:

Hence, E x Strain = Stress (E = constant)

That is: E = Stress

E is termed Young’s modulus, and since strain is dimensionless, E is usually

Structural or mild steel: E = 210 kN/mm2 = 210 GPa

Structural grade timber: E = 6 – 16.5 kN/mm2 = 6 – 16.5 GPa

NOTE: 1 GPa = 1 000 000 000 Pa

Let x be the smaller side

Then 2x = larger side

Area of section = 2x2 mm2

1.4 STRESS–STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

From 0 to the elastic limit (limit of proportionality), A is a straight line and

Ultimate tensile strength = maximum load

Nominal fracture stress = load at fracture

True fracture stress = load at fracture

Calculate: (a) the tensile stress at yield point

(a) Nominal tensile stress at yield point

(b) Ultimate tensile stress

(c) Nominal fracture stress

(d) True fracture stress

1.5 WORKING STRESS, STRESS FACTOR AND LOAD FACTOR

Stress factor against yielding = σy

In practical problems, working stresses can only be estimated approximately

Change in length = +7.8 mm

A strut that is 2 m long and 20 mm in diameter is subjected to a compressive

A tie that is 12 m long and 25 mm in diameter is stressed to 140 MPa. The

Whereas the stress factor on yielding is for mild steel, it is more

1.6 POISSON’S RATIO

Let σ = Applied stress

Let ε = Strain in direction of applied stress

Then: Lateral strain = ε

Where 1 = Poisson’s ratio ν

The value of ν is found experimentally; for metals, it is approximately 0.3.

LEARNING UNIT 1: STRESSES AND STRAINS1

LEARNING UNIT 2: SECTIONAL PROPERTIES30

LEARNING UNIT 3: SAMPLE BEAMS57

LEARNING UNIT 4: THEORY OF ELASTIC BENDING93

LEARNING UNIT 5: MATHEMATICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS116

LEARNING UNIT 6: STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED FRAMES138

LEARNING UNIT 7: ANALYSIS OF STRESS168

LEARNING UNIT 8: PRACTICAL GUIDE179