Assignment - 1

 Aspect Ratio - The ratio of a television screen's length vs. height. From the time the television
was introduced, 4:3 or 1.33:1 was the standard aspect ratio used by televisions.
 Scanning - The process used to convert a three-dimensional image intensity into a one-
dimensional television signal waveform.
 Kell’s Factor – It is a parameter used to limit the bandwidth of a sampled image signal to
avoid the appearance of beat frequency patterns when displaying the image in a discrete
display device.
 Flicker - Flicker is a visible change in brightness between cycles displayed on video
displays. It applies to the refresh interval on cathode ray tube (CRT) televisions and
computer monitors, as well as plasma computer displays and televisions.
 Interlaced scanning - An interlaced display, or interlaced scan video, is when a video only changes
every other row of pixels in the image at each screen refresh. The lines are scanned alternately in
two interwoven lines.
 Active lines - Active lines in scanning refer to the lines of an image that carry the actual video signal,
and the number of active lines determines the resolution of the image.
 Interface error in TV communication refers to any type of interference or distortion that affects the
quality of the TV signal as it travels from the source to the receiver. This can result in a degraded or
poor-quality picture and sound.

2. Why odd number of lines are used in all TV system?

Because it helps to reduce interlace flicker, which is a type of visual artifact that can occur when
displaying interlaced video. In an interlaced video signal, the image is split into two fields, with one
field consisting of the odd-numbered lines and the other consisting of the even-numbered lines.
These two fields are displayed alternately, with the odd field displayed first, followed by the even
field, and then repeating.

If an even number of lines were used, the fields would alternate between the same set of lines each
time, which could create a noticeable flicker on the screen. However, by using an odd number of lines,
the fields alternate between different sets of lines each time, which reduces the flicker and provides a
smoother and more stable image.

In addition to reducing interlace flicker, using an odd number of lines also provides a better balance
between the horizontal and vertical resolution of the image, since the number of lines is typically
matched to the horizontal resolution to provide a balanced and proportionate image.

3. Determine video modulating frequency for 625.0 TV system.

In a 625-line TV system, the video modulating frequency is typically 5.0 MHz

This means that the video signal is modulated onto a carrier wave with a frequency of 5.0 MHz, which is
then transmitted over the airwaves or through a cable to the receiver. The receiver then demodulates
the carrier wave to extract the original video signal.

It's worth noting that the actual video bandwidth of the signal is typically less than 5.0 MHz, due to
various factors such as filtering and compression. However, using a carrier frequency of 5.0 MHz
provides sufficient bandwidth to ensure a high-quality video signal with good resolution and color
fidelity.

4. Discuss the effect of number of lines on the following

i) Bandwidth ii) Interlaced scanning iii) Field frequency
i) Bandwidth: The number of lines in a TV system has a direct effect on the required bandwidth of the
system. Generally speaking, the more lines used in a TV system, the higher the bandwidth required to
transmit the video signal. This is because each line in the image requires a certain amount of data to be
transmitted, and the more lines there are, the more data that needs to be transmitted.

ii) Interlaced Scanning: The number of lines in a TV system also affects the interlaced scanning method
used. Interlaced scanning is a technique used in TV systems to display an image by dividing it into two
fields, one consisting of the odd-numbered lines and the other consisting of the even-numbered lines.
The two fields are then displayed alternately to create a full image.

The number of lines in a TV system determines the number of lines in each field. For example, in a 525-
line system, each field consists of 262.5 lines (rounded to 263), while in a 625-line system, each field
consists of 312.5 lines (rounded to 313). This affects the way interlaced scanning is performed, as the
number of lines in each field determines how the fields are combined to create a full image.

iii) Field Frequency: The number of lines in a TV system also affects the field frequency, which is the rate
at which the TV system displays each field. The field frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) and is typically
half the frame rate of the system.

For example, in a 525-line NTSC system, the field frequency is 59.94 Hz (rounded to 60 Hz), while in a
625-line PAL system, the field frequency is 50 Hz. The number of lines in the system determines the field
frequency because each field contains a certain number of lines, and the fields must be displayed at a
rate that is compatible with the system's frame rate.

5. Define following terms

 Contrast in TV communication refers to the difference between the brightest and darkest parts
of an image displayed on a TV screen. It is a measure of the range of luminance values in an
image, from the brightest whites to the darkest blacks.

 Contrast ratio is the ratio between the luminance of the brightest white and the darkest black
that a TV can produce. A higher contrast ratio means that the TV can display deeper blacks,
improving the overall picture quality, especially when watching content in dark rooms.

 Gamma of Pictures - Gamma in TV communication refers to the relationship between the input
signal and the output luminance of a display device, such as a TV screen. It is a measure of the
overall brightness and contrast of an image.
 Assignment 2

1. Sketch composite video signal waveform for at-least three successive lines and
indicate: Extreme white level, Blanking level, Pedestal height, Sync pulse level.

Pedestal height: The pedestal height is the distance between the pedestal level and the
average value (dc level) axis of the video signal. This indicates average brightness since it
measures how much the average value differs from the black level.
Blanking pulses: The composite video signal contains blanking pulses to make the retrace
lines invisible by raising the signal amplitude slightly above the black level (75 per cent)
during the time the scanning circuits produce retraces. The composite video signal contains
horizontal and vertical blanking pulses to blank the corresponding retrace intervals. The
repetition rate of horizontal blanking pulses is therefore equal to the line scanning frequency
of 15625 Hz.
Line sync pulse: After the front porch of blanking, horizontal retrace is produced when the
sync pulse starts. The fly back is definitely blanked out because the sync level is blacker than
black. The nominal time duration for the line sync pulses is 4.7 µs. During this period the
beam on the raster almost completes its back stroke (retrace) and arrives at the extreme left
end of the raster.

2. What is half line discrepancy and how is it removed?

Half-line discrepancy is a type of synchronization error that can occur in video systems that use
interlaced scanning. In an interlaced video signal, each frame is divided into two fields, with the odd-
numbered lines in one field and the even-numbered lines in the other field. The fields are then displayed
alternately, with the odd field displayed first and the even field displayed second.
Half-line discrepancy occurs when there is a mismatch between the number of lines in the odd and even
fields. Specifically, if the number of lines in the odd field is different from the number of lines in the even
field by an odd number (e.g. one line), then there will be a half-line discrepancy. This can result in a
visible horizontal shift or jitter in the image.

To remove half-line discrepancy, a process called vertical interval switching is used. This involves
shifting the vertical synchronization pulse in the vertical blanking interval of the video signal by one-half
line, so that the odd and even fields are correctly aligned. This can be accomplished using a special
switching circuit that detects the half-line discrepancy and adjusts the timing of the vertical
synchronization pulse accordingly. By correcting the timing of the synchronization pulse, the half-line
discrepancy is eliminated and the correct synchronization of the video signal is restored.

Assignment – 3
1. What is vestigial sideband and explain the need of VSB.

Vestigial Sideband (VSB) is a type of amplitude modulation (AM) where one of the sidebands (upper or
lower) and a portion of the carrier wave are partially suppressed, or "vestigial," while the other sideband
is transmitted at full strength. This is achieved using a specialized filter that removes most of one
sideband and a portion of the carrier, leaving behind a "vestige" of the original signal.

The need for VSB arises in situations where bandwidth is limited and needs to be conserved. With
traditional AM, both sidebands and the carrier are transmitted, resulting in a much wider bandwidth
than necessary to transmit the original signal. By suppressing one sideband and a portion of the carrier,
VSB reduces the required bandwidth by half, while still preserving most of the original signal.

VSB is commonly used in broadcasting and communication systems where limited bandwidth is
available, such as AM radio, television broadcasting, and digital TV (DTV) transmission. In DTV, VSB is
used to transmit high-definition video signals over the airwaves, allowing multiple channels to be
transmitted within the same frequency band. VSB is also used in some radar systems and other
applications where bandwidth is a limiting factor.

2. Discuss the demerits of VSB.

While vestigial sideband (VSB) is a useful modulation technique in some applications, it also has some
limitations and disadvantages, including:

 Complexity: VSB requires specialized filters to achieve the partial suppression of the sideband
and carrier, which can be complex and expensive to design and implement.
 Sensitivity to Frequency Offset: VSB is sensitive to frequency offsets between the transmitter
and receiver. If the frequency offset is too large, the VSB signal can become distorted, leading to
signal degradation or even complete loss of the signal.
 Sensitivity to Amplitude Imbalance: VSB is also sensitive to amplitude imbalances between the
two sidebands. If the amplitudes of the sidebands are not balanced properly, the resulting signal
can suffer from distortion and interference.
  Reduced Signal-to-Noise Ratio: By partially suppressing one sideband and a portion of the
carrier, VSB reduces the overall power of the transmitted signal. This can result in a lower signal-
to-noise ratio, which can lead to poorer reception quality.
 Limited Transmission Range: VSB is more sensitive to noise and interference than other
modulation techniques, such as single-sideband (SSB) or frequency modulation (FM). As a result,
it may not be suitable for long-distance or high-reliability communication applications.

Assignment – 4

1. Why is electromagnetic deflection preferred over electrostatic deflection?

Electromagnetic deflection is preferred over electrostatic deflection in certain applications because it

offers several advantages:

 High Deflection Speed: Electromagnetic deflection can operate at much higher speeds than
electrostatic deflection, making it suitable for applications that require high-speed scanning or
imaging, such as in cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
 Greater Deflection Range: Electromagnetic deflection can provide a larger deflection range than
electrostatic deflection, allowing for greater flexibility in the design of the deflection system.
 Reduced Image Distortion: Electromagnetic deflection can produce a more uniform deflection
field than electrostatic deflection, which can reduce image distortion in applications such as CRT
displays.
 Lower Voltage Requirements: Electromagnetic deflection requires lower voltages than
electrostatic deflection, which can result in lower power consumption and reduced complexity
in the deflection system.
 Fewer Alignment Issues: Electromagnetic deflection can be less sensitive to alignment issues
than electrostatic deflection, making it easier to manufacture and maintain.

Overall, electromagnetic deflection is preferred over electrostatic deflection in applications that require
high speed, large deflection range, reduced image distortion, and lower voltage requirements.

2. Why is aluminum coating used in TV picture tube?

Aluminum coating is used in TV picture tubes because it acts as a reflective layer that helps to increase
the brightness and sharpness of the image displayed on the screen. The aluminum coating is applied to
the back of the glass screen of the picture tube and reflects the electron beams that hit it back towards
the phosphor layer on the front of the screen.

When an electron beam is accelerated towards the front of the screen, it strikes the phosphor layer and
causes it to emit light. However, some of the electrons in the beam miss the phosphor layer and
continue to travel towards the back of the screen. If the back of the screen is not coated with a
reflective material, these electrons will be absorbed by the glass, reducing the brightness of the image.
The aluminum coating reflects these stray electrons back towards the front of the screen, allowing them
to contribute to the brightness of the image. Additionally, the aluminum coating also helps to reduce
glare and external light reflection, which can further enhance the picture quality.

Overall, the use of aluminum coating in TV picture tubes helps to improve the brightness, sharpness,
and contrast of the image displayed on the screen, resulting in a better viewing experience for the user.

3. Explain the working of Vidicon Camera Tube? What is Dark Current?

A Vidicon camera tube is a type of cathode ray tube (CRT) that is used in older video cameras and
televisions to capture and display images. The vidicon camera tube consists of a glass envelope that
contains an electron gun, a photoconductive target, and an electron collector.

Working: When light enters the camera lens, it strikes the photoconductive target of the vidicon tube,
which causes it to conduct electricity. The photoconductive target is typically made of a material such as
antimony trisulphide, which has a high photosensitivity.

The electron gun generates a focused beam of electrons that are accelerated towards the
photoconductive target. As the electron beam strikes the target, it causes the resistance of the target to
decrease, which produces a varying electrical signal that is proportional to the intensity of the light at
each point on the target.

The varying electrical signal is then amplified and converted into a video signal that can be displayed on
a television or recorded onto a video tape. To capture a new image, the electron beam is scanned across
the photoconductive target in a raster pattern, similar to the way an electron beam scans across the
phosphor layer of a CRT display.

One disadvantage of the vidicon camera tube is that it can suffer from image lag, which is caused by
residual charge on the photoconductive target that remains after the electron beam has passed. This
can result in a smearing effect on moving images.

Dark current refers to the small electrical current that flows through a photosensitive device, such as a
camera sensor or photodiode, even when there is no light present. This current is generated by thermal
energy, which causes electrons to move around within the device, creating an electrical signal that can
be mistaken for a true signal from light.

Dark current can be a problem for low-light imaging applications, as it can contribute to image noise and
reduce the overall image quality. To reduce the impact of dark current, engineers can design devices
with better thermal control or use cooling mechanisms, such as thermoelectric coolers, to reduce the
temperature of the device and minimize the generation of dark current. Additionally, some image
processing techniques can be applied to reduce the impact of dark current on the final image.

4. How is dark current reduced in plumbicon tube? Explain with target composition.

Plumbicon tubes are a type of image sensor used in older generation television cameras. They work by
converting light into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and processed to create an image. Like
other photosensitive devices, plumbicon tubes are susceptible to dark current, which can contribute to
image noise and reduce image quality.
To reduce dark current in plumbicon tubes, the target composition of the tube is carefully designed.
The target is the photosensitive surface of the tube, which is bombarded with electrons to create an
electrical signal. In plumbicon tubes, the target is made of a mixture of lead oxide (PbO) and lead
monoxide (PbO2) deposited on a glass substrate. The ratio of PbO to PbO2 is carefully controlled to
achieve the desired sensitivity and reduce dark current.

One way to reduce dark current in plumbicon tubes is to increase the amount of PbO in the target
composition. PbO has a lower melting point than PbO2, and thus it can be deposited at a lower
temperature, which reduces the thermal energy in the target and the generation of dark current.
However, increasing the amount of PbO can also reduce the sensitivity of the tube to light, so the ratio
of PbO to PbO2 must be carefully balanced to achieve the desired trade-off between sensitivity and dark
current.

Another way to reduce dark current in plumbicon tubes is to use a cooling mechanism, such as a
thermoelectric cooler, to reduce the temperature of the tube. This can be effective in reducing dark
current, but it also increases the complexity and cost of the system.

Overall, the reduction of dark current in plumbicon tubes is achieved through a combination of careful
target composition design and cooling mechanisms. By reducing dark current, plumbicon tubes can
achieve better image quality and contribute to the advancement of imaging technology.