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Transport Processes and Separation
Process Principles (Prentice Hall

International Series in the Physical and
Chemical Engineering Sciences) 5th
Edition, (Ebook PDF)
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24.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Processes
24.7 Reverse-Osmosis Membrane Processes
24.8 Dialysis
24.9 Chapter Summary
Problems
References
Notation
Chapter 25. Gaseous Membrane Systems
25.0 Chapter Objectives
25.1 Gas Permeation
25.1 A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes
25. IB Types of Membranes and Permeabilities for
Separation of Gases
25.2 Complete-Mixing Model for Gas Separation by
Membranes
25.3 Complete-Mixing Model for Multicomponent
Mixtures
25.4 Cross-Flow Model for Gas Separation by
Membranes
25.5 Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent and
Cocurrent Flow for Gas Separation by Membranes
25.5 F Effects of Processing Variables on Gas Separation
25.6 Derivation of Finite-Difference Numerical Method
for Asymmetric Membranes
Problems
References
Notation
Chapter 26. Distillation
26.1 Equilibrium relations between phases
26.2 Single and Multiple Equilibrium Contact Stages
26.3 Simple Distillation Methods
26.4 Binary Distillation with Reflux Using Mccabe—
Thiele and Lewis Methods
26.5 Tray Efficiencies
26.6 Flooding Velocity and Diamter of Tray Towers Plus
Simple Calculations for Reboiler and Condenser Duties.
26.7 Fractional Distillation Using Enthalpy-
Concentration Method
26.8 Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures
Tray Efficiencies
Maximum Allowable vapor velocity
Condenser duty
Reboiler duty
Multicomponent Distillation
Problems
References
Notation
Chapter 27. Liquid-Liquid Extraction
27.1 Introduction to Liquid-Liquid Extraction
27.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Extraction
27.3 Types of Equipment and Design for Liquid-Liquid
Extraction
27.4 Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction
27.5 Chapter Summary Lever-Arm Rule
Problems
References
Chapter 28. Adsorption and Ion Exchange
28.1 Introduction to Adsorption Processes
28.2 Batch Adsorption
28.3 Design of Fixed-Bed Adsorption Columns
28.4 Ion-Exchange Processes
Problems
References
Chapter 29. Crystallization and Particle Size Reduction
29.1 Introduction to Crystallization
29.2 Crystallization Theory
29.2B Nucleation Theories
29.3 Mechanical Size Reduction
Problems
References
Chapter 30. Settling, Sedimentation and Centrifugation
30.1 Settling and Sedimentation in Particle–Fluid
Separation
30.1F Sedimentation and Thickening
30.2 Centrifugal Separation Processes
Problems
References
Chapter 31. Leaching
31.1 Introduction and Equipment for Liquid–Solid
Leaching
31.2 Equilibrium Relations and Single-Stage Leaching
31.3 Countercurrent Multistage Leaching
Problems
References
Chapter 32. Evaporation
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operation
Methods
32.2B Methods of Operation of Evaporators
32.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators
32.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators
32.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect
Evaporators
32.6 Condensers for Evaporators
32.7 Evaporation of Biological Materials
32.8. Evaporation Using Vapor Recompression
Problems
References
Chapter 33. Drying
33.1 Introduction and Methods of Drying
33.2 Equipment for Drying
33.3 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
33.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
33.5 Rate-of-Drying Curves
33.6 Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
33.7 Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying Period
33.8 Combined Convection, Radiation, and Conduction
Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate Period
33.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and
Capillary Flow
3.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
33.11 Freeze-Drying of Biological Materials
33.12 Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and
Sterilization of Biological Materials
Problems
References
Part III: Appendices
Appendix A.1. Fundamental Constants and Conversion
Factors
Appendix A.2. Physical Properties of Water
Appendix A.3. Physical Properties of Inorganic and Organic
Compounds
Appendix A.4. Physical Properties of Foods and Biological
Materials
Appendix A.5. Properties of Pipes, Tubes, and Screens
Appendix A.6. Lennard-Jones Potentials as Determined from
Viscosity Data
Part I: Transport Processes:
Momentum, Heat, and Mass
Chapter 1. Introduction to
Engineering Principles and Units
1.0 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, a student should be able to:
• Describe what are unit operations and separation processes
• Identify industries in which unit operations and separation
processes are commonly found
• Describe the principles of momentum, heat, and mass
transfer
• Identify and use different units from the SI, English, and
cgs systems
• Understand the concept of equations that are
dimensionally homogeneous
• Provide examples of unit operations and separation
processes
• Use and convert units involving temperature, composition,
and energy
• Describe and use the ideal gas law to solve vapor phase
problems
• Describe the laws of conversation of mass and energy
• Solve problems involving material balances with and
without recycle and chemical reaction
• Solve problems involving energy balances using the
concepts of heat capacity, latent heat, heat of vaporization,
and heat of reaction
• Understand the principles of numerical integration
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT

PROCESSES AND SEPARATION
PROCESSES (UNIT OPERATIONS)
1.1A Introduction
In the chemical and other physical processing industries, such
as the food and biological processing industries, many
similarities exist in the manner in which the entering feed
materials are modified or processed into final products. We can
take these seemingly different chemical, physical, or biological
processes and break them down into a series of separate and
distinct steps. These steps are commonly called unit operations.
However, the term “unit operations” has sometimes been super-
ceded by the more descriptive term “separation processes.”
These separation processes are com-mon to all types of diverse
process industries.
For example, the separation process distillation is used to
purify or separate alcohol in the beverage industry and other
types of hydrocarbons in the petroleum industry. Drying of
grain and other foods is similar to drying of lumber, filtered
precipitates, and wool. The separation process absorption
occurs in absorption of oxygen from air in a fermentation
process or in a sewage treatment plant and in absorption of
hydrogen gas in a process for liquid hydrogenation of oil.
Evaporation of salt solutions in the chemical industry is similar
to evaporation of sugar solutions in the food industry. Settling
and sedimentation of suspended solids in the sewage industry
and the mining industry are similar. Flow of liquid
hydrocarbons in the petroleum refinery and flow of milk in a
dairy plant are carried out in a similar fashion.
Many of these separation processes have certain fundamental
and basic principles or mechanisms in common. For example,
the mechanism of diffusion or mass transfer occurs in drying,
membrane separation, absorption, distillation, and
crystallization. Heat transfer occurs in drying, distillation, and
evaporation. The following classification of a more fundamental
nature is often made, according to transfer or transport
processes:
1.1B Fundamental Transport Processes
1. Momentum transfer. This is concerned with the transfer of

momentum which occurs in moving media, such as in the
separation processes of fluid flow, sedimentation, mixing, and
filtration. Momentum transfer is commonly called fluid
mechanics in other disciplines.
2. Heat transfer. In this fundamental process, we are concerned

with the transfer energy in the form of heat from one place to
another. It occurs in the separation processes of drying,
evaporation, distillation, and many others.
3. Mass transfer. Here, material (or mass) is being transferred

from one phase to another distinct phase; the basic mechanism
is the same whether the phases are gas, solid, or liquid.
Separation processes dependent on mass transfer include
distillation, absorption, liquid–liquid extraction, membrane
separation, adsorption, crystallization, and leaching.
1.1C Classification of Separation Processes

The separation processes deal mainly with the transfer and
change of energy and the transfer and change of materials,
primarily by physical means but also by physical–chemical
means. The important separation processes, which can be
combined in various sequences in a process and which are
covered in this text, are described next.
1. Evaporation. This refers to the evaporation of a volatile
solvent such as water from a nonvolatile solute such as salt or
any other material in solution.
2. Drying. In this operation volatile liquids, usually water, are
removed from solid materials.
3. Distillation. This is an operation whereby components of a
liquid mixture are separated by boiling because of their
differences in vapor pressure.
4. Absorption. In this process a component is removed from a
gas stream by treatment with a liq-uid.
5. Membrane separation. This process involves the separation
of a solute from a fluid by diffusion of this solute from a liquid
or gas through a semipermeable barrier (i.e., the membrane) to
another fluid.
6. Liquid–liquid extraction. In this case a solute in a liquid
solution is removed by contacting with another liquid solvent
that is relatively immiscible with the solution.
7. Adsorption. In this process a component of a gas or liquid
stream is removed and adsorbed by a solid adsorbent.
8. Ion exchange. Certain ions in solution are removed from a
liquid by an ion-exchange solid.
9. Liquid–solid leaching. This involves treating a finely divided
solid with a liquid that dissolves out and removes a solute
contained in the solid.
10. Crystallization. This concerns the removal of a solute such
as a salt from a solution by precipitating the solute from the
solution.
11. Mechanical–physical separations. These involve separation
of solids, liquids, or gases by mechanical means, such as
filtration, settling, centrifugation, and size reduction.
1.1D Arrangement in Parts 1 and 2

This text is arranged in two parts:
Part I: Transport Processes: Momentum, Heat, and Mass.

These fundamental principles are covered extensively in
Chapters 1 through 21 in order to provide the basis for study of
separation processes in Part 2 of this text.
Part II: Separation Process Principles. The various separation

processes and their applications to process areas are studied in
Part II of this text.
There are a number of elementary engineering principles,
mathematical techniques, and laws of physics and chemistry
that are basic to a study of the principles of momentum, heat,
and mass transfer and the separation processes. These are
reviewed for the reader in this first chapter. Some readers,
especially chemical engineers, agricultural engineers, civil
engineers, and chemists, may be familiar with many of these
principles and techniques and may wish to omit all or parts of
this chapter.
Homework problems at the end of each chapter are arranged
in different sections, each corre-sponding to the number of a
given section in the chapter.
1.2 SI SYSTEM OF BASIC UNITS USED IN

THIS TEXT AND OTHER SYSTEMS
There are three main systems of basic units employed at present
in engineering and science. The first and most important of
these is the SI (Système International d’Unités) system, which
has as its three basic units the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and
the second (s). The other systems are the English foot (ft)–
pound (lb)–second (s), or English system and the centimeter
(cm)–gram (g)– second (s), or cgs system.
At present the SI system has been adopted officially for use
exclusively in engineering and science, but the older English
and cgs systems is still used. Much of the physical and chemical
data and empirical equations are given in these latter two
systems. Hence, engineers should not only be proficient in the
SI system, but must also be able to use the other two systems as
well.
1.2A SI System of Units

The basic quantities used in the SI system are as follows: the
unit of length is the meter (m); the unit of time is the second (s);
the unit of mass is the kilogram (kg); the unit of temperature is
the kelvin (K); and the unit of an element is the kilogram mole
(kg mol). The other standard units are derived from these basic
quantities.
The basic unit of force is the newton (N), defined as
2
1 newton (N) = 1 kg · m/s
The basic unit of work, energy, or heat is the newton-meter, or

joule (J).
1 joule (J) = 1 newton · m (N · m) = 1 kg · ms2/s2
Power is measured in joules/s or watts (W).
1 joule/s (J/s) = 1 watt (W)
The unit of pressure is the newton/m2 or pascal (Pa).
1 newton/m2 (N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa)
The standard acceleration of gravity is defined as
1 g = 9.80665 m/s2
A few of the standard prefixes for multiples of the basic units

are as follows: giga (G) = 109, mega (M) = 106 , kilo (k) = 103 ,
–2 –3 –6
centi (c) = 10 , milli (m) = 10 , micro (μ) = 10 , and nano
(n) = 10–9.
Temperatures are defined in kelvin (K) as the preferred unit
in the SI system. However, in practice, wide use is made of the
degree Celsius (°C) scale, which is defined by
T (°C) = T (K) – 273.15
Note that 1°C = 1 K and that in the case of temperature

difference,
ΔT (°C) = ΔT (K)
The standard preferred unit of time is the second (s), but time
can be in nondecimal units of minutes (min), hours (h), or days
(d).
1.2B CGS System of Units

The cgs system is related to the SI system as follows:
1 g mass (g) = 1×1023 kg mass (kg)
1 cm = 1×1022 m
2 25
1 dyne (dyn) = 1 g · cm/s = 1× 10 newton (N)
1 erg = 1 dyn · cm = 1×1027 joule (J)
The standard acceleration of gravity is

2
g = 980.665 cm/s
1.2C English fps System of Units

The English system is related to the SI system as follows:
m
1 lb mass (lb ) = 0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.30480 m
1 lb force (lbf ) = 4.4482 newton (N)
1 ft · lbf = 1.35582 newton · m (N · m) = 1.35582 joules (J)

3 2 2
1 psia = 6.89476 ×10 newton/m (N/m ) 1.8°F = 1 K = 1°C
(centigrade or Celsius)
2
g = 32.174 ft/s
The proportionality factor for Newton’s law is
gc= 32.174 ft · lbm /lbf · s
The factor gcin SI units and cgs units is 1.0 and is frequently
omitted.
In Appendix A.1, convenient conversion factors for all three
systems are tabulated. Further discussions and use of these
relationships are given in various sections of the text.
This text uses the SI system as the primary set of units in the
equations, sample problems, and homework problems.
However, the important equations derived in the text are given
in a dual set of units, SI and English, when these equations
differ. Some example problems and homework problems are
also given using English units. In some cases, intermediate
steps and/or answers in example problems are also stated in
English units.
1.2D Dimensionally Homogeneous Equations and Consistent Units

A dimensionally homogeneous equation is one in which all the
terms have the same units. These units can be the base units or
derived ones (for example, kg/s2 · m or Pa). Such an equation
can be used with any system of units provided that the same
base or derived units are used throughout the equation. No
conversion factors are needed when consistent units are used.
The reader should be careful about using any equation and
always checking it for dimensional homogeneity. To do this, a
system of units (SI, English, etc.) is first selected. Then units are
substituted for each term in the equation and like units in each
term canceled out.
1.3 METHODS OF EXPRESSING

TEMPERATURES AND COMPOSITIONS
1.3A Temperature
There are two temperature scales in common use in the
chemical and biological industries. These are degrees
Fahrenheit (abbreviated °F) and Celsius (°C). It is often
necessary to convert from one scale to the other. Both use the
freezing point and boiling point of water at 1 atmosphere
pressure as base points. Often temperatures are expressed as
absolute degrees K (SI standard) or degrees Rankine (°R )
instead of °C or °F. ture scales. Table 1.3-1 shows the
equivalences of the four temperature scales
Table 1.3-1. Temperature Scales and Equivalents
The difference between the boiling point of water and

melting point of ice at 1 atm is 100°C or 180°F. Thus, a 1.8°F
change is equal to a 1°C change. Usually, the value of –273.15°C
is rounded to –273.2°C and –459.67°F to –460°F. The
following equations can be used to convert from one
temperature scale to another:
1.3B Mole Units, and Weight or Mass Units
There are many methods used to express compositions in gases,
liquids, and solids. One of the most useful is molar units, since
chemical reactions and gas laws are simpler to express in terms
of molar units. A mole (mol) of a pure substance is defined as
the amount of that substance whose mass is numerically equal
4
to its molecular weight. Hence, 1 kg mol of methane CH
contains 16.04 kg. Also, 1.0 lb mol of methane contains 16.04
lbm .
The mole fraction of a particular substance is simply the
moles of this substance divided by the total number of moles.
Likewise, the weight or mass fraction is the mass of the
substance divided by the total mass. These two compositions,
which hold for gases, liquids, and solids, can be expressed as
follows for component A in a mixture:
Example 1.3-1. Mole and Mass or Weight

Fraction of a Solution
A container holds 50 g of water (B) and 50 g of NaOH

(A). Calculate the weight fraction and mole fraction of
m 2
NaOH. Also, calculate the lb of NaOH (A) and H O
(B).
Solution: Taking as a basis for calculation 50 + 50 or
100 g of solution, the following data are calculated:
Hence, xA = 0.310 and xB = 0.690 and xA + xB = 0.310

+ 0.690 = 1.00. Also, wA + wB = 0.500 + 0.500 = 1.00.
m
To calculate the lb of each component, Appendix A.1
gives the conversion factor of 453.6 g per 1 lbm . Using
this,
Note that the g of A in the numerator cancels the g of A

m
in the denominator, leaving lb of A in the numerator.
The reader is cautioned to put all units down in an
equation and cancel those appearing in the numerator
and denominator. In a similar manner we obtain
0.1102 lbm B (0.0500 kg B).
The analyses of solids and liquids are usually given as weight

or mass fraction or weight percent, and gases as mole fraction
or percent. Unless otherwise stated, analyses of solids and
liquids will be assumed to be weight (mass) fraction or percent,
and of gases to be mole fraction or percent.
1.3C Concentration Units for Liquids

In general, when one liquid is mixed with another miscible
liquid, the volumes are not additive. Hence, compositions of
liquids are usually not expressed as volume percent of a
component but as weight or mole percent. Another convenient
way to express concentrations of components in a solution is
molarity, which is defined as g mol of a component per liter of
solution. Other methods used are kg/m3 , g/liter, g/cm3 , lb
3 3 m
mol/ft , lb /ft , and lb /gallon. All these concentrations
depend on temperature, so the temperature must be specified.
The most common method of expressing total concentration
per unit volume is density, kg/m3 , g/cm3 , or lb /ft3 . For
3
example, the density of water at 277.2 K (4°C) is 1000 kg/m ,
3
or 62.43 lb /ft . Sometimes the density of a solution is
expressed as specific gravity, which is defined as the density of
the solution at its given temperature divided by the density of a
reference substance at its temperature. If the reference
substance is water at 277.2 K, the specific gravity and density of
the substance are numerically equal.
1.4 GAS LAWS AND VAPOR PRESSURE

1.4A Pressure
There are numerous ways of expressing the pressure exerted by
a fluid or system. An absolute pressure of 1.00 atm is equivalent
to 760 mm Hg at 0°C, 29.921 in. Hg, 0.760 m Hg, 14.696 lb
force per square inch (psia), or 33.90 ft of water at 4°C. Gage
pressure is the pressure above the absolute pressure. Hence, a
pressure of 21.5 lb per square inch gage (psig) is 21.5 + 14.7
(rounded off), or 36.2 psia. In SI units, 1 psia = 6.89476 ×103
3 2
pascal (Pa) = 6.89476 ×10 newtons/m . Also, 1 atm = 1.01325
×105 Pa.
In some cases, particularly in evaporation, one may express
the pressure as inches of mercury vacuum. This means the
pressure as inches of mercury measured “below” the absolute
barometric pressure. For example, a reading of 25.4 in. Hg
vacuum is 29.92 – 25.4, or 4.52 in. Hg absolute pressure.
Pressure conversion units are given in Appendix A.1.
1.4B Ideal Gas Law

An ideal gas is defined as one that obeys simple laws. Also, in
the ideal gas approximation, the gas molecules are considered
as rigid spheres which themselves occupy no volume and do not
exert forces on one another. No real gases obey these laws
exactly, but at ordinary temperatures and pressures of not more
than several atmospheres, the ideal gas law give answers within
a few percent or less of the actual answers. Hence, for certain
situations, this law is sufficiently accurate for engineering
calculations.
The ideal gas law of Boyle states that the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature and inversely
proportional to the absolute pressure. This is expressed as
pV = nRT (1.4-1)
2
where p is the absolute pressure in N/m , V the volume of the
gas in m3 , n the kg mol of the gas, T the absolute temperature
2 2
in K, and R the gas law constant of 8314.3 kg · m /kg mol · s ·
3
K. When the volume is in ft , n in lb moles, and T in °R, R has a
3
value of 0.7302 ft · atm/lb mol ·°R. For cgs units (see Appendix
3 3
A.1), V = cm , T = K, R = 82.057 cm · atm/g mol · K, and n = g
mol.
In order that amounts of various gases may be compared,
standard conditions of temperature and pressure (abbreviated
STP or SC) are arbitrarily defined as 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm) abs
and 273.15 K (0°C). Under these conditions the volumes are as
follows:
volume of 1.0 kg mol (SC) = 22.414 m3

3
volume of 1.0 g mol (SC) = 22.414 L (liter) = 22 414 cm
3
volume of 1.0 lb mol (SC) = 359.05 ft
Example 1.4-1. Gas-Law Constant
Calculate the value of the gas-law constant R when the

pressure is in psia, moles in lb mol, volume in ft3 , and
temperature in °R. Repeat for SI units.
Solution: At standard conditions, p = 14.7 psia, V =
3
359 ft , and T = 460 + 32 = 492°R (273.15 K).
Substituting into Eq. (1.4-1) for n = 1.0 lb mol and
solving for R,
A useful relation can be obtained from Eq. (1.4-1) for n moles

of gas at conditions p1 , V1 , T1 , and also at conditions p2 , V2 ,
2
T . Substituting into Eq. (1.4-1),
1 1 1
p V = nRT
p2V2 = nRT2
Combining gives
1.4C Ideal Gas Mixtures
Dalton’s law for mixtures of ideal gases states that the total
pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the individual
partial pressures:
P = pA + pB + pC + ... (1.4-3)
where P is total pressure and . . in the mixture. pA , pB , pC , . . .

are the partial pressures of the components A, B, C, .
Since the number of moles of a component is proportional to
its partial pressure, the mole fraction of a component is
The volume fraction is equal to the mole fraction. Gas mixtures

are almost always represented in terms of mole fractions and
not weight fractions. For engineering purposes, Dalton’s law is
sufficiently accurate to use for actual mixtures at total pressures
of a few atmospheres or less.
Example 1.4-2. Composition of a Gas Mixture
A gas mixture contains the following components and

2 2
partial pressures: CO , 75 mm Hg; CO, 50 mm Hg; N ,
595 mm Hg; O2 , 26 mm Hg. Calculate the total
pressure and the composition in mole fraction.
Solution: Substituting into Eq. (1.4-3),
P = pA + pB + pC + pD = 75 + 50 + 595 + 26 = 746 mm
Hg
The mole fraction of CO2 is obtained by using Eq. (1.4-

4).
In like manner, the mole fractions of CO, N2 , and O2

are calculated as 0.067, 0.797, and 0.035, respectively.
1.4D Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point of Liquids

When a liquid is placed in a sealed container, molecules of
liquid will evaporate into the space above the liquid and fill it
completely. After a fixed amount of time, equilibrium is
reached. This vapor will exert a pressure just like a gas and we
call this pressure the vapor pressure of the liquid. The value of
the vapor pressure is independent of the amount of liquid in the
container as long as some is present.
If an inert gas such as air is also present in the vapor space, it
will have very little effect on the vapor pressure. In general, the
effect of total pressure on vapor pressure can be considered as
negligible for pressures of a few atmospheres or less.
The vapor pressure of a liquid increases markedly with
temperature. For example, from Appendix A.2 for water, the
vapor pressure at 50°C is 12.333 kPa (92.51 mm Hg). At 100°C
the vapor pressure has increased greatly to 101.325 kPa (760
mm Hg).
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at
which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the total pressure.
Hence, if the atmospheric total pressure is 760 mm Hg, water
will boil at 100°C. On top of a high mountain, where the total
pressure is considerably less, water will boil at temperatures
below 100°C.
A plot of vapor pressure PA of a liquid versus temperature
does not yield a straight line but a curve. However, for moderate
temperature ranges, a plot of log PA versus 1/T is a reasonably
straight line, as follows:
where m is the slope, b is a constant for the liquid A, and T is

the temperature in K.
1.5 CONSERVATION OF MASS AND

MATERIAL BALANCES
1.5A Conservation of Mass
One of the basic laws of physical science is the law of
conservation of mass. This law, stated simply, says that mass
cannot be created or destroyed (excluding, of course, nuclear or
atomic reactions). Hence, the total mass (or weight) of all
materials entering any process must equal the total mass of all
materials leaving plus the mass of any materials accumulating
or left in the process:
input = output + accumulation (1.5-1)
In many cases there will be no accumulation of materials in a

process, and in those cases the input will simply equal the
output. Stated in other words, “what goes in must come out.”
We call this type of process a steady-state process:
input = output (steady state) (1.5-2)
1.5B Simple Material Balances

In this section we do simple material (weight or mass) balances
in various processes at steady state with no chemical reaction
occurring. We can use units of kg, lbm, lb mol, g, kg mol, and so
on, in our balances. The reader is cautioned to be consistent and
not to mix several units in a balance. When chemical reactions
occur in the balances (as discussed in Section 1.5D), one should
use kg mol units, since chemical equations relate moles
reacting. In Chapter 4, overall mass balances will be covered in
more detail and in Chapter 8, differential mass balances will be
covered.
To solve a material-balance problem, it is advisable to
proceed by a series of definite steps, as listed below:
1. Sketch a simple diagram of the process. This can be a simple
box diagram showing each stream entering by an arrow
pointing in and each stream leaving by an arrow pointing out.
Include on each arrow the compositions, amounts,
temperatures, and so on, of that stream. All pertinent data
should be on this diagram.
2. Write the chemical equations involved (if any).
3. Select a basis for calculation. In most cases the problem is
concerned with a specific amount of one of the streams in the
process, which is selected as the basis.
4. Make a material balance. The arrows into the process will be
input items and the arrows going out output items. The
balance can be a total material balance in Eq. (1.5-2) or a
balance on each component present (if no chemical reaction
occurs).
Typical processes that do not undergo chemical reactions are
drying, evaporation, dilution of solutions, distillation,
extraction, and so on. These can be solved by setting up material
balances containing unknowns and solving these equations for
the unknowns.
Example 1.5-1. Concentration of Orange Juice
In the concentration of orange juice, a fresh extracted

and strained juice containing 7.08 wt % solids is fed to
a vacuum evaporator. In the evaporator, water is
removed and the solids content increased to 58 wt %
solids. For 1000 kg/h entering, calculate the amounts
of the outlet streams of concentrated juice and water.
Solution: Following the four steps outlined, we make
a process flow diagram (step 1) in Fig. 1.5-1. Note that
the letter W represents the unknown amount of water
and C the amount of concentrated juice. No chemical
reactions are given (step 2). Basis: 1000 kg/h entering
juice (step 3).
To make the material balances (step 4), a total
material balance will be made using Eq. (1.5-2):
1000 = W + C (1.5-3)
This gives one equation and two unknowns. Hence, a

component balance on solids will be made:
To solve these two equations, we solve Eq. (1.5-4) first

for C since W drops out. We get C = 122.1 kg/h
concentrated juice.
Substituting the value of C into Eq. (1.5-3),
1000 = W + 122.1
and we obtain W = 877.9 kg/h water.
Figure 1.5-1. Process flow diagram for Example 1.5-1.
As a check on our calculations, we can write a

balance on the water component:
Solving,
929.2 = 877.9 + 51.3 = 929.2
In Example 1.5-1 only one unit or separate process was

involved. Often, a number of processes in series are involved.
Then we have a choice of making a separate balance over each
separate process and/or a balance around the complete overall
process.
1.5C Material Balances and Recycle

Processes that have a recycle or feedback of part of the product
into the entering feed are sometimes encountered. For example,
in a sewage treatment plant, part of the activated sludge from a
sedimentation tank is recycled back to the aeration tank where
the liquid is treated. In some fooddrying operations, the
humidity of the entering air is controlled by recirculating part of
the hot, wet air that leaves the dryer. In chemical reactions, the
material that did not react in the reactor can be separated from
the final product and fed back to the reactor.
Example 1.5-2. Crystallization of KNO3 and

Recycle
In a process producing KNO3 salt, 1000 kg/h of a feed

solution containing 20 wt % KNO3 is fed to an
evaporator, which evaporates some water at 422 K to
produce a 50 wt % KNO3 solution. This is then fed to a
crystallizer at 311 K, where crystals containing 96 wt %
3
KNO are removed. The saturated solution containing
37.5 wt % KNO3 is recycled to the evaporator. Calculate
the amount of recycle stream R in kg/h and the product
stream of crystals P in kg/h.
Solution: Figure 1.5-2 gives the process flow diagram.
As a basis we shall use 1000 kg/h of fresh feed. No
chemical reactions are occurring. We can make an
overall balance on the entire process for KNO3 and
solve for P directly:
To calculate the recycle stream, we can make a

balance around the evaporator or the crystallizer. Using
a balance on the crystallizer, since it now includes only
two unknowns, S and R, we get for a total balance,
S = R + 208.3 (1.5-7)
For a KNO3 balance on the crystallizer,
S (0.50) = R(0.375) + 208.3(0.96) (1.5-8)
Substituting S from Eq. (1.5-7) into Eq. (1.5-8) and

solving, R = 766.6 kg recycle/h and S = 974.9 kg/h.
1.5D Material Balances and Chemical Reaction

In many cases the materials entering a process undergo
chemical reactions in the process, so that the materials leaving
are different from those entering. In these cases it is usually
convenient to make a molar and not a weight balance on an
individual component, such as kg mol H2 or kg atom H, kg mol
ion, kg mol CaCO3 , kg atom Na +, kg mol N2 , and so on.
4
For example, in the combustion of CH with air, balances can be
made on kg mol of H2 , C, O2 , or N2 .
Example 1.5-3. Combustion of Fuel Gas
A fuel gas containing 3.1 mol % H2 , 27.2% CO, 5.6%

CO2 , 0.5% O2 , and 63.6% N2 is burned with 20%
excess air (i.e., the air over and above that necessary for
complete combustion to CO2 and H2 O). The
combustion of CO is only 98% complete. For 100 kg
mol of fuel gas, calculate the moles of each component
in the exit flue gas.
Solution: First, the process flow diagram is drawn
(Fig. 1.5-3). On the diagram the components in the flue
gas are shown. Let A be moles of air and F be moles of
flue gas. Next the chemical reactions are given:
An accounting of the total moles of O2 in the fuel gas

is as follows:
For all the H2 to be completely burned to H2 O, we
need, from Eq. (1.5-10), for 1 mol H2 ,
For completely
burning the CO from Eq. (1.5-9), we need
Hence, the amount of O2

we must add is, theoretically, as follows:
mol O2 theoretically needed = 1.55 + 13.6 – 0.5 (in fuel

gas ) = 14.65 mol O2
For a 20% excess, we add 1.2(14.65), or 17.58 mol O2 .

Since air contains 79 mol % N , the amount of N2 added
is (79/21)(17.58), or 66.1 mol N2 .
To calculate the moles in the final flue gas, all the H2
gives H2 O, or 3.1 mol H2 O. For CO, 2.0% does not
react. Hence, 0.02(27.2), or 0.54 mol CO will be
unburned.
A total carbon balance is as follows: inlet moles C =
27.2 + 5.6 = 32.8 mol C. In the outlet flue gas, 0.54 mol
will be as CO and the remainder of 32.8 – 0.54, or
32.26 mol as CO2 . For calculating the outlet mol O2 ,
we make an overall O2 balance:
O2 in = 19.7 (in fuel gas) + 17.58 (in air) = 37.28 mol O2
O2 out = (3.1/ 2) (in H2 O) + (0.54/ 2) (in CO) + 32.26

(in CO2 ) + free O2
Equating inlet O2 to outlet, the free remaining O2 = 3.2

mol O2 . For the N2 balance, the outlet = 63.6 (in fuel
gas) = 66.1 (in air), or 129.70 mol N2 . The outlet flue
gas contains 3.10 mol H2 O, 0.54 mol CO, 32.26 mol
CO2, 3.20 mol O2, and 129.7 mol N2.
In chemical reactions with several reactants, the limiting
reactant component is defined as that compound which is
present in an amount less than the amount necessary for it to
react stoichiometrically with the other reactants. Then the
percent completion of a reaction is the amount of this limiting
reactant actually converted, divided by the amount originally
present, times 100.
1.6 ENERGY AND HEAT UNITS

1.6A Joule, Calorie, and Btu
In a manner similar to that used in making material balances on
chemical and biological processes, we can also make energy
balances on a process. Often a large portion of the energy
entering or leaving a system is in the form of heat. Before such
energy or heat balances are made, we must understand the
various types of energy and heat units.
In the SI system, energy is given in joules (J) or kilojoules
(kJ). Energy is also expressed in Btu (British thermal units) or
cal (calories). The calorie (abbreviated cal) is defined as the
amount of heat needed to heat 1.0 g water 1.0°C (from 14.5°C to
15.5°C). Also, 1 kcal (kilocalorie) = 1000 cal. The btu is defined
as the amount of heat needed to raise 1.0 lb water 1°F. Hence,
from Appendix A.1,
1 Btu = 252.16 cal = 1.05506 kJ (1.6-1)
1.6B Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of
heat necessary to increase the temperature by 1 degree. It can be
expressed for 1 g, 1 lb, 1 g mol, 1 kg mol, or 1 lb mol of the
substance. For example, a heat capacity is expressed in SI units
as J/kg mol · K; in other units as cal/g ·°C, cal/g mol · °C,
kcal/kg mol · °C, Btu/lbm · °F, or Btu/lb mol · °F.
It can be shown that the actual numerical value of a heat
capacity is the same in mass units or in molar units. That is,
1.0 cal/g · °C = 1.0 Btu/lb ·°F (1.6-2)
1.0 cal/g mol · °C = 1.0 Btu/lb mol · °F (1.6-3)
For example, to prove this, suppose that a substance has a heat

capacity of 0.8 btu/lbm · °F. The conversion is made using 1.8°F
for 1°C or 1 K, 252.16 cal for 1 Btu, and 453.6 g for 1 lbm, as
follows:
The heat capacities of gases (also called specific heat) at

constant pressure c p are functions of temperature and for
engineering purposes can often be assumed to be independent
of pressure up to several atmospheres. In most process
engineering calculations, one is usually interested in the
amount of heat needed to heat a gas from one temperature t1 to
another at t2 . Since the c p varies with temperature, an
integration must be performed or a suitable mean c pm used.
These mean values for gases have been obtained for T1 of 298 K
or 25°C (77°F) and various T2 values, and are tabulated in Table
1.6-1 at 101.325 kPa pressure or less as cpm in kJ/kg mol · K at
various values of T2 in K or °C.
Example 1.6-1. Heating of N2 Gas
The gas N2 at 1 atm pressure absolute is being heated in

a heat exchanger. Calculate the amount of heat needed
in J to heat 3.0 g mol N2 in the following temperature
ranges:
(a) 298–673 K (25–400°C)
(b) 298–1123 K (25–850°C)
(c) 673–1123 K (400–850°C)
Solution: For case (a), Table 1.6-1 gives cpm values at 1
atm pressure or less which can be used up to several
atm pressures. For N2 at 673 K, cpm = 29.68 kJ/kg mol ·
K or 29.68 J/g mol · K. This is the mean heat capacity
for the range 298–673 K:
Table 1.6-1. Mean Molar Heat Capacities of Gases

Between 298 and TK (25 and T°C) at 101.325 kPa or
Less (SI Units: cp= kJ/kg mol · K)
Source: O. A. Hougen, K. W. Watson, and R. A. Ragatz, Chemical Process Principles,
Part I, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1954. With permission.
Substituting the known values,
heat required = (3.0)(29.68)(673 – 298) = 33 390 J
For case (b), the c pm at 1123 K (obtained by linear

interpolation between 1073 and 1173 K) is 31.00 J/g
mol · K:
heat required = (3.0)(31.00)(1123 – 298) = 76 725 J
For case (c), there is no mean heat capacity for the

interval 673–1123 K. However, we can use the heat
required to heat the gas from 298 to 673 K in case (a)
and subtract it from case (b), which includes the heat to
go from 298 to 673 K plus 673 to 1123 K:
heat required (67391123 K) = heat required (29891123

K) 2 heat required (2989673) (1.6-5)
Substituting the proper values into Eq. (1.6-5),

heat required = 76 725 – 33 390 = 43 335 J
On heating a gas mixture, the total heat required is

determined by first calculating the heat required for each
individual component and then adding the results to obtain the
total.
The heat capacities of solids and liquids are also functions of
temperature and independent of pressure. Data are given in
Appendix A.2, Physical Properties of Water; A.3, Physical
Properties of Inorganic and Organic Compounds; and A.4,
Physical Properties of Foods and Biological Materials. More
data are available in (P1).
Example 1.6-2. Heating of Milk
Rich cows’ milk (4536 kg/h) at 4.4°C is being heated in

a heat exchanger to 54.4°C by hot water. How much
heat is needed?
Solution: From Appendix A.4, the average heat
capacity of rich cows’ milk is 3.85 kJ/kg · K.
Temperature rise ΔT = (54.4 – 4.4)°C = 50 K.
heat required = (4536 kg/h)(3.85 kJ/kg · K)(1/3600
h/s)(50 K) = 242.5 kW
The enthalpy, H, of a substance in J/kg represents the sum of

the internal energy plus the pressure–volume term. For no
reaction and a constant-pressure process with a change in
temperature, the heat change as computed from Eq. (1.6-4) is
the difference in enthalpy, ΔH , of the substance relative to a
m
given temperature or base point. In other units, H = btu/lb or
cal/g.
1.6C Latent Heat and Steam Tables

Whenever a substance undergoes a change of phase, relatively
large amounts of heat change are involved at a constant
temperature. For example, ice at 0°C and 1 atm pressure can
absorb 6013.4 kJ/kg mol. This enthalpy change is called the
latent heat of fusion. Data for other compounds are available in
various handbooks (P1, W1).
When a liquid phase vaporizes to a vapor phase under its
vapor pressure at constant temperature, an amount of heat
called the latent heat of vaporization must be added. For water
at 25°C and a pressure of 23.75 mm Hg, the latent heat is 44
020 kJ/kg mol, and at 25°C and 760 mm Hg, 44 045 kJ/kg mol.
Hence, the effect of pressure can be neglected in these types of
engineering calculations. However, there is a large effect of
temperature on the latent heat of water. Also, the effect of
pressure on the heat capacity of liquid water is small and can be
neglected.
Since water is a very common chemical, the thermodynamic
properties of it have been compiled in steam tables and are
given in Appendix A.2 in SI and in English units.
Example 1.6-3. Use of Steam Tables
Find the enthalpy change (i.e., how much heat must be

added) for each of the following cases using SI and
English units:
m
(a) Heating 1 kg (lb ) water from 21.11°C (70°F)
to 60°C (140°F) at 101.325 kPa (1 atm) pressure.
(b) Heating 1 kg (lbm ) water from 21.11°C (70°F)
to 115.6°C (240°F) and vaporizing at 172.2 kPa
(24.97 psia).
m
(c) Vaporizing 1 kg (lb ) water at 115.6°C
(240°F) and 172.2 kPa (24.97 psia).
Solution: For part (a), the effect of pressure on the
enthalpy of liquid water is negligible. From Appendix
A.2,
H at 21.11°C = 88.60 kJ/kg or at 70°F = 38.09 btu/lbm
H at 60°C = 251.13 kJ/kg or at 140°F = 107.96 btu/lbm
change in H = ΔH = 251.13 – 88.60 = 162.53 kJ/kg =

107.96 – 38.09 = 69.87 btu/lbm
In part (b), the enthalpy at 115.6°C (240°F) and

172.2 kPa (24.97 psia) of the saturated vapor is 2699.9
kJ/kg or 1160.7 btu/lbm.
change in H = ΔH = 2699.9 – 88.60 = 2611.3 kJ/kg =

1160.7 – 38.09 = 1122.6 btu/lbm
The latent heat of water at 115.6°C (240°F) in part

(c) is
2699.9 – 484.9 = 2215.0 kJ/kg

m
1160.7 – 208.44 = 952.26 btu/lb
1.6D Heat of Reaction

When chemical reactions occur, heat effects always accompany
these reactions. This area where energy changes occur is often
called thermochemistry. For example, when HCl is neutralized
with NaOH, heat is given off and the reaction is exothermic.
Heat is absorbed in an endothermic reaction. This heat of
reaction is dependent on the chemical nature of each reacting
material and product and on their physical states.
For purposes of organizing data, we define a standard heat of
0
reaction ΔH as the change in enthalpy when 1 kg mol reacts
under a pressure of 101.325 kPa at a temperature of 298 K
(25°C). For example, for the reaction
0 3
the ΔH is –285.840 ×10 kJ/kg mol or –68.317 kcal/g mol.
The reaction is exothermic and the value is negative since the
reaction loses enthalpy. In this case, the H2 gas reacts with the
O2 gas to give liquid water, all at 298 K (25°C).
0
Special names are given to ΔH depending upon the type of
reaction. When the product is formed from the elements, as in
Eq. (1.6-6), we call the ΔH 0 the heat of formation of the
product water, . For the combustion of CH4 to form CO2
and H2O, we call it heat of combustion, Data are given in
Appendix A.3 for various values of
Example 1.6-4. Combustion of Carbon
A total of 10.0 g mol of carbon graphite is burned in a

calorimeter held at 298 K and 1 atm. The combustion is
incomplete, and 90% of the C goes to CO2 and 10% to
CO. What is the total enthalpy change in kJ and kcal?
Solution: From Appendix A.3 the for carbon

3
going to CO2 is –393.513 ×10 kJ/kg mol or –94.0518
kcal/g mol, and for carbon going to CO it is –110.523
×103 kJ/kg mol or –26.4157 kcal/g mol Since 9 mol
CO2 and 1 mol CO are formed,
total ΔH = 9(2393.513) +1(2110.523) = 23652 kJ
= 9(294.0518) +1(226.4157) = 2872.9 kcal
If a table of heats of formation, , of compounds

is available, the standard heat of the reaction, ΔH 0 ,
can be calculated by
In Appendix A.3, a short table of some values of ΔHf is given.

Other data are also available (H1, P1, S1).
Example 1.6-5. Reaction of Methane
For the following reaction of 1 kg mol of CH4 at 101.32

kPa and 298 K,
CH4 ( g ) + H2O(l) → CO( g ) + 3H2 ( g )
calculate the standard heat of reaction ΔH 0 at 298 K in

kJ.
Solution: From Appendix A.3, the following standard
heats of formation are obtained at 298 K:
Note that the of all elements is, by definition,

zero. Substituting into Eq. (1.6-7),
1.7 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND

HEAT BALANCES
1.7A Conservation of Energy
In making material balances we used the law of conservation of
mass, which states that the mass entering is equal to the mass
leaving plus the mass left in the process. In a similar manner,
we can state the law of conservation of energy, which says that
all energy entering a process is equal to that leaving plus that
left in the process. In this section elementary heat balances will
be made.
Energy can appear in many forms. Some of the common
forms are enthalpy, electrical energy, chemical energy (in terms
of ΔH inflow. reaction), kinetic energy, potential energy, work,
and heat
In many cases in process engineering, which often takes
place at constant pressure, electrical energy, kinetic energy,
potential energy, and work either are not present or can be
neglected. Then only the enthalpy of the materials (at constant
pressure), the standard chemical reaction energy (ΔH 0 ) at
25°C, and the heat added or removed must be taken into
account in the energy balance. This is generally called a heat
balance.
1.7B Heat Balances

In making a heat balance at steady state we use methods similar
to those used in making a material balance. The energy or heat
coming into a process in the inlet materials plus any net energy
added to the process are equal to the energy leaving in the
materials. Expressed mathematically,
where Σ H R is the sum of enthalpies of all materials entering

the reaction process relative to the reference state for the
standard heat of reaction at 298 K and 101.32 kPa. If the inlet
temperature is above 298 K, this sum will be positive. =
standard heat of the reaction at 298 K and 101.32 kPa. The
reaction contributes heat to the process, so the negative of
is taken to be positive input heat for an exothermic
reaction. Also, q = net energy or heat added to the system. If
heat leaves the system, this item will be negative. Σ H p = sum of
enthalpies of all leaving materials referred to the standard
reference state at 298 K (25°C).
Note that if the materials coming into a process are below
298 K, Σ H R will be negative. Care must be taken not to confuse
the signs of the items in Eq. (1.7-1). If no chemical reaction
occurs, then simple heating, cooling, or phase change is
occurring. Use of Eq. (1.7-1) will be illustrated by several
examples. For convenience it is common practice to call the
terms on the lefthand side of Eq. (1.7-1) input items, and those
on the right, output items.
Example 1.7-1. Heating of Fermentation

Medium
A liquid fermentation medium at 30°C is pumped at a

rate of 2000 kg/h through a heater, where it is heated
to 70°C under pressure. The waste heat water used to
heat this medium enters at 95°C and leaves at 85°C.
The average heat capacity of the fermentation medium
is 4.06 kJ/kg · K, and that for water is 4.21 kJ/kg · K
(Appendix A.2). The fermentation stream and the
wastewater stream are separated by a metal surface
through which heat is transferred and do not physically
mix with each other. Make a complete heat balance on
the system. Calculate the water flow and the amount of
heat added to the fermentation medium assuming no
heat losses. The process flow is given in Fig. 1.7-1.
Solution: It is convenient to use the standard

reference state of 298 K (25°C) as the datum to
calculate the various enthalpies. From Eq. (1.7-1) the
input items are as follows:
Input items. Σ H R of the enthalpies of the two streams
relative to 298 K (25°C) (note that Δt = 30 – 25°C = 5°C
= 5 K) :
H (liquid) = (2000 kg/h)(4.06 kJ/kg · K)(5 K)b

= 4.060 ×104 kJ/h
H (water) = W (4.21)(95 – 25) = 2.947 ×102 W kJ/h (W

= kg/h)
(–ΔH 0 ) = 0 (since there is no chemical reaction)

q = 0 (there are no heat losses or additions)
Output items. Σ H P of the two streams relative to 298

K (25°C):
H (liquid) = 2000(4.06)(70 – 25) = 3.65 × 105 kJ/h

2
H (water) = W (4.21)(85 – 25) = 2.526 ×10 W kJ/h
Equating input to output in Eq. (1.7-1) and solving for

W,
4.060 ×104 + 2.947 ×102 W = 3.654 ×105 + 2.526 ×102

W W = 7720 kg/h water flow
The amount of heat added to the fermentation

medium is simply the difference of the outlet and inlet
liquid enthalpies:
5
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Transport Processes and Separation

Process Principles (Prentice Hall

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORT

1.1B Fundamental Transport Processes

1. Momentum transfer. This is concerned with the transfer of

2. Heat transfer. In this fundamental process, we are concerned

3. Mass transfer. Here, material (or mass) is being transferred

1.1C Classification of Separation Processes

1.1D Arrangement in Parts 1 and 2

Part I: Transport Processes: Momentum, Heat, and Mass.

Part II: Separation Process Principles. The various separation

1.2 SI SYSTEM OF BASIC UNITS USED IN

1.2A SI System of Units

The basic unit of work, energy, or heat is the newton-meter, or

1 joule (J) = 1 newton · m (N · m) = 1 kg · ms2/s2

Power is measured in joules/s or watts (W).

1 joule/s (J/s) = 1 watt (W)

The unit of pressure is the newton/m2 or pascal (Pa).

1 newton/m2 (N/m2) = 1 pascal (Pa)

The standard acceleration of gravity is defined as

A few of the standard prefixes for multiples of the basic units

T (°C) = T (K) – 273.15

Note that 1°C = 1 K and that in the case of temperature

1.2B CGS System of Units

1 g mass (g) = 1×1023 kg mass (kg)

1 erg = 1 dyn · cm = 1×1027 joule (J)

The standard acceleration of gravity is

1.2C English fps System of Units

1 lb force (lbf ) = 4.4482 newton (N)

1 ft · lbf = 1.35582 newton · m (N · m) = 1.35582 joules (J)

The proportionality factor for Newton’s law is

gc= 32.174 ft · lbm /lbf · s

1.2D Dimensionally Homogeneous Equations and Consistent Units

1.3 METHODS OF EXPRESSING

Table 1.3-1. Temperature Scales and Equivalents

The difference between the boiling point of water and

Example 1.3-1. Mole and Mass or Weight

A container holds 50 g of water (B) and 50 g of NaOH

Hence, xA = 0.310 and xB = 0.690 and xA + xB = 0.310

Note that the g of A in the numerator cancels the g of A

The analyses of solids and liquids are usually given as weight

1.3C Concentration Units for Liquids

1.4 GAS LAWS AND VAPOR PRESSURE

1.4B Ideal Gas Law

volume of 1.0 kg mol (SC) = 22.414 m3

Example 1.4-1. Gas-Law Constant

Calculate the value of the gas-law constant R when the

A useful relation can be obtained from Eq. (1.4-1) for n moles

where P is total pressure and . . in the mixture. pA , pB , pC , . . .

The volume fraction is equal to the mole fraction. Gas mixtures

Example 1.4-2. Composition of a Gas Mixture

A gas mixture contains the following components and

The mole fraction of CO2 is obtained by using Eq. (1.4-

In like manner, the mole fractions of CO, N2 , and O2

1.4D Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point of Liquids

where m is the slope, b is a constant for the liquid A, and T is

1.5 CONSERVATION OF MASS AND

input = output + accumulation (1.5-1)

In many cases there will be no accumulation of materials in a

input = output (steady state) (1.5-2)

1.5B Simple Material Balances

Example 1.5-1. Concentration of Orange Juice

In the concentration of orange juice, a fresh extracted