GEN BIO FINALS NOTES

CELLULAR METABOLISM

● CATABOLISM
- the process in a plant or animal by which complex molecules are changed into
simpler molecules and energy is released

● ANABOLISM
- a building-up process. It is the synthesis of complex molecules from their simple
building units.
- It is an energy-requiring process and is the opposite of catabolism

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

● AUTOTROPHIC PROCESS
- Plants and plant-like organisms make their energy (glucose) from sunlight

➢ Stored as carbohydrate in their bodies.

➢ 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2

➢ Essential to animal life because it provides oxygen and organic molecules (glucose)

➢ Plants use sunlight (light energy) to turn water and carbon dioxide into glucose. Plants
use glucose as food for energy and as a building block for growing.

------> TWO REACTIONS THAT MAKE UP PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

1. LIGHT REACTION / LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION

- Produces energy from solar power (photons) in the form of ATP and NADPH.
- The light reaction and the carbon reactions are connected by the participation of
these molecule

➢ Requires light
➢ Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
➢ Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light
➢ Light/photons excites electron (e-)
○ Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to an electron transport chain

➢ Electron transport chain: series of proteins in thylakoid membrane

➢ They release energy, captured by ATP molecules
➢ e- also taken up by NADP+ to NADPH
 ➢ Solar energy to chemical energy

➢ Energy lost along electron transport chain

➢ Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP
➢ NADPH produced from e- transport chain
○ Stores energy until transfer to stroma
○ Plays important role in light-independent reaction
➢ Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2

------> During the light reaction, there are two possible routes for electron flow:

a. CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

- Occurs in the thylakoid
membrane.
- Uses Photosystem I only
- P700 reaction center- chlorophyll
a
- Uses Electron Transport Chain
(ETC)
- Generates ATP only

b. NONCYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

- Occurs in the thylakoid
membrane
- Uses Photosystem II and
Photosystem I
- P680 reaction center (PSII) -
chlorophyll a
- P700 reaction center (PS I) -
chlorophyll a
- Uses Electron Transport Chain
(ETC)
- Generates O2, ATP and
NADPH. Oxygen comes from the
splitting of H2O, not CO2.

❖ HYDROLYSIS
- a common form of a chemical reaction where water is mostly used to break down
the chemical bonds that exist between a particular substance.
- One of its advantages is that Water is one of the most important components of
photosynthesis.
- The hydrolysis of water is required to provide the electrons and protons in
photosynthesis.
2. CALVIN CYCLE / LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION
- Also called Carbon Fixation or C3 Fixation
- Uses energy (ATP and NADPH) from light reaction to make sugar (glucose).
- Named after Melvin Calvin who discovered the enzymatic reactions that reduce
the CO2 to a carbohydrate.

➢ Does not require light

1. Occurs in stroma of chloroplast. Stroma is the site of a light independent

reactions in photosynthesis.
- Stoma functioned for gaseous exchange during photosynthesis.
- Requires CO2
- Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run
- Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen

➢ To produce glucose: it takes 6 turns and uses 18 ATP and 12 NADPH.

1. Carbon Fixation
- Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, commonly known by
the abbreviations RuBisCo, is an enzyme involved in light-independent of
photosynthesis.
- How is this enzyme being a benefit to photosynthetic process?; It is the
key enzyme responsible for photosynthetic carbon assimilation in
catalyzing the reaction of carbon dioxide with Rubp to form 2 molecules of
phospholgyceric acid (PGA).

● CARBON DIOXIDE
- important for life, essential for the survival of most living organisms and cycles in
the ecosystem, through aerobic and anaerobic respiration, photosynthesis and
combustion. But carbon dioxide has disadvantages too:
- An increase in CO2 concentrations in our atmosphere causes average global
temperatures to rise, disrupting other aspects of Earth's climate.
- High levels of CO2 indoors can cause respiratory issues and discomfort
- The high levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are dissolving into the
ocean, leading to ocean acidification. This is making it harder for creatures such
as crabs and sea urchins to make their shells and exoskeletons.

● PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Absorbing Light Energy to make chemical energy: glucose!
- Pigments: Absorb different colors of white light (ROY G BIV)
- Main pigment: Chlorophyll a
- Accessory pigments: Chlorophyll b and Carotenoids
- These pigments absorb all wavelengths (light) BUT green!
CHLOROPHYLL PIGMENTS:

➢ Certain pigment molecules in plants absorb only some wavelengths of the visible
light, either reflect or transmit those wavelengths they do not absorb.
➢ Chlorophyll a directly absorbs light energy
➢ Chlorophyll b, an accessory pigment, transfers only the absorbed light energy to
chlorophyll a
➢ Both will absorb violet, blue and red lights and they reflect the green light back to
our eyes
➢ Carotenoid, a shade of yellow and orange, only absorbs violet-blue-green

In addition to the chlorophyll pigments, there are other pigments present:

➢ During the fall, the green chlorophyll pigments are greatly reduced revealing
the other pigments
➢ Carotenoids are pigments that are either red, orange, or yellow

● CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- Sunlight is the ULTIMATE energy for all life on Earth
- Plants store energy in the chemical bonds of sugars
- Chemical energy is released as ATP during cellular respiration
- Includes pathways that require oxygen
- Glucose is oxidized and O2 is reduced
- Glucose breakdown is therefore an oxidation-reduction reaction
- Breakdown of one glucose results in 36 to 38 ATP molecules

TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION PROCESS

● OXIDATION-REDUCTION PROCESS / REDOX REACTION

- The transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another

1. Oxidation of GLUCOSE --> CO2 + H2O (e- removed from C6H12O6)

Oxidation reaction: The loss of electrons-hydrogen atoms from a substance or
the gain of oxygen.
------> In oxidation reaction during photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose, and
water is oxidized to release oxygen. Its importance are:

- Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are important because they are the principal
sources of energy on this planet, both natural or biological and artificial. Very important
because oxidation of molecules by removal of hydrogen or combination with oxygen
normally liberates large quantities of energy. Oxidation reactions are important in the
synthesis of organic compounds because these reactions create new functional groups
or modify existing functional groups in molecules

2. Reduction O2 to H2O (e- passed to O2)

Reduction reaction: The gain of electrons-hydrogen atoms to a substance or
the loss of oxygen. It happens when hydrogen atoms are transferred from water
to CO2 to form glucose.

- Here, CO2 has been reduced and H2O has been oxidized

❖ AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- The production of ATP from glucose in the presence of oxygen

❖ ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
- absence of oxygen

------> ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. It is composed of the nitrogen base
ADENINE, the pentose (5C) sugar RIBOSE, and three PHOSPHATE groups

------> The LAST phosphate group is bonded with a HIGH ENERGY chemical bond.
This bond can be BROKEN to release ENERGY for CELLS to use.
ATP synthase uses hydrogen ion gradient to make ATP

- ATP synthase uses a hydrogen ion gradient to make ATP. If a substance causes holes to
form in the inner mitochondrial membrane, the production of ATP by ATP synthase
 would be affected first. ATP provides the energy required for producing complex
substances such as biomolecules.
- It provides the energy for cells and tissues to perform their functions, such as blood
circulation, muscle contraction and pumping of heart.
- The production of ATP by ATP synthase would be affected If a substance causes holes
to form in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

1. GLYCOLYSIS
- occurs in the cytosol, anaerobic (does not require oxygen), requires input of 2
ATP, Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate or Pyruvic Acid
- Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP
- Pyruvate is oxidized to Acetyl CoA and CO2 is removed

------> Fermentation occurs when O2 is NOT present (anaerobic)

- Called Lactic Acid fermentation in muscle cells (makes muscles tired)

Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other
six-carbon sugars are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate,
which is lactic acid in solution. Fermented foods have been associated with
several positive health effects, including improved digestive health and stronger
immunity. Eating fermented foods everyday is beneficial to us. Fermentation also
promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria, known as probiotics. Probiotics have
been shown to improve immune function as well as digestive and heart health.
- Called Alcoholic fermentation in yeast (produces ethanol)
- Nets only 2 ATP
- It differs with aerobic respiration when the amount of NADPH and pyruvate be
produced in glycolysis

2. KREB’S CYCLE
- takes place in the matrix of mitochondrion, aerobic (requires Oxygen) there’s a
cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per
cycle, turns twice per glucose molecule and produces two ATP

➢ Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces 3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
➢ Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2,
4CO2, and 2ATP

- Krebs cycle is importance because it produces energy, stored and transported as

ATP, oxidizes food, stripping out carbon dioxide and hydrogen, as nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide plus hydrogen (NADH) and generate high energy molecules
such as ATP, NADH, and FADH2
3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- takes place in the cristae of mitochondrion, 34 ATP Produced, H2O Produced,
Use coenzymes NAD+ and FAD+ to accept e- from glucose
- NADH = 3 ATP’s
- FADH2 = 2 ATP’s
- produced the most ATP’s compared to Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle stage