CHEMISTRY FINALS NOTES

● BOHR’S MODEL

Name of Shell: Numbers of the shell:

K- Shell n=1
L -Shell n=2
M- Shell n=3
N- Shell n=4

1st Shell: limit of 2 electrons

2nd shell: limit of 8 electrons
3rd shell: limit of 18 electrons
4th shell: limit of 32 electrons

------> Electrons are quantized: meaning electrons revolving in a particular orbit is fixed and
does not change with time
 ● ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

1 1
H - 1𝑠

1= The shell/orbit/ Principal Quantum number (n)

s= subshell (s,p,d,f)
1
= electron

LIMIT

s≤2
p≤8
d ≤ 10
f ≤ 14

6 2 2 2
Ex 1. C - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝

11 2 2 6 1
Ex 2. Na - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠

● NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION

2 2 11 1
Ex 1. He - 1𝑠 ----> Na - [Ne] 3𝑠
6 2 2
----> C - [He] 2𝑠 2𝑝
18 2 2 6 2 6 2 9
Ex 3. Ar - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠 3𝑝 4𝑠 3𝑑
10 2 2 6 29 2 9
Ex 2. Ne - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 ----> Cu - [Ar] 4𝑠 3𝑑

● ORBITAL DIAGRAMS

How many squares

s-1
p-3
d-5
f-7

-----> Start first with the up arrows in each boxes before going with the down arrows
 11 2 2 6 1
Ex 2. Na - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝 3𝑠
1 1
Ex 1. H - 1𝑠

6 2 2 2
Ex 3. C - 1𝑠 2𝑠 2𝑝

● MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

➢ PARAMAGNETIC
- Attracts a magnet
- There is 1 or more that has no pair

➢ DIAMAGNETIC
- Repels a magnet
- All has pairs

FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS

● PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

- Represents the main energy levels (shells)

2 4 2
Ex. 3𝑠 2𝑝 6𝑑
n= 3 n= 2 n= 6

● AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBERS (𝑙)

- Represents the energy sub-level or the type of orbital
- Dependent on the principal quantum number

𝑙 = n-1

n 𝑙
1− s = 0
2− p = 1
3− d = 2
4− f = 3
 ● MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (m𝑙)
- Represents the possible orientation in 30 space for each type of orbital

𝑙 m𝑙
0 − 0
1 − -1, 0, 1
2 − -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
3 − -3 ,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

5
Ex 1. 2𝑝
7
Ex 2. 3𝑑
𝑙=1
m𝑙 = -1, 0, 1 𝑙=2
m𝑙 = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
= −1 0 1
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
= −2 −1 0 1 2
● ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (𝑚𝑠)
- Represents the orientation that an electron can have with respect to another
electron occupying in the same orbital

1 1
𝑚𝑠 = 2
, − 2
(↑) (↓)

5 7
Ex 1. Ex 1. 2𝑝 Ex 2. Ex 2. 3𝑑

𝑙=1 𝑙=2
m𝑙 = -1, 0, 1 m𝑙 = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
= −1 0 1 =
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
−2 −1 0 1 2

----> since it ends with the 5th arrow, and it ----> since it ends with the 7th arrow, and it
is ↓ is ↓

1 1
𝑚𝑠 = − 2
𝑚𝑠 = − 2
 NATURE OF LIGHT

● VISIBLE LIGHT
- One type of electromagnetic spectrum (electromagnetic energy or radiant
energy)
- Has enough wavelength to see within the naked eye

------> Other familiar types include X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves

------> All electromagnetic radiation consists of energy propagated by means of electric and
magnetic fields that alternately increase or decrease in intensity as they move through space.

------> The wave properties of electromagnetic radiation are described by two interdependent
variables:

1. FREQUENCY (v)
- The number of cycles the wave undergoes per second and is expressed in units
1
1/seconds (𝑠 or hertz-Hz)
 2. WAVELENGTH (λ)
- The distance between any point on a wave and the corresponding point on the
next crest (or through) of a wave, that is, the distance the wave travels during
one cycle
- Expressed in meters and often, for very short wavelengths, in nanometers (nm,
9 12 −10
10 m), picometer (pm,10 m), or the non-SI unit angstroms (Å, 10 𝑚)

The top part of a wavelength is

called a CREST and

The bottom part of a wavelength

is called TROUGH

1 CYCLE:

𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
● FREQUENCY = s = seconds
𝑠
𝑚
● WAVELENGTH = m = meter
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

------> FREQUENCY X WAVELENGTH:

𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚 𝑚
Units for speed of wave =
𝑠
x 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑠
 ● SPEED OF LIGHT (c)
8
- In a vacuum, all types of electromagnetic radiation travel at 2.99792458 x10 m/s
8
(3.00 x10 m/s), which is a physical constant speed called speed of light (c)
8
- c = 3.00 x10 m/s

c=v𝑥λ (frequency x wavelength)

------> since the product of v and λ is a constant, then the individual terms have a reciprocal
relationship to each other, which means:

High frequency = short wavelength

High wavelength = short frequency

------> you can play around with the speed of light equation to find the frequency and wavelength

𝑐
(Frequency): v= ∧

𝑐
(wavelength): λ= 𝑣

Ex 1. Find the velocity with a wavelength of 1.00Å

1. Convert angstrom to meters

−10
1 angstrom = 1.0x10

2. Use the speed of light formula

c=v𝑥λ

𝑐
v= ∧

8
3.00𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠
v= −10
1.0𝑥10 𝑚

18 1 1
v = 3.0x10 𝑠
( 𝑠 is hertz)

18
v = 3.0x10 Hz
 ● AMPLITUDE
- The height of the crest (or the depth of the trough) of each wave

-----> The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is a measure of the strength of its electric and
magnetic fields. Thus the amplitude is related to the intensity of the radiation.

PROOFS OF THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

1. When light passes a new medium (Ex. water) at an angle other than 90°, the speed of
light changes, causing the phenomenon known as REFRACTION.

2. When light strikes the edge of an object, it bends around it in a phenomenon called
DIFFRACTION

PROOF THAT LIGHT IS A PARTICLE

1. BLOCKBODY RADIATION
- Refers to the energy radiated by any object or system that absorbs all incident
radiation
- The changes in intensity and wavelength (or color) vary in different temperatures
- Only a theory

------> Ex: The hottest part of a fire is the blue/white color. This when you heat a metal; it turns
brown, then orange, then yellow, then light yellow

2. MAX PLANCK
- In 1900, Max Planck made a radical assumption that eventually led to an entirely
new view of energy from blackbody radiation.
- He proposed that the hot glowing object (blackbody) could emit (or absorb) only
certain quantities of energy:

𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑣 or 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣

E = energy of radiation
v = the frequency
n = principal quantum number / can also be substituted by 1
−34
h = planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10 𝐽•𝑠
-----> Planck’s proposal led to the idea that if an atom can emit fixed quantities, it follows that an
atom can emit fixed quantities, it follows that the atom itself can have only certain quantities of
energy.

-----> Thus, the energy of an atom is quantized; it exists only in fixed quantities, rather than
being

-----> Each energy “packet” is called quantum (quanta- plural)

3. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
- The flow of current when monochromatic light (1) of sufficient energy shines on a
metal plate
- No matter how many, you cannot knock any electrons off unless you have
enough energy

- the red (1.77 eV) does not eject electrons as it is less than 2.0 eV which is the required
- The green (2.25 eV) and violet (3.1 eV) ejected electrons as they have more than 2.0 eV

● ALBERT EINSTEIN (photon theory)

- Carrying Planck’s idea of quantized energy, Albert Einstein proposed that light
itself is a particulate, that is quantized into small “bundles” of electromagnetic
energy, which were later called “photons”
- Einstein was awarded the Nobel prize in physics for explaining the features of the
photoelectric effect

----> The photoelectric effect brought certain confusing features that cannot be explained by the
wave model of light:
 1. Presence of threshold frequency

● PHOTON THEORY
- According to the photon theory, the energy of the protons is related to
frequency (hv) and not the intensity.

2. Absence of time lag

- An electron cannot “save up” energy and then be emitted when one photon with
enough energy is absorbed all at once.

Sample Problem #1: Photoelectric effect

➢ When a beam of light strikes a metal surface with a workfunction of 4.3 eV, electrons
with a kinetic energy of 7.9 eV are ejected. What is the energy of the beam?

1. Get the Given

Given:
eV= 7.9 eV
e= ?
Workfunction= 4.3 eV

2. Add the eV and workfunction

e = 7.9 eV + 4.3 eV

e = 12.2 eV

Sample Problem #2: Photoelectric effect

➢ Which of the following sources can eject electron(s) in a Zn metal?

Two light sources:

a. UV lamp (λ = 254 nm)
b. Red laser pointer (λ = 700 nm)

1. Get the given

UV lamp λ = 254 nm
Red laser pointer λ = 700 nm
8
c = 3.0x10 m/s
−34
h = 6. 626𝑥10

2. Get the formula for frequency 3. Use the energy formula

c=v𝑥λ 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
𝑐
v= ∧ 𝐸=ℎ
𝑐
∧

𝑐
𝐸=ℎ ∧

a. UV lamp
b. Red laser pointer
Convert nm into meters:
Convert nm into meters:
9
1.0𝑥10 𝑚 −9
254 nm x 1𝑛𝑚
= 2.54x10 m 9
1.0𝑥10 𝑚 −7
700 nm x 1𝑛𝑚
= 7.0x10 m
8
−34 (3.0𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠)
𝐸 = (6. 626𝑥10 𝑗 • 𝑠)( −9 ) −34
8
2.54𝑥10 𝑚 (3.0𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠)
𝐸 = (6. 626𝑥10 𝑗 • 𝑠)( −7 )
7.0𝑥10 𝑚
19
E = 7.83x10 𝑗
19
E = 2.84x10 𝑗

Therefore the source that can eject electron(s) in a Zn metal is the UV lamp as it has an
19 19
energy of 7.83x10 𝑗 while the red laser pointer has an energy of 2.84x10 𝑗

------> Planck’s quantum theory and Einstein’s photon theory agree that energy is contained in
fixed quantity and discrete particles

------> The photon model does not replace the wave model, but both are needed to understand
and is known as the dual nature of light.

Light has both particles and is a wave— DUAL NATURE

Ideas that support that LIGHT IS A WAVE-----> Refraction and Diffraction

Ideas that support that LIGHT IS A PARTICLE-----> Blockbody Radiation, Planck’s, and
Photoelectric effect

● PHOTON MOMENTUM
- If light is a stream of particles, each of those particles must have a momentum (p)

p = hv / c

Since c = vλ

p = h/λ

● LOUIS DE BROGLIE (1892-1987)

p = h/λ

λ = h/p

p = mv

λ= h/mv

➢ Einstein proposed the momentum of a photon

➢ Louise de Broglie used the idea of Einstein to derive the wavelength of matter

➢ G.P Thompson showed the wave-like behavior of electrons after obtaining the
phenomenon: diffraction

This proves that MATTER is also Dual Nature: as it is both a wave and a particle

➢ J.J Thomson proposed his model “Plum Pudding” with the assumption that electrons are
“particles” with charge
➢ G.P thomson, his son, proved the wave-like properties through diffusion
➢ They both were correct and won a Nobel prize.

● NIELS BOHR
 - suggested his model for the Hydrogen atom in Rutherford’s laboratory, using the
ideas of Planck and Einstein. He proposed his three postulates:

1. The H atom has only certain allowable energy levels, which he calls a stationary state.

2. The atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states.

3. The atom changes to another stationary state only by absorbing or emitting a photon
whose energy equals the difference between the two states.

𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴 − 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵 = ℎ𝑣

- where the energy state of A is higher than that of state B.

------> In Bohr’s model, the principal quantum number n (1,2,3,4..) is associated with the radius
of an electron orbit, which is directly related to the electron’s energy. Therefore: the lower the n
value, the smaller the radius of the orbit, and the lower the energy level.

- When the single electron of H is in the

first orbit, the atom is said to be in its lowest (first)
energy level, called the GROUND STATE

- The ground state is the first shell (n=1)

-----> When the electron absorbs a photon and moves to the

second orbit or higher orbit, the atom is said to be in an
EXCITED STATE

-----> When an electron gets energy it will bounce to the next

shell, and if the electron goes back to its previous shell, It
releases energy.
-----> If the energy is big, then electron will jump further

QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
-----> In the classical view of the world, a moving particle has a definite location at any instant,
whereas a wave is spread out in space.

● HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

- it is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and momentum (mass
times velocity) of a particle
- introduced by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927

ℎ
∆𝑥 · 𝑚∆𝑢 ≥ 4π

- Where ∆x is the uncertainty in position and ∆𝑢 is the uncertainty in speed. The more
accurately we know the position of the particle (smaller ∆x ), the less accurately we know
its speed (larger ∆u ), and vice versa.

------> What is the implication of the Uncertainty Principle?

- We cannot assign fixed paths for electrons, such as the circular orbits of Bohr’s Model.
- Instead, the most that we can ever hope to know is the probability – the odds- of finding
an electron in a given region of space.

------> Why the Bohr’s model is not accepted anymore:

1. In the bohr’s model, electrons have an exact position and orbit, which contradicts to the
uncertainty principle

2. The Bohr’s model is only applicable to hydrogen (H)

------> The acceptance of the dual nature of matter and energy and of the uncertainty principle
culminated in the field of Quantum Mechanics, which examines the wave nature of objects on
the atomic scale.
In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger derived an equation that is the basis for the quantum-mechanical
model of the hydrogen atom.

● QUANTUM–MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM

- The model describes an atom that has a certain allowed quantity of energy due
to the allowed frequencies of an electron whose behavior is wavelike and whose
exact location is impossible to know
- Describes only the area of where electrons are most likely to be present

● SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION
- is quite complex but is represented as:
-
Ĥψ= Eψ

- where E is the energy of the atom

- ψ(Greek psi) is called a wave function, a mathematical description of the electron’s
matter-wave in terms of position in three dimensions
- Ĥ is called the Hamiltonian operator

In Schrodinger’s model, an atom contains an

atomic orbital, but never the same in Bohr’s
Model.

If orbitals in Bohr’s model refer to fixed orbits,

atomic orbitals are probabilities of locating an
electron in an atom.

The model can also be called the electron cloud

density model.

Probability contour refers to the 90% volume in

which electrons spend most of their time. (the
drawn circle)

(The Spherical shape is only applicable to 1s)

-----> The Four Quantum Numbers:

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

 - represents the main energy level

2. Azimuthal/ Subsidiary/ Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

- represents the energy sublevel or the type of orbital

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

- represents the orientation of orbitals in 3D space

4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

- represents the possible orientation of an electron in relation to another electron
occupying the same orbital.

SHAPE OF THE ORBITALS: