Professional Documents
Culture Documents
EBook Foundations of College Chemistry 15Th Edition Etextbook PDF PDF Docx Kindle Full Chapter
EBook Foundations of College Chemistry 15Th Edition Etextbook PDF PDF Docx Kindle Full Chapter
1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1
4 Properties of Matter 68
13 Liquids 288
14 Solutions 312
~CONTENTS
1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises
Challenge Exercises 41
Answers to Practice Exercises 47
1.1 The Nature of Chemistry 2
Thinking Like a Chemist 2
1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3 3 Elements and Compounds 48
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Egyptians, the First 3.1 Elements 49
Medicinal Chemists 4
Natural States of the Elements 49
The Scientific Method 4 Distribution of Elements 50
1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 5 Names of the Elements 51
Physical States of Matter 6 Symbols of the Elements 51
1.4 Classifying Matter 7 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Naming Elements 52
Distinguishing Mixtures from
Pure Substances 9 3.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 53
Review 10 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 54
APPENDICES A1 INDEX 11
I. PREFACE
XV
xvi Preface
concepts from other chapters. In our new edition we have changed a number of exercises
per chapter, In addition we have expanded the electronic Enhanced Examples to a total of
178 throughout the chapters and developed two new electronic practice methods.
PRACTICE 7 . 7
Calculate the percent composition of Ca(N0 3)z.
PRACTICE 7 . 8
Calculate the percent composition of K 2Cr0 4 .
Practice Problems
Problem-solving Strategy
Organization
We continue to emphasize the Jess theoretical aspects of chemistry early in the book, leav-
ing the more abstract theory for later. This sequence seems especially appropriate in a
course where students are encountering chemistry for the very first time. Atoms, molecules,
and reactions are all an integral part of the chemical nature of matter. A sound under-
standing of these topics allows the student to develop a basic understanding of chemical
properties and vocabulary.
Chapters 1 through 3 present the basic mathematics and the language of chemistry,
including an explanation of the metric system and significant figures. We added a new
section in Chapter 2 (2.7) on Percents to assist students in understanding how the concept
is applied in chemistry. In Chapter 4 we present chemical properties- the ability of a sub-
stance to form new substances. Then, in Chapter 5, students encounter the history and
language of basic atomic theory. In Chapter 8 we added a new section 8.3 "Why Reactions
Occur" and revised the section discussing types of reactions extensively to better reflect
the level and needs of our students.
We continue to present new material at a level appropriate for the beginning student by
emphasizing nomenclature, composition of compounds, and reactions in Chapters 6 through 9
before moving into the details of modern atomic theory. Some applications of the Peri-
odic Table are shown in early chapters and discussed in detail in Chapters 10 and 11.
Students gain confidence in their own ability to identify and work with chemicals in the
laboratory before tackling the molecular models of matter. As practicing chemists we
have little difficulty connecting molecular models and chemical properties. Students, espe-
cially those with no prior chemistry background, may not share this ability to connect the
molecular models and the macroscopic properties of matter. Those instructors who feel
it is essential to teach atomic theory and bonding early in the course can cover Chapters
10 and 11 immediately following Chapter 5.
meaningful media assets for the Wiley PLUS course. Her focus has created deeper synergies
between the content in print format and the electronic resources in our Wiley PLUS course.
We continually strive to keep the material at the same level so that students can easily
read and use the text and supplemental material to learn chemistry. With a focus on problem
solving, student engagement, and clarity, some of the specific changes are highlighted below:
• Chemistry In Action boxes have been updated, and new boxes have been added to include CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
different applications of the concepts in the text. 7.6 Molecules and Formula
Units
• Some of the older industrial chemistry applications have been removed and newer -.. WileyPLUS
applications added as appropriate throughout the text.
• 229 Check Your Understanding Questions appear throughout the text to provide an
opportunity for the students to determine their level of understanding of concepts.
These are highlighted in the margins and refer the student to Wiley Plus for completion.
• 178 Enhanced Examples are also located in Wiley Plus and provide a more
i@i:t.p!3§·1¥MMQ!ti.W W ileyPLUS
interactive experience and practice. Students receive immediate feedback on How many oxygen atoms are present in 1.00 mol of oxygen molecules?
their answers and proceed stepwise through the example to its conclusion. SOLUTION
• 131 new Online Learning Modules movies provide a one-on-one learning Plan . o,ygen isadi,Hmniemolee.. lewith thefonnuhtO,. Thmfo"·" molecule
of oxygen contains 2 oxygen atoms: ~ :~: ~~e
1 1
1 0
sion. The modules are paired with in-text examples to provide an alternative The conversion factors needed are
6.022 X I 0 23 molecules 0~ 2atoms0
way to learn problem solving. l mole0 and I molecule0
1
•
2
• Each chapter is complemented by ORION, an adaptive learning module, c alculate . rroomeJ.en(6022 x i~)C ~)
available within WileyPLUS. These can be used individually for student = 1.20 X 1024 atoms 0
review or can be assigned by instructors as a specific review assignment ~-~-~-~~;~- ~--; -_-; -----------------------------------------------------
tailored to the chapters and sections on an exam. What is tbe mass of 2.50 mol of helium (He)?
• Chapters 19 and 20 (Introduction to Organic Chemistry and Introduction ~:wAn~.::~~"~';:""""';" 002 smolofimn'
to Biochemistry) are now available online only. This provides an option for
those desiring a shorter version of the text and for those wishing to cover this material
in their course.
ONLINE LEARNING MODULE
• The Putting It Together sections have been removed in order to provide a more flex-
ible review source for students and instructors. This new resource is called Orion and Finding Molecules in Moles
of a Diatomic Substance
is found on Wiley Plus. -.. W ileyPLUS
• New, modern design. The entire text has been redesigned to foster greater accessibility
and increase student engagement. New icons and notes direct students to Wiley Plus for
more individual direct interaction with the material.
• Appendix II: Using a Scientific Calculator has been removed because most students
begin using calculators in elementary school and there are so many kinds of calcula-
tors that specific instruction on their use is no longer possible.
Learning Aids
To help the beginning student gain the confidence necessary to master technical material,
we have refined and enhanced a series of learning aids:
• Learning Objectives highlight the concept being taught in each section. These objec-
tives are tied to Example, Practice Problems, Review Exercises, and Exercises to assist
the student in mastering each concept module and objective.
• Important terms are set off in bold type where they are defined and are listed in gray
at the beginning of each section. All Key Terms listed in the Chapter Review are also
defined in the Glossary.
• Worked examples show students the how of problem solving using Problem-Solving
Strategies and Solution Maps before they are asked to tackle problems on their own.
• Practice problems permit immediate reinforcement of a skill shown in the example
problems. Answers are provided at the end of the chapter to encourage students to
check their problem solving immediately.
xviii Preface
Supplements Package
FOR THE STUDENT Study Guide by Rachael Henriques Porter is a self-study guide for
students. For each chapter, the Study Guide includes a self-evaluation section with student
exercises, a summary of chapter concepts, one or more "challenge problems," and answers
and solutions to all Study Guide exercises.
Math Survival Guide: Tips and Tricks for Science Students, 2nd Edition, by Jeffrey
Appling and Jean Richardson, is a paperback summary of basic skills, with practice
exercises in every chapter.
Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, 14th Edition, by Morris Hein, Judith
N. Peisen, and Robert L. Miner includes 28 experiments for a laboratory program that
may accompany the lecture course. Featuring updated information on waste disposal
and emphasizing safe laboratory procedures, the lab manual also includes study aids and
exercises.
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Test Bank, by Harpreet Malhotra, includes chapter tests with
additional test questions and answers to all test questions.
Computerized Test Bank. The test bank contains true-false, multiple-choice, and open-
ended questions and is available in two formats.
Digital Image Library: Images from the text are available online in JPEG format.
Instructors may use these to customize their presentations and to provide additional
visual support for quizzes and exams.
Power Point Lecture Slides: Updated for this version by William Douglas Urban, these
slides contain lecture outlines and key topics from each chapter of the text, along with
supporting artwork and figures from the text.
WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS is an innovative, research-based online environment for effective teaching
and learning.
WileyP LUS builds students' confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by
providing students with a clear roadmap: what to do, how to do it, if they did it right. This
interactive approach focuses on:
CONFIDENCE: Research shows that students experience a great deal of anxiety studying.
That's why we provide a structured learning environment that helps students focus on
what to do, along with the support of immediate resources.
MOTIVATION: To increase and sustain motivation throughout the semester, WileyPLUS
helps students learn how to do it at a pace that's right for them. Our integrated resources-
available 24/7- function like a personal tutor, directly addressing each student's demon-
strated needs with specific problem-solving techniques.
Preface xix
Students can easily access ORION from within WileyPLUS. It does not require any
additional registration, and there is no additional charge for students using this adaptive
learning system.
OsmoSIS
·..
··..
If 3.56L of an unknown gas measured at STP has a mass of 32.0g, wh at is the density of the gas in
g/L?
r molar density
r volume
r mass
The number of Significant digits Is set to 3; the tolerance Is +/-1 In the 3rd significant digit
Now that you know how to solve the problem, go back and try again on your own.
• Pre-built assignments with two options per chapter that can be assigned with a single click.
• Prelecture checkpoint questions
• The complete instructor ancillary package can be accessed directly from WileyPLUS
including: Lecture PowerPoints, Solutions Manual, Classroom Response System
(Clickers) questions and Test Bank.
• WileyPL US can be integrated with many popular Learning Management Systems
such as BlackBoard and Canvas. Integration allows for single-sign-on and grade book
synchronization.
Acknowledgments
Books are the result of a collaborative effort of many talented and dedicated people. We
particularly want to thank our editor, Nick Ferrari, who guided the project through revision
with the challenge of creating several new electronic features. We are grateful to Mary Ann
Preface xxi
Price, Senior Photo Editor, for finding new and interesting photos that add so much to the
pages of our text. We also want to thank Elizabeth Swain, Senior Production Editor, who
kept us on track and production running smoothly. Sofia Buono, Project Manager/Copy
Editor, in Italy was amazing and turned our revisions into the beautiful text in our 15th edi-
tion. We also especially appreciate the work of Sean Hickey, Product Designer, who helped
us with the Online Learning Modules and incorporating new Check Your Understanding
questions into WileyP!us. Thanks to others who provided valuable assistance on this revi-
sion, including Senior Marketing Manager, Kristine Ruff, Senior Designer, Maureen Eide,
and Mallory Frye, Senior Market Solutions Assistant, who was always ready to find an
answer to anything we needed. We are grateful for the many helpful comments from col-
leagues and students who, over the years, have made this book possible. We hope they will
continue to share their ideas for change with us, either directly or through our publisher.
We are especially thankful for the help and support of Tom Martin, our developmental
editor. His positive attitude, attention to detail, efficiency, good humor, and willingness to
help in any way were indispensable in this revision.
Our sincere appreciation goes to the following reviewers who were kind enough to read
and give their professional comments.
Reviewers
FOR THE15TH EDITION
KEY TERM A knowledge of chemistry is useful to virtually everyone- we see chemistry occurring
Chemistry around us every day. An understanding of chemistry is useful to engineers, teachers,
health care professionals, attorneys, homemakers, businesspeople, firefighters, and en-
vironmentalists, just to name a few. Even if you're not planning to work in any of these
fields, chemistry is important and is used by people every day. Learning about the benefits
and risks associated with chemicals will help you to be an informed citizen, able to make
intelligent choices concerning the world around you. Studying chemistry teaches you to
Key terms are highlighted in solve problems and communicate with others in an organized and logical manner. These
bold to alert you to new terms skills will be helpful in college and throughout your career.
defined in the text. What is chemistry? One dictionary gives this definition: "Chemistry is the science of
the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and
molecular systems." A somewhat simpler definition is "Chemistry is the science dealing
with the composition of matter and the changes in composition that maller undergoes."
Neither of these definitions is entirely adequate. Chemistry and physics form a fundamen-
tal branch of knowledge. Chemistry is also closely related to biology, not only because
living organisms are made of material substances but also because life itself is essentially
a complicated system of interrelated chemical processes.
The scope of chemistry is extremely broad. It includes the whole universe and every-
thing, animate and inanimate, in it. Chemistry is concerned with the composition and
changes in the composition of matter and also with the energy and energy changes asso-
ciated with matter. Through chemistry we seek to learn and to understand the general
principles that govern the behavior of all matter.
The chemist, like other scientists, observes nature and attempts to understand its
secrets: What makes a tulip red? Why is sugar sweet? What is occurring when iron rusts?
Why is carbon monoxide poisonous? Problems such as these- some of which have been
solved, some of which are still to be solved- are all part of what we call chemistry.
A chemist may interpret natural phenomena, devise experiments that reveal the com-
position and structure of complex substances, study methods for improving natural pro-
cesses, or synthesize substances. Ultimately, the efforts of successful chemists advance the
frontiers of knowledge and at the same time contribute to the well-being of humanity.
A health care professional needs
to understand chemistry in order Thinking Like a Chemist
to administer the correct dose of
medication. Chemists take a special view of things in order to understand the nature of the chemi-
cal changes taking place. Chemists "look inside" everyday objects to see how the basic
components are behaving. To understand this approach,
let's consider a lake. When we view the lake from a distance,
we get an overall picture of the water and shoreline. This
overall view is called the macroscopic picture.
As we approach the lake we begin to see more details-
rocks, sandy beach , plants submerged in the water, and
aquatic life. We get more and more curious. What makes
the rocks and sand? What kind of organisms live in
the water? How do plants survive underwater?
What lies hidden in the water? We can use a
microscope to learn the answers to some of
these questions. Within the water and the
plants, we can see single cells and inside
them organelles working to keep the organ-
isms alive. For answers to other questions,
we need to go even further inside the lake. A
drop of lake water can itself become a mys-
Inside a drop of lake water we find terious and fascinating microscopic picture full
water molecules and some dissolved substances. of molecules and motion. (FIGURE 1 .1) A chemist
1.2 • A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3
looks into the world of atoms and molecules and their motions. Chemistry makes the
connection between the microscopic world of molecules and the macroscopic world of
everyday objects.
Think about the water in the lake. On the surface it has beauty and colors, and it
gently laps the shore of the lake. What is the microscopic nature of water? It is composed
of tiny molecules represented as
H H
\./
0
In this case H represents a hydrogen atom and 0 an oxygen atom. The water molecule
is represented by H 20 since it is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
PRACTICE 1.1
You are given ten hydrogen atoms and eight oxygen atoms. How many water
molecules can you make from them?
• You leave for school and learn from the radio that there is a big accident on the free-
way. What is your fastest alternate route to avoid the traffic problem?
• You need to buy groceries, mail some packages, attend your child's soccer game, and
pick up the dry cleaning. What is the most efficient sequence of events?
We all face these kinds of problems and decisions. A logical approach can be useful for
solving daily problems:
1. Define the problem. We first need to recognize we have a problem and state it
clearly, including all the known information. When we do this in science, we call it
making an observation.
2. Propose possible solutions to the problem. In science this is called making a hypothesis.
3. Decide which is the best way to proceed or solve the problem. In daily life we use
our memory of past experiences to help us. In the world of science we perform an
experiment.
Using a scientific approach to problem solving is worthwhile. It helps in all parts of your
life whether you plan to be a scientist, doctor, businessperson, or writer.
4 CHAPTER 1 • An Introduction to Chemistry
(analysis) (explanation)
Hypothesis
Experiment
!(analysis)
modified. Such changes do not mean that the discoveries of the past are any less significant.
Modification of existing theories and models in the light of new experimental evidence is
essential to the growth and evolution of scientific knowledge. Science is dynamic.
The entire universe consists of matter and energy. Every day we come into contact KEY TERMS
with countless kinds of matter. Air, food, water, rocks, soil, glass, and this book are matter
all different types of matter. Broadly defined, matter is anything that has mass and solid
occupies space. amorphous
liquid
Matter may be quite invisible. For example, if an apparently empty test tube is sub-
gas
merged mouth downward in a beaker of water, the water rises only slightly into the tube. The
water cannot rise further because the tube is filled with invisible matter: air (FIGURE 1.3).
To the macroscopic eye, matter appears to be continuous and unbroken. We are
impressed by the great diversity of matter. Given its many forms, it is difficult to
believe that on a microscopic level all of matter is composed of discrete, tiny, fun-
damental particles called atoms ( FIGURE 1.4). It is truly amazing to understand that
the fundamental particles in ice cream are very similar to the particles in air that we
breathe. Matter is actually discontinuous and is composed of discrete, tiny particles
called atoms.
Although matter is discontinuous, attractive forces exist that hold the particles together
and give matter its appearance of continuity. These attractive forces are strongest in solids,
giving them rigidity; they are weaker in liquids but still strong enough to hold liquids to
definite volumes. In gases, the attractive forces are so weak that the particles of a gas are
practically independent of one another. TABLE 1.1 lists common materials that exist as
solids, liquids, and gases. TABLE 1.2 compares the properties of solids, liquids, and gases.
.·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·.
i TABLE 1.1 I Common Materials in the Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous States of Matter i
Solids Liquids Gases
Aluminum Alcohol Acetylene
Copper Blood Air
Gold Gasoline Butane
l Polyethylene Honey Carbon dioxide
l Salt Mercury Chlorine
l Sand Oil Helium
l Steel Syrup Methane
l Sugar Vinegar Nitrogen
[_~~~:~~--------------------------------------------------~~~~-~ ------------------------------------------------?~~~-~~--------------------:
·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·
! TABLE 1.2 I Physical Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
The term matter refers to all materials that make up the universe. Many thousands of dis- KEY TERMS
tinct kinds of matter exist. A substance is a particular kind of matter with a definite, fixed substance
composition. Sometimes known as pure substances, substances are either elements or com- homogeneous
pounds. Familiar examples of elements are copper, gold, and oxygen. Familiar compounds heterogeneous
phase
are salt, sugar, and water. We'll discuss elements and compounds in more detail in Chapter 3.
system
We classify a sample of matter as either homogeneous or heterogeneous by examining it. mixture
Homogeneous matter is uniform in appearance and has the same properties throughout.
Matter consisting of two or more physically distinct phases is heterogeneous. A phase
is a homogeneous part of a system separated from other parts by physical boundaries.
A system is simply the body of matter under consideration. Whenever we have a system
in which visible boundaries exist between the parts or components, that system has more
than one phase and is heterogeneous. It does not matter whether these components are in
the solid, liquid, or gaseous states.
A pure substance may exist as different phases in a heterogeneous system. Ice floating
in water, for example, is a two-phase system made up of solid water and liquid water. The
water in each phase is homogeneous in composition, but because two phases are present,
the system is heterogeneous.
8 CHAPTER 1 • An Introduction to Chemistry
A mixture is a material containing two or more substances and can be either hetero-
geneous or homogeneous. Mixtures are variable in composition. If we add a spoonful of
sugar to a glass of water, a heterogeneous mixture is formed immediately. The two phases
are a solid (sugar) and a liquid (water). But upon stirring, the sugar dissolves to form a
homogeneous mixture or solution. Both substances are still present: All parts of the solu-
tion are sweet and wet. The proportions of sugar and water can be varied simply by add-
ing more sugar and stirring to dissolve. Solutions do not have to be liquid. For example,
air is a homogeneous mixture of gases. Solid solutions also exist. Brass is a homogeneous
solution of copper and zinc.
-" -"
~ ~
0, 0,
0 0
~ ~
~ ~
"'~ "'~
i
~"'
i
"'"'
2
1
&
1
&
(a) (b)
(a) Water is the liquid in the beaker, and the white solid in the spoon is
sugar. (b) Sugar can be dissolved in the water to produce a solution .
Many substances do not form homogeneous mixtures. If we mix sugar and fine white
sand, a heterogeneous mixture is formed . Careful examination may be needed to decide
that the mixture is heterogeneous because the two phases (sugar and sand) are both white
solids. Ordinary matter exists mostly as mixtures. If we examine soil, granite, iron ore, or
other naturally occurring mineral deposits, we find them to be heterogeneous mixtures.
FIGURE 1. 7 illustrates the relationships of substances and mixtures.
PRACTICE 1 . 2
Which of the following is a mixture and which is a pure substance?
Explain your answer.
(a) vinegar (4% acetic acid and 96% water)
(b) sodium chloride (salt) solution
(c) gold
(d) milk
Q_
Q_
,2 ,2
c c
~
~
Theory
• Plan and do experiments
(model)
• Modify the hypothesis if necessary
Matter
!
Pure substances
l
Mixtures of two
(homogeneous composition) or more substances
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between 5. Define a phase.
(a) a hypothesis and a theory 6. How many phases are present in the
(b) a theory and a scientific law graduated cylinder shown here?
2. Consider each of the following statements and determine 7. What is another name for a homoge-
whether it represents an observation, a hypothesis, a theory, or neous mixture?
a scientific law: 8. Which liquids listed in Table 1.1 are not
(a) The battery in my watch must be dead since it is no longer mixtures?
keeping time. 9. Which of the gases listed in Table 1.1
(b) My computer must have a virus since it is not working properly. are not pure substances?
(c) The air feels cool. 10. When the stopper is removed from a partly filled bottle contain-
(d) The candle burns more brightly in pure oxygen than in air ing solid and liquid acetic acid at 16. 7°C, a strong vinegar-like
because oxygen supports combustion. odor is noticeable immediately. How many acetic acid phases
(e) My sister wears red quite often. must be present in the bottle? Explain.
(f) A pure substance has a definite, fixed composition. 11. Is the system enclosed in the bottle in Question I 0 homoge-
3. Determine whether each of the following statements refers to a neous or heterogeneous? Explain.
solid, a liquid, or a gas: 12. Is a system that contains only one substance necessarily
(a) It has a definite volume but not a definite shape. homogeneous? Explain.
(b) It has an indefinite volume and high compressibility. 13. Is a system that contains two or more substances necessarily
(c) It has a definite shape. heterogeneous? Explain.
(d) It has an indefinite shape and slight compressibility. 14. Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
4. Some solids have a crystalline structure, while others have an amor- 15. Which of the following are pure substances?
phous structure. For each of the following five descriptions, deter- (a) sugar (d) maple syrup
mine whether it refers to a crystalline solid or an amorphous solid: (b) sand (e) eggs
(a) has a regular repeating pattern (c) gold
(b) plastic 16. Use the steps of the scientific method to help determine the
(c) has no regular repeating pattern reason that your cell phone has suddenly stopped working:
(d) glass (a) observation (c) experiment
(e) gold (b) hypothesis (d) theory
PAIRED EXERCISES
Most of the exercises in this chapter are available for assignment via the online homework management program, Wiley PLUS ( www. wileyplus.com)
All exercises with blue numbers have answers in Appendix 5.
1. Refer to the illustration and determine which state(s) of matter 2. Refer to the illustration and determine which states(s) of matter
are present. are present.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.