Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-021-02345-z
REVIEW
A Review on Rotary and Linear Friction Welding of Inconel
Alloys
V. Ajay1 • N. Kishore Babu1 • M. Ashfaq2 • T. Mahesh Kumar1 • K. Vamsi Krishna1
Received: 14 May 2021 / Accepted: 21 June 2021 / Published online: 18 July 2021
 The Indian Institute of Metals - IIM 2021
Abstract Inconel alloys are one of the materials of choice
for high temperature applications whether it is aerospace,
nuclear or gas turbine. This is due to their excellent
mechanical and non-corrosion properties even under harsh
environments at elevated temperatures. Joining Inconel
alloys through conventional fusion welding techniques
have posed many different problems and hence, solid state
joining processes could well be an alternative welding
method for these alloys, wherever the design permits.
Friction welding being a solid state welding process, is well
established for its capability of producing high quality
welds and joining dissimilar metals. In this paper, Inconel
alloys are introduced initially, and then friction welding in
general has been discussed. Thereafter, the published
works on the friction welding of Inconel alloys are
reviewed with an emphasis on microstructural and
mechanical properties of similar and dissimilar Inconel
weld joints.
Keywords Friction welding  Inconel 
Nickel-based superalloys  Dissimilar welding 
Post weld heat treatment
& N. Kishore Babu
kishorebabu@nitw.ac.in
1 alternative for mechanical joining methods which could
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
National Institute of Technology-Warangal, Hanamkonda,
Telangana, India
2
Advanced Forming Research Centre, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
1 Introduction
Inconel alloys are a family of nickel base superalloys
known for their exceptional high temperature strength and
corrosion resistance. They were first developed by Inter-
TM
national Nickel Company (INCO ) in the early 1930s for
gas turbine applications. They primarily contain alloying
additions of Ti, Al and/ or Nb that strengthen the alloy
through precipitation strengthening by forming c0 (Ni3(-
Ti,Al)) and c00 (Ni3Nb) precipitates. They also contain
additions of Cr, Fe, Mo, Co which provide strength through
solid solution strengthening. By optimizing heat treatment,
these alloys can be strengthened to attain ultimate tensile
strength values over 1380 MPa and 0.2% offset yield
strengths over 1035 MPa. They predominantly find appli-
cation in gas turbines, heat treating equipment, aerospace
parts and nuclear reactors [1]. The applications of different
Inconel alloys are given in Table 1.
Dissimilar joints are essential in some high temperature
critical applications like valve head–spindle stem assembly
in marine diesel engines [2] which require high strength
superalloys. Superalloys are expensive and hence for sav-
ing costs, they could be joined with a less expensive alloy.
In such applications, superalloys with excellent high tem-
perature properties are required at portions exposed to high
temperature, and structural grade materials are required at
other locations. In such applications, the two materials
could be joined by friction welding which is well known
for its capability to produce dissimilar joints.
Friction welding processes are widely being used as an
save weight, costs and improve productivity. Since there is
no melting involved, conventional fusion welding solidi-
fication defects can be avoided [3]. There have been pre-
viously published reviews on friction welding [4–6], where
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the authors have focused on the different processes, borides) as well, as shown in Fig. 1. A brief review of the
mechanisms involved, effect of parameters, etc., on a different phases is presented below:
general note. Uday et al. [7] have discussed the works
i. c matrix Ni forms the c matrix (FCC structure) along
related to friction welding of a number of different alloys.
with alloying elements like Cr, Co, Fe through solid
Chamanfar et al. [8] have elaborately reviewed the inertia
solution strengthening, and this Ni matrix helps to
and linear friction welding of nickel-based superalloys.
improve the corrosion resistance.
However, to the best of our knowledge, there is a gap in
ii. c0 precipitate It is a metastable intermetallic Ni3(Ti,
understanding of dissimilar nickel-based superalloys fric-
Al) compound with ordered FCC structure with Ni at
tion welding, and this review attempts in closing those
the face centres and Ti or Al at the corners. It impedes
gaps.
dislocation movement through coherency strains [12]
The objective of this review paper is to focus predom-
arising from stress fields.
inantly on friction welding of similar and dissimilar
iii. c00 precipitate It is a coherent metastable Ni3Nb phase
Inconel alloy joints. The related literature has been criti-
with an ordered BCT structure with Ni atoms at the
cally reviewed and has been divided into sections. Initially,
face center and Nb atoms at the corners. It is primarily
the composition, microstructural phases ad strengthening
found in Nb bearing Inconel alloys. It is the principal
mechanisms in Inconel alloys are discussed. Thereafter,
strengthening phase in Inconel 718.
fusion welding problems in Inconel are addressed, fol-
iv. d phase Prolonged exposure at ageing temperatures
lowed by defining friction welding processes and various
decomposes c00 into a stable needle like Ni3Nb—d
microstructural zones present. Then, various bonding
phase [13] with an orthorhombic structure (as shown
mechanisms and evaluation of strain rate are reviewed.
in Fig. 2), which impairs ductility. Its presence at the
After that, process parameter optimization and their effect
grain boundaries has found to inhibit grain boundary
on the joint properties are discussed. The next section is
sliding at high temperatures which improves creep
dedicated to the study of microstructural changes and effect
properties [14].
of post weld heat treatments in similar and dissimilar
v. Carbides Metallic carbides of the form MC and M23C6
Inconel alloy friction welds. The final section of the paper
are found in Inconel alloys. They stabilize high
discusses the tensile, impact, creep, fatigue and residual
temperature deformation by forming networks at the
stress properties of the friction welded Inconel alloy joints.
grain boundaries. These carbide networks hinder grain
boundary motion thus improving the creep and stress
rupture properties [16]. They also act as refiners in the
2 Composition, Microstructural Phases
grain boundaries, inhibiting grain growth. Grain
and Strengthening Mechanisms
boundary carbides are sometimes observed in the form
of films, as shown in Fig. 3.
Inconel alloys fall under the category of Ni–Cr-Fe alloy
vi. Nitrides/Carbonitrides Phases such as Ti (C, N) may
family which contain at least 14% of chromium by weight.
be found in some of the Ti containing cast Inconel
Table 2 gives the composition of some of the widely used
alloys, as nitrogen cannot be removed entirely during
Inconel alloys.
vacuum arc melting. Since they have a rounded shape
The addition of different alloying elements to the base
and uniform distribution, they do not alter the
matrix modifies the microstructure, and it is strengthened
mechanical properties of Inconel alloys [16].
by precipitates, carbides and some minor phases (nitrides,
vii. Borides Boron is added in small quantities in order to
enhance rupture life and ductility. It has been found

Table 1 Applications of Inconel alloys [9, 10]

Alloy Applications

Alloy 600 Nuclear reactors, heaters, stills, evaporator tubes and condensers
Alloy 718 Aircraft and land-based gas turbine engines and cryogenic tankage
Alloy 601 Pollution control, aerospace and power generation,
Alloy 617 Nitric acid production, heat treating and oil field equipment
Alloy X750 Pressure vessels, gas turbines, marine and aircraft structures
Alloy 625 Chemical processing, nuclear reactors, aerospace and marine engineering

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Table 2 Composition of some of the inconel alloys [10] (by %wt.)

Alloy Ni Cr Fe Co Mo Nb Ti Al C Mn Si B Cu

600 72 min 14–17 6–10 – – – – – 0.15 1.0 0.5 – 0.5

601 58–63 21–25 Bal – – – – 1.0–1.7 0.1 1.0 0.5 – 1.0
625 58 min 20–23 5 1.0 8–10 3.15–4.15 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.5 – –
617 44.5 min 20–24 3 10–15 8–10 – 0.6 0.8–1.5 0.05–0.15 1.0 1.0 0.006 0.5
718 50–55 17–21 Bal 1.0 2.8–3.3 4.75–5.50 0.65–1.15 0.2–0.8 0.08 0.35 0.35 0.006 0.3
X750 70 min 14–17 5–9 1.0 – 0.7–1.20 2.25–2.75 0.4–1.0 0.08 1.0 0.5 – 0.5

Fig. 1 Schematic of microstructure observed in nickel-based superalloys [11]

Fig. 2 TEM micrograph of spray-formed IN 718 showing early
precipitation of delta plates [15]. The larger ellipsoidal particles are
c00 precipitates
that boron additions as low as 0.005% improves creep
properties of Ni alloys [17]. Borides at grain bound-
aries also act as grain refiners [18]. However,
excessive boron segregation at grain boundaries
could result in HAZ cracking.
viii. Laves phases These phases occur in Nb bearing
superalloys. They are brittle, Nb rich intermetallic
(Ni, Cr, Fe)2(Nb, Mo, Ti) phases formed during
Fig. 3 Optical micrograph showing grain boundary carbides in
Inconel 718 [14]
solidification, which are undesirable as they impair
ductility and fracture toughness [19].
Nickel-based alloys and Inconel alloys in particular are
the most wanted alloys in the aerospace, nuclear power and
gas turbine industry for use in the high temperature
applications [20]. These alloys are strengthened by a
combination of different mechanisms, and it becomes
necessary to understand the strengthening mechanisms
which lead to their high performance properties.

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Precipitation strengthening Nickel-based superalloys
with aluminium, titanium and/or niobium additions are
primarily strengthened by the precipitation of coherent
c’’ and c’ precipitates [21]. Strengthening increases with
the volume fraction of precipitates as they hinder the
dislocation movement.
Solid solution strengthening Nickel-based superalloys
containing different alloying elements like Cr, Fe, Co,
Mo, Ti, Al are also strengthened by solid solution
strengthening. The difference in the atomic radii of
nickel and the alloying element induces distortion strains
in the crystal lattice and helps in impeding dislocation
movement [22].
Grain size hardening Strength is inversely proportional
to the grain size as per Hall–Petch relation [23] as grain
boundaries act as dislocation barriers. Fine grain size is
achieved through metallic carbides which act as grain
refiners. In case of nickel-based superalloys, it is found
that in addition to the grain boundaries in the c matrix,
the large c0 precipitates also contribute to strengthening
[24].
3 Fusion Welding Problems in Inconel Alloys
Nickel-based alloys have a vast history of fusion welding
problems [25]. Some of them include.
• HAZ strain age cracking and micro fissuring Strain age
cracks generally occur at the HAZ during post weld
heat treatment and are susceptible to propagate further
into the base material as well. Intergranular micro
fissuring occurs in the HAZ (Fig. 4) due to liquation of
the grain boundary arising from segregation of ele-
ments to the boundary [26].
• Formation of laves phases Laves phases are complex
brittle phases formed in alloys with Nb addition as a
result of Nb segregation. These phases (shown in
Fig. 5) are a serious threat to the weld mechanical
properties, especially tensile ductility and fracture
toughness, and they also consume valuable Nb required
for c00 precipitation [28].
• Boron segregation Segregation of Boron at the grain
boundaries reduces the solidification temperature by
100–200 C, widening the range in which the grain
boundary regions will remain liquated. This wide
solidification range causes compressive residual stres-
ses in the HAZ which in turn produces micro cracks
[30, 31].
Despite being an excellent material of choice for critical
applications, Inconel alloys pose serious problems under
fusion welding as discussed above. Mechanical joining is
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Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
an alternative, but could result in excess weight. In such
circumstances, friction welding comes in handy. Since the
material does not undergo any melting at the interface, all
solidification defects encountered in fusion welding can be
avoided and as there is no filler material involved, there is
no extra weight. In fact, linear friction welding (LFW) of
blades to disks in a typical blisk (blade integrated disk)
application (as shown in Fig. 6) could reduce to as much as
30% weight when compared to mechanical fastening,
which could further reduce fuel consumption and CO2
emissions and extend the fatigue life of the engine com-
ponents [32].
4 Friction Welding
Friction welding has become popular across the world for
its near net shape manufacturing aspect, lower cost of
production and improved productivity [7]. According to the
American Welding Society [33],
Friction welding (FW) is a solid-state process that
produces a weld when two or more workpieces,
rotating or moving relative to one another, are
brought into contact under pressure to produce heat
and plastically displace material from the faying
surface (weld interface)
Depending on the type of the relative motion, it may be
classified as linear and rotational processes, with each of
these processes having sub classifications based on the type
of machinery, energy utilized, etc. Rotary friction welding
(RFW) process may be further classified as continuous or
direct drive friction welding and inertia drive friction
welding (IFW) processes (Fig. 7).
The advantages and limitations [33] of friction welding
processes are discussed below:
4.1 Advantages
• No consumables (shielding gas, filler rod, flux) are
required.
• HAZ is narrow; No solidification defects.
• Well suited for dissimilar metal combinations.
• Process is environmentally clean.
4.2 Limitations
• Workpieces must be axis-symmetric.
• Alignment of workpieces is critical for developing
uniform frictional heat.
• Initial equipment and tooling costs are high.
Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598 2587

Fig. 4 Micro-fissures in the

HAZ of IN718 electron beam
weld [27]

Fig. 6 A linear friction welded blisk assembly [32]

5 Friction Welding Zones

Fig. 5 SEM images showing laves phases and NbC in a Nb bearing During friction welding, the material experiences stress and
Ni-based superalloy [29]
strain gradients under higher temperatures, and so, it
undergoes various microstructural changes. Based on these
• Improper selection of parameters could result in bond
changes, the HAZ is classified into different zones [4]:
line defects.

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Fig. 7 Variation of parameters with time for a Direct drive friction welding; b Inertia friction welding [4]
i. Contact zone or severe plastic deformation zone It has
very fine grain structure due to rubbing and metal
transfer.
ii. Fully plasticized zone or dynamic recrystallization
zone It has fine and equiaxed grains due to dynamic
recrystallization which occurs as a result of high
temperature, but there is no rubbing or metal transfer.
iii. Partly deformed zone The strain rate associated with
this zone is lesser than the previous zone, and hence,
it has coarse grains.
iv. Undeformed zone or base metal There is no plastic
deformation in this zone, but grain growth may take
place depending on the material.
6 Bonding Mechanisms in Friction Welding
Though rotary and linear friction welding vary by the
nature of the relative motion between the surfaces, the
basic bonding mechanisms are similar which involve heat
generation and expulsion of metal as flash as a result of the
rubbing action. There are several bonding mechanisms
which include:
• Plastic flow This involves material visco plastic flow
and intermixing or rather a flowing zone [34] where
material deformation and mixing take place. It has also
been observed that such deformation is confined
predominantly to the metal with the lower flow stress
and higher thermal conductivity in case of a dissimilar
joint [35].
• Clean metal–metal contact The action of rubbing
taking place at high temperatures at the bonding
surface develop a clean, oxide free surface and this
clean metal–metal contact facilitates adhesion of the
joint as a result of metallic bonding [36].
• Solid state diffusion This is considered to be the
primary mechanism contributing to friction welding
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Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
[4]. Diffusion of alloying elements across the weld
interface takes place at high temperatures, which makes
it possible to join incompatible materials [37], and this
phenomenon could be related to diffusion bonding
process where atomic bonds are formed as a result of
electron sharing. The occurrence of such mechanical
intermixing in dissimilar Inconel friction welds could
have drastic effects on the creep properties of the weld,
as discussed later.
7 Strain Rate Evaluation in Friction Welding
Since the plastic deformation takes place only at the
interface of the joint and due to other geometrical con-
straints, the measurement of strain and strain rates using
strain gauges is practically difficult. Therefore, modeling
approaches are used to estimate strain rate [8].
Geng et al. [38] demonstrated the importance of strain
rate during friction welding of a nickel-based superalloy
and found that plastic flow stress was significantly affected
by the strain rate of the process. They reported the calcu-
lation errors in previously adopted J-C and F-B models and
also proved that the highest accuracy in calculating the
plastic flow stress was given by the strain compensated
Arrhenius model. Medeiros et al. [39] modeled the hot
deformation process in IN718 and estimated the correlation
between strain rate and grain size. It was reported that at a
strain rate of 0.001 s-1 and at 975 C, the material
exhibited dynamic recrystallization and meta-dynamic
recrystallization was achieved at a strain rate range of
0.01–1 s-1 in a temperature range of 950–1100 C. Despite
the discrepancies across strain rate calculation, Chamanfar
et al. [8] concluded that the strain rates during rotational
phase of IFW and oscillation phase of LFW lie in the range
of 1000–1500 s-1. The strain could be calculated by
multiplying the average strain rate with the welding time.
Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
8 Process Parameter Optimization
In order to identify the weld heat input and the rate of
frictional heat generation, it is necessary to understand
about the welding parameters. Optimum friction welding
process parameters produce a uniform and narrow HAZ
throughout the entire section of the weld [40]. The main
parameters in rotary friction welding [4] are explained in
brief:
i. Friction pressure and rotational speed These param-
eters are critical as they control the temperature
gradient and the driving torque in the weld region.
Conditions of low friction pressure or high speed
produce a relatively low rate of plastic deformation
whereas higher friction pressure or low speed results in
high local heat generation and squeezing out of more
metal.
ii. Burn off length It is the axial shortening happening as
a result of the combined action of rotational speed and
friction pressure. Higher burn off length causes
reduction in productivity and loss of material while a
lesser burn off length may result in lack of bonding at
the interface.
iii. Upset pressure It is the axial force applied at the end
of the friction welding process for sufficient consol-
idation of the joint. Higher upset force results in high
temperature and squeezing out of more plasticized
metal while an insufficient upset pressure may result
in debonding at the weld interface.
Parameter optimization plays a major role in deciding
the properties of friction welded joints. For instance, a
lower rotational speed and a higher forge force could result
in a narrow weld and vice versa, in rotary friction welded
joints. So, optimization of parameters improve the quality
of the joint but is highly material specific [41]. Choosing
the correct parameters for friction welding could result in
improved cost savings and productivity apart from
improving the life of the component. Nevertheless, opti-
mization of friction welding parameters is many a time
based on trial and error methods [4].
SS 316L and IN X-750 were joined by friction welding
for use in turning vane bolt joints in nuclear power plants
[42], and the joint strength was found to increase up to 95%
of the SS 316L base material. The process was also found
to have optimized cost and productivity, as a result of the
optimal weld parameters chosen. Mary and Jahazi [43] in
their study of linear friction welding of IN718 compared
the effects of processing parameters on the microstructure
and mechanical properties of the joint. They also suggested
that high frictional pressures would generate a too high
temperature in the weld interface, which might lead to hot
2589
cracking. Kong et al. [44] concluded that the material lost
as flash was reduced while welding at lower heating
pressures. A similar process optimization study [45]
showed that with decrease in friction time, the amount of
axial shortening of IN617 was reduced, which in turn
reduced the quantity of precious metal lost as flash (Fig. 8).
This reduces costs significantly as Inconel alloys are
costlier than steels.
The different stages in an inertia friction welding pro-
cess are shown in Fig. 9. Bu et al. [46] reported the
decrease in axial temperature gradient in an IN718 friction
welded joint, with increasing friction time. This could be
attributed to the high energy supplied at the initial stages
and the poor heat conductivity of alloy 718. This in turn
was found to decrease the rate of energy input at the fric-
tion surfaces. Manjunath [47] concluded from his prelim-
inary studies that, the upset pressure significantly affected
the tensile properties of an IN718 rotary friction weld. He
also suggested an optimum upset pressure range of
600–650 MPa for the welds. Other researchers elsewhere
have reported, a reduction in the width of the HAZ [48] and
an increase in the maximum strain rate [49] with increase
in upset pressure.
9 Microstructure
During friction welding, different zones are formed in the
HAZ based on the amount of heat and plastic deformation
it undergoes. Variation in parameters affects the
microstructure and texture of the joint and in turn, could
influence the mechanical properties and the life of the joint
in the long term [50].
Huang et al. [51] observed an equiaxed, carbide rich, d
free microstructure near the weld zone on the IN718 side of
the IN718–U720Li joint. They also reported a substantial
growth in the grain size at the weld line. Vishwakarma
et al. [52] reported the presence of laves phases in the flash
region of linear friction welded 718 ? superalloy. They
were assumed to have formed due to the blending of
solution laves-c eutectic with the primary c matrix. Wang
et al. [53] investigated the controlling parameters on the
microstructure of friction welded Inconel 718 and reported
a significant decrease in the amount of niobium in the weld
interface, with increase in friction pressure and time. This
was attributed to the liquid phase constituting c/laves
eutectic phases containing Nb expelled toward the flash.
This in turn created a softer weld interface due to insuffi-
cient c00 precipitates, as the friction pressure and friction
time were increased. A similar grain boundary liquation
phenomenon was observed [54] in linear friction welded
IN738 alloy. The alloy generally being considered less
weldable due to its high susceptibility to HAZ liquation
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Fig. 8 Cross-sectional view of weld interface regions joined with: a Friction time of 1.5 s, b Friction time of 3 s, and c Friction time of 40 s [45].
Arrows indicate debonding
cracking which was welded successfully without any
cracks by LFW. Unlike other welding techniques, HAZ
liquation cracking has been prevented in LFW due to the
compressive stresses developed within the joint during
welding. There have been several other reports [55, 56] of
Al and Nb elements ejected in the flash, forming laves
phases. Standard post weld heat treatment (PWHT) con-
sisting of solutionizing and duplex ageing could not elim-
inate laves phases but rather precipitation of d phase
around laves phase particles was observed [52].
With reduction in rotary speed, Liu and Nelson [57]
found a reduction in the axial force during friction welding
of IN718 tubes. This unusual behavior was found to be the
result of the finer grain size developed at the weld inter-
face. This grain structure was a result of the competition
between dynamic recrystallization which refined the grains
Fig. 9 Different stages in an inertia friction welding process [48]
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Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
and grain boundary sliding mechanism which coarsened
the grains.
Figure 10 shows the various zones formed in an alloy
718 friction weld. Dynamic recrystallization zone (DRX)
contains very fine grains whereas thermo mechanically
affected zone (TMAZ) is found to have elongated, jewel
shaped grains. This difference in grain sizes in between
DRX and TMAZ can be attributed to recrystallization
occurring at the DRX. HAZ is not exposed to high tem-
peratures like the DRX or the TMAZ, and hence, recrys-
tallization does not occur in the HAZ [58].
Dissimilar friction welding of Inconel and stainless steel
combinations has been reported in the recent years. These
joints have proven to be cost effective, without compro-
mising strength. Anitha et al. [60] joined SS410 with alloy
718 and observed a partially deformed zone having grains
with size in between that of the fully deformed zone and
the HAZ (as shown in Fig. 11). Another dissimilar joint of
Inconel 600 and SS304 was welded through continuous
drive friction welding [61], and the process was recom-
mended for high temperature applications up to 450 C
based on metallurgical and mechanical evaluation.
Rehman et al. [62] joined IN718 and IN600 through
rotary friction welding. They observed a narrow mechan-
ically intermixed zone in the interface which contained
very fine equiaxed grains. They didn’t observe any sig-
nificant microstructural changes. Wanjara et al. [63] fab-
ricated a bimetallic IN718-Ti6Al4V friction weld without
the use of an interlayer for aerospace applications. They
were able to produce a sound, defect free joint where the
weld was harder than the Ti6Al4V base metal. Ogura et al.
[64] joined IN718 and Ti6Al4V with an Au-Ni interlayer.
They observed that the interlayer got melted and ejected in
the flash, without forming any intermetallic compounds
Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598 2591

Fig. 10 Cross sectional

scanning electron micrographs
of a solution treated and aged
IN718 sample after friction
welding followed by direct
aging: a Shows three regions—
DRX, TMAZ and HAZ, b, c and
d show magnified views of
DRX, TMAZ and HAZ,
respectively [59]

and that these joints were superior in strength than those
formed by direct friction welding without the use of
interlayers.
Dissimilar friction welding of Inconel 718 with alloy
steels resulted in the diffusion of elements such as Fe, Ni,
Cr, Ti [65–67] across the weld interface (as shown in
Fig. 12) forming intermixed substrate layers as a result of
intermetallic diffusion. PWHT consisting of solutionizing
and duplex aging was found to have altered the quantities
of diffused Nb and Ti due to precipitation of carbides and
other phases in an IN718–EN24 joint [68]. An Fe rich
secondary phase was observed on the Inconel 600 side of a
9Cr steel-Inconel 600 joint, and this phase was suspected to
have caused rupture during creep testing [69]. A similar
intermixed zone was also observed in Inconel 751and
21-4 N austenite steel dissimilar joints [70].

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Fig. 11 Microstructures of different zones of SS410-IN718 friction weld [60]. a and e show HAZ; b and d show the PDZ; c Shows contact zone.
SS410 being the weaker metal undergoes higher deformation as flash

Fig. 12 SEM micrographs of a IN718-SS410 weld showing intermixed regions in a Nugget and b Transition zones [71]

10 Heat Treatment
Table 3 gives the critical temperatures of the microstruc-
tural phases present in Inconel alloys. Mary and Jahazi [55]
observed a peak temperature of 1116 C at 1 mm from the
weld interface of the LFWed IN718 joint. At such higher
temperatures, the strengthening precipitates get dissolved
into the matrix and reduce the strength of the joint. So, in
order to restore the tensile properties of the weld, a PWHT
is necessary. Cao et al. [74] stressed the need for a pre-weld
solutionizing treatment, which could soften the metal, and
if followed by direct aging post welding, could result in a
significant improvement in the strength of the joint.
Figure 13 shows the full stage heat treatment carried out
for IN718. It is aimed at precipitation of c0 and c00 pre-
cipitates, hence the need for duplex ageing. The ageing

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Table 3 Critical temperatures of microstructural phases found in Inconel alloys [15, 72, 73]
S. No Microstructural Phase Structure Precipitation temperature ( C) Dissolution temperature( C)

1 c0 phase (Ni3(Ti,Al)) FCC 650–850 730–890

2 c00 (Ni3Nb) BCT 620–900 730–890
3 d(Ni3Nb) Orthorhombic 900–950* 930–1100
*Depends on the %wt. of Nb

Table 4 Tensile properties of some similar and dissimilar inconel friction weld joints at room temperature
S. No Joint PWHT YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) % Strain Reference

1 IN718—IN718 DA 1266 1532 23 [76]

2 Virgin IN718—In Service IN718 STA ? DA 1112 ± 43 1336 ± 25 17 ± 5 [81]
3 IN718—EN24 steel STA ? DA 437 653 4.28 [68]
4 IN718—SS410 – 495 657 22 [71]
5 IN600—SS304 – 315 500 – [61]
6 IN751—Austenite steel 21-4 N – 800 1080 20 [70]
7 INCOLOY 800H—INCOLOY 800H – 486–559 595–658 – [83]
8 IN718—SNCrW steel DA * 750 * 900 * 20 [80]
9 IN718—IN600 – 416 ± 10 759 ± 11 21 ± 5 [62]
DA Direct ageing, STA Solution treated ageing

11 Mechanical Properties of the Weld

11.1 Tensile Properties

In the as-welded condition, the dissolution of c0 and c00

Fig. 13 Standard full stage heat treatment for Inconel 718 consisting
of solutionizing and duplex ageing treatments
treatments might be carried out at inert atmospheres for
oxidation control. The selection of solutionizing and ageing
temperatures might vary depending on the desired result.
For instance, Chen and Chaturvedi [75] observed that
solution treating at 900 C resulted in increased stress
rupture time than when solutionized at 975 C. This was
because of the presence of d phase at the grain boundaries
which delayed the crack formation.
precipitates take place in Inconel alloys due to the high
temperatures generated at the weld interface [76] which
degrades the mechanical properties of the weld. Tabaie
et al. [77] joined Selective Laser Melted (SLM) IN718 with
forged superalloy AD-730TM by LFW and observed a drop
in the hardness at the weld zone of the IN718 side. This
was attributed to the dissolution of secondary strengthening
precipitates. In a similar fashion, Daus et al. [78] reported a
reduction in hardness in IN718-RR1000 friction weld as a
result of c00 dissolution during welding. This necessitates
the need for a proper PWHT to improve the joint proper-
ties. The improved hardness values after PWHT are shown
in Fig. 14.
Nemiathan and Mohandas [79] studied the solution
treated and aged (STA), as-welded IN718 and concluded
that the joints showed inferior high temperature (300 and
650 C) tensile properties than the base material. The
inertia welded joints and the base material showed similar
low cycle fatigue (LCF) properties, but were still superior
to EBW joints. Kim et al. [80] joined IN718 with SNCrW
stainless steel and investigated the effect of PWHT on the

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2594
Fig. 14 Hardness distribution across the weld joint before (left) and after right PWHT [78]
strength of the joint. They reported an improvement in
hardness after annealing at 720 C at 8 h as a result of c00
precipitation. Tensile failure of this sample occurred in the
SNCrW base metal whereas samples annealed at 500 and
900 C for 8 h, respectively, produced tensile fracture at
the weld zone, due to either insufficient precipitation or
over dissolution of precipitates, respectively.
Smith et al. [81] reported a significant increase in the
tensile strength and hardness of linear friction welded in-
service Inconel 718 aero engine turbine disks after a
PWHT, attributed to c00 precipitation and d phase dissolu-
tion. A similar observation was made [82] while joining
IN718 with IN 713LC by LFW. d phase particles have been
found to be detrimental to tensile properties of the weld
joint. Table 4 shows the tensile properties of some similar
and dissimilar Inconel friction weld joints at room
temperature.
11.2 Impact Toughness
Anand et al. [83] performed rotary friction welding on
Incoloy 800H and studied the impact properties of the
weld. They reported that the joints were tougher than the
base metal and that the toughness of the joint reduced with
an increase in upset pressure. This was also experienced
and reported by Gobu et al. [61] while performing con-
tinuous drive friction welding on Inconel 600-Stainless
steel combination. Increasing the upset pressure produced
finer grains, which increased the hardness and in turn
reduced the toughness of the joint. Lalam et al. [68]
observed a drastic reduction in the toughness of RFWed
IN718-EN24 steel joints after a PWHT. This was attributed
to the precipitation of complex precipitates and carbides at
the joint, which increased the hardness and subsequently
reduced the joint toughness.
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Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598
11.3 Creep and Fatigue
Creep tests performed on IFWed Incoloy909-IN718 joints
[84] showed that the as-welded specimens exhibited poorer
creep resistance than the Incoloy base material, even after
different PWHT techniques. This poor creep resistance was
linked with the high volume fraction of undesirable com-
plex e phases at the grain boundaries. Dilip et al. [85]
performed friction freeform fabrication of IN718 alloy and
conducted stress rupture tests. Friction deposits under
direct aged condition showed inferior stress rupture prop-
erties as a result of layered fine microstructure and no grain
boundary d phase. But the problem could be overcome
using a two stage solutionizing treatment followed by
ageing. This treatment helped in the precipitation of d
phase and eliminated the layered structure.
High temperature low cycle fatigue tests were per-
formed [86] on friction welded IN718-720Li dissimilar
joint, and the fatigue crack growth resistance (FCGR) was
studied across the joint (Fig. 15). While testing in air, the
FCGR of the weld zone was found to be poorer than that of
the base material. The primary c0 free (PGF) zone on the
720Li side displayed the poorest FCGR in air, while in
vacuum it showed the best FCGR. The poor FGCR in air
was attributed to environmental attack at higher tempera-
tures. M23C6 carbide films formed during welding and
PWHT were found to enhance the embrittlement.
Damodaram et al. [87] performed friction welding of
IN718 with a combination of different pre and post weld
heat treatments. After performing stress rupture tests, they
concluded that the sample subjected to STA treatment,
both in pre and post weld conditions, exhibited the best
stress rupture properties. This was attributed to the
homogenization of the weld zone with fine and uniform
distribution of strengthening precipitates across the weld-
ment. This was supported by Yamashita et al. [69] who
Trans Indian Inst Met (2021) 74(11):2583–2598 2595

Preuss et al. [90] made residual stress studies on IFWed

nickel-based superalloys by neutron diffraction method.
They observed a maximum residual hoop stress value of
700 MPa in IN718 in the as-welded condition. Interest-
ingly unlike other superalloys, the maximum stress in
IN718 was recorded 2 mm away from the weld center line.
But after a stress removal PWHT carried out at 723 C, the
maximum hoop stress was found to have dropped to
400 MPa. Stress contour plots of the same are shown in
Fig. 16. A similar residual stress study was made by Smith
et al. [91] on LFWed virgin and in service IN718 alloys
using neutron diffraction and contour methods. They
observed a tensile state of stress till 5 mm from the weld
interface, then a compressive state of stress for the next
5 mm and beyond 10 mm stress values were observed to be
near zero. The magnitude of observed residual stresses was
found to be below the yield stress of IN718.

12 Conclusions
Fig. 15 FCGR curves obtained across IFWed IN718-720Li joints at a
temperature of 650 C [86]. PGF: Primary c0 Free zone; PAZ: • Similar and dissimilar Inconel alloy joints can be
Plastically Affected Zone; P: Parent material
readily welded through friction welding processes.
• Joining Inconel alloys through fusion welding results in
joined Inconel 600 and modified 9Cr steel by RFW. They
significant problems including HAZ micro fissuring,
observed a Fe rich secondary phase at several lm from the
laves phase formation, etc., apart from other fusion
Inconel weld interface which was probably a result of
welding problems. Friction welding techniques offer
intermixing of elements near the weld interface. Creep test
improved weld properties, minimizing any fusion
results revealed that this inhomogeneous phase caused
welding problems.
rupture failure as several minute cracks were found to have
• The selection of optimal process parameters is neces-
initiated from here.
sary for defect free joints. Studies have shown that
Okazaki et al. [88] performed high temperature creep-
insufficient speed or upset pressure might lead to
fatigue tests on friction welded IN718-Mar M247 joints.
incomplete bonding in the joints.
They found out that the life of the joint was significantly
• The weld microstructure consists of 3 distinct zones:
reduced and was lower than that of the base material and
fine grained fully deformed zone at the weld interface, a
damage had evolved at the HAZ area with intergranular
TMAZ with elongated grains and a coarse grained
fracture. Elastic follow up mechanism and inhomogeneous
HAZ. There are some instances of laves phase forma-
microstructure were reported to have contributed to such
tion in the flash.
failure. However, their recent study [89] showed that, even
• During the friction welding process, because of high
though IN718 had longer life than Mar M247, the joint
interface temperatures, the strengthening precipitates
failed near the interface of IN718. Their visco-elastic study
go into the solution and this weakens the joint in case of
model suggested a possible triaxial state of stress that could
precipitation hardenable alloys. In order to retain the
have led to acceleration in creep-fatigue crack nucleation.
tensile properties of the joint, suitable PWHT processes
are required.
11.4 Residual Stress
• As-welded joints have been found to be tougher than
the base material. Impact toughness of the joint is
In case of LFWed joints, residual stresses appear in the
seriously affected by the upset pressure and the PWHT.
welding plane with larger tensile strains in the HAZ and
• As-welded joints exhibit poorer creep and fatigue
smaller compressive strains around the weld. But in case of
properties in comparison with the base material, but
axisymmetric RFWed joints, due to the geometry, a com-
these properties may be recovered by giving suit-
bination of hoop, radial and axial residual stresses are
able PWHT which induce d phase precipitation.
observed [5].
• In as-welded condition, a combination of hoop, radial
and axial residual stresses are present in RFWed joints,

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2596
Fig. 16 Contour plots of residual stresses in IFWed IN718: as-welded (left) and after PWHT (right). Typical accuracy of stress data is
about ± 60 MPa [90]
with the hoop stress having the highest magnitude. A
significant drop in the residual stress is observed after a
stress removal PWHT.
• The availability of a limited number of published works
in this research area, especially in creep, fatigue and
residual stress study, signify the vast opportunities
available for the upcoming researchers.
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