Working in Groups (6th Edition – Ebook

PDF Version) 6th Edition – Ebook PDF

Version
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/working-in-groups-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-version-6th-
edition-ebook-pdf-version/
 Detailed Contents   vii

2 Group Development 25
Case Study Nice to Meet You, Too 26
Group Development Stages 27
Follow the Research Group Development Models 27
Forming Stage 28
Groups in Balance . . . Socialize Newcomers 29
Storming Stage 30
Norming Stage 31
Performing Stage 31
Adjourning Stage 32
Virtual Groups Developmental Tasks 32
Group Goals 33
Establishing Group Goals 33
Balancing Group Goals and Hidden Agendas 34
Theory in Groups Goal Theory and Group Work 35
Group Norms 36
Types of Norms 36
Conformity 38
Nonconformity 38
Follow the Research Beware of Unreasonable Norms 38
Ethics in Groups Ethical Group Norms 40
Groups in Balance . . . Change Norms as Needed 42
Group Motivation 42
A Sense of Meaningfulness 42
A Sense of Choice 43
A Sense of Competence 43
A Sense of Progress 43
Summary Study Guide 44
GroupWork Classroom Norms 45
Group Assessment How Good Is Your Goal? 46
viii   Detailed Contents

3 Group Membership 47
Case Study Taming Tony the Tiger 48
Group Member Needs 49
Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Needs 49
Balancing Individual and Group Needs 52
Member Roles 52
Benne and Sheats Functional Group Roles 52
Belbin’s Team Roles 55
Theory in Groups Belbin’s Team-Role Theory 56
Member Confidence 57
Communication Apprehension 57
Groups in Balance . . . Adapt to Both High and Low Levels of Member
Apprehension 58
Strategies for Reducing Communication Apprehension 58
Virtual Groups Confidence with Technology 60
Strategies for Helping Apprehensive Members 60
Follow the Research Curbing Compulsive Communicators 62
Member Assertiveness 62
Balancing Passivity and Aggression 63
Assertiveness Skills 64
Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Say No 65
Ethics in Groups Managing Manipulators 66
Summary Study Guide 67
GroupWork Group Attraction Survey 68
Group Assessment Personal Report of Communication
Apprehension (PRCA-24) 69
 Detailed Contents   ix

4 Diversity in Groups 70
Case Study No Offense Intended 71
A Balanced Approach to Group Diversity 72
Follow the Research Where Is Your Face in the U.S. Census? 72
Groups in Balance . . . Seek Intellectual Diversity 73
Obstacles to Understanding Others 75
Ethnocentrism 75
Stereotyping 76
Prejudice 76
Discrimination 76
Personality Dimensions 77
The Big Five Personality Traits 77
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® 78
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Introverts and Extroverts 79
Balancing Personality Types in Groups 81
Motivating Personality Types in Groups 81
Cultural Dimensions 82
Individualism–Collectivism 82
Power Distance 84
Masculine–Feminine Values 85
High Context–Low Context 85
Monochronic Time–Polychronic Time 86
Virtual Groups Cultural Dimensions in Cyberspace 87
Gender Dimensions 87
Follow the Research Who Talks More—Women or Men? 88
Theory in Groups Muted Group Theory 88
Generational Dimensions 89
Religious Dimensions 91
Ethics in Groups The Golden Rule May Not Apply in Diverse Groups 93
Summary Study Guide 94
GroupWork Personality Types in Groups 95
Group Assessment Identifying Cultural Dimensions 97
x   Detailed Contents

5 Group Leadership 98
Case Study The Leader in Sheep’s Clothing 99
What Is Leadership? 100
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Leadership and Followership 101
Becoming a Leader 102
Designated Leaders 102
Emergent Leaders 103
Strategies for Becoming a Leader 103
Ethics in Groups Leadership Integrity 104
Leadership and Power 105
Types of Leadership Power 105
The Power of Power 105
Leadership Theories 106
Theory in Groups The Evolution of Leadership Theory 107
Situational Leadership Theory 108
Follow the Research The Two Sides of “Great” Leadership 112
Functional Leadership Theory 113
The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness 113
Model Leadership 114
Motivate Members 114
Manage Group Process 115
Make Decisions 115
Mentor Members 116
Virtual Groups Sharing Leadership Functions 116
Diversity and Leadership 117
Gender and Leadership 117
Culture and Leadership 118
Summary Study Guide 120
GroupWork The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale 121
Group Assessment Are You Ready to Lead? 122
 Detailed Contents   xi

6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 123

Case Study How to Sink the Mayflower 124
Two Essential Tools 125
Team Talk 125
The Dimensions of Team Talk 125
Use “I,” “You,” and “We” Language Appropriately 127
Language Challenges 127
Ethics in Groups Sticks and Stones May Break Your Bones, but Words Can Hurt
Forever 128
Abstract Words 128
Bypassing 129
Offensive Language 130
Jargon 130
Language Differences 131
Language and Gender 131
Language and Culture 131
Theory in Groups The Whorf Hypothesis 132
The Importance of Nonverbal Communication 133
Nonverbal Behavior 133
Personal Appearance 133
Groups in Balance . . . Speak “Silently” 133
Facial Expression and Eye Contact 134
Vocal Expression 135
Physical Expression 135
Virtual Groups Expressing Emotions Online 136
The Nonverbal Environment 136
Arrangement of Space 136
Perceptions of Personal Space 138
Nonverbal Differences 139
Nonverbal Communication and Gender 139
Nonverbal Communication and Culture 140
Groups in Balance . . . Survive 141
Creating a Supportive Communication Climate 141
Follow the Research Immediacy in Groups 144
Summary Study Guide 145
GroupWork Getting Emotional about Nonverbal Cues 146
Group Assessment Auditing Team Talk 147
xii   Detailed Contents

7 Listening in Groups 148

Case Study That’s Not What I Said 149
The Challenge of Listening in Groups 150
The Nature of Listening 151
The Need for Better Listening 151
Virtual Groups Listening Online 152
The Habits of Listeners 152
Theory in Groups The HURIER Listening Model 154
Types of Listening 155
Listening to Hear 155
Listening to Understand 155
Listening to Remember 155
Groups in Balance . . . Ask Questions to Enhance Comprehension 156
Follow the Research Listening and Working Memory Theory 156
Listening to Interpret 157
Listening to Evaluate 158
Listening to Respond 158
Key Listening Strategies and Skills 160
Use Your Extra Thought Speed 160
Apply the Golden Listening Rule 160
Minimize Distractions 161
“Listen” to Nonverbal Behavior 161
Ask WIIFM 161
Listen Before You Leap 162
Take Relevant Notes 162
Listening to Differences 164
Gender Differences 164
Personality Differences 164
Cultural Differences 164
Groups in Balance . . . Learn the Art of High-Context Listening 165
Hearing Ability Differences 165
Ethics in Groups Self-Centered Roles and Listening 166
Summary Study Guide 167
GroupWork Practice Paraphrasing 168
Group Assessment Student Listening Inventory 169
 Detailed Contents   xiii

8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 171

Case Study Sociology in Trouble 172
Conflict in Groups 173
Substantive Conflict 174
Affective Conflict 174
Procedural Conflict 174
Theory in Groups Attribution Theory and Member Motives 175
Constructive and Destructive Conflict 175
Conflict Styles 176
Avoidance Conflict Style 177
Groups in Balance . . . Know When and How to Apologize 177
Accommodation Conflict Style 178
Competition Conflict Style 178
Compromise Conflict Style 179
Collaboration Conflict Style 179
Choosing a Conflict Style 180
Virtual Groups Conflict in Cyberspace 180
Conflict Management Strategies 181
The A-E-I-O-U Model 181
Negotiation in Groups 182
Third-Party Intervention 183
Ethics in Groups The Group and the Golden Mean 184
Conflict and Member Diversity 185
Cultural Responses to Conflict 185
Gender Responses to Conflict 185
Groups in Balance . . . Let Members Save Face 185
Group Cohesion 186
Enhancing Group Cohesion 186
Follow the Research Does Diversity Enhance or Inhibit Group Cohesiveness? 187
Groupthink 187
Summary Study Guide 190
GroupWork Conflict Awareness Log 191
Group Assessment How Do You Respond to Conflict? 192
xiv   Detailed Contents

9 Structured and Creative Problem Solving in Groups 193

Case Study No More Horsing Around 194
Group Decision Making 195
Decision Making and Problem Solving 195
Decision-Making Methods 196
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid False Consensus 198
Decision-Making Questions 198
Decision-Making Styles 200
Structured Problem Solving 200
The Standard Agenda 202
Theory in Groups The Functional Perspective and Group Problem Solving 204
The Single Question Format 205
Creative Problem Solving 207
Brainstorming 209
Nominal Group Technique (NGT) 210
Follow the Research Which Is Better—Brainstorming or the Nominal Group
Technique? 211
Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) 212
Enhancing Group Creativity 213
Virtual Groups Adapting Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Methods 214
Ethics in Groups The Morality of Creative Outcomes 216
Problem-Solving Realities 216
Politics 216
Preexisting Preferences 217
Power 217
Summary Study Guide 218
GroupWork What Is Your Decision-Making Style? 219
Group Assessment Problem-Solving Competencies 220
 Detailed Contents   xv

10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 221

Case Study Slicing the Pie 222
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 223
Cooperative Group Argumentation 224
The Value of Argumentation in Groups 225
Structuring Arguments 226
Theory in Groups Argumentative and Aggressive Communication 226
Claim, Evidence, and Warrant 227
Backing, Reservation, and Qualifier 228
Supporting Arguments 229
Types of Evidence 230
Groups in Balance . . . Document Sources of Evidence 231
Tests of Evidence 232
Virtual Groups Think Critically About the Internet 232
Presenting Arguments 233
State Your Claim 233
Support Your Claim 233
Provide Reasons 233
Summarize Your Argument 234
Refuting Arguments 234
Listen to the Argument 234
State the Opposing Claim 234
Preview Your Objections 235
Assess the Evidence 235
Assess the Reasoning 235
Summarize Your Refutation 235
Adapting to Argumentation Styles 235
Gender Differences 236
Ethics in Groups Ethical Argumentation 237
Cultural Differences 237
Argumentation and Emotional Intelligence 238
Follow the Research Emotional Intelligence in Groups 239
Summary Study Guide 240
GroupWork Analyze the Argument 241
Group Assessment Argumentativeness Scale 242
xvi   Detailed Contents

11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 243

Case Study Monday Morning Blues 244
Meetings, Meetings, Meetings 245
Follow the Research Why Do Many Meetings Fail? 246
Planning and Chairing Meetings 247
Questions About Meetings 247
Groups in Balance . . . Choose Good Meeting Places 249
Preparing the Agenda 250
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Meetingthink 252
Chairing the Meeting 252
Groups in Balance . . . Pace the Meeting 253
Adapting to Member Behavior 254
Dealing with Disruptive Behavior 254
Adapting to Differences 256
Virtual Groups Meeting in Cyberspace 256
Preparing the Minutes 257
Selecting a Recorder 257
Determining What Information to Include 257
Taking Minutes 258
Ethics in Groups Use Discretion When Taking Minutes 258
Using Parliamentary Procedure 260
Evaluating the Meeting 261
Theory in Groups Chaos and Complexity Theories 262
Summary Study Guide 263
GroupWork Disrupting Disruptive Behavior 264
Group Assessment Post-Meeting Reaction (PMR) Form 265
 Detailed Contents   xvii

12 Technology and Virtual Groups 266

Case Study Virtual Misunderstanding 267
The Nature of Virtual Groups 268
Virtual Groups A Chapter-by-Chapter Review 269
FTF Versus CMC 270
Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication 270
Theory in Groups Media Richness and Media Synchronicity Theories 271
Groups in Balance . . . Negotiate the Dialectics of Virtual Groups 272
Synchronous Groupware 272
Audioconferences 273
Videoconferences 274
Textconferences 276
Group Decision Support Systems 277
Groups in Balance. . . Use Netspeak, Netlingo, and Leet Appropriately 278
Groups in Balance. . . Take Advantage of Collaborative Presentation Technology 280
Asynchronous Groupware 280
Email 280
Bulletin Boards 281
Group Diversity and the Digital Divide 282
Follow the Research Internet Addiction 283
Ethics in Groups The Ten Commandments for Computer Ethics 284
Age 285
Geography 285
Income 285
Summary Study Guide 286
GroupWork Match the Medium to the Message 287
Group Assessment Virtual Meeting Evaluation 288
xviii   Detailed Contents

Appendix: Group Presentations 289

Case Study Team Challenge 290
Presentations in and by Groups 291
Presentation Guidelines 292
Purpose 292
Audience 293
Follow the Research Adapting to Audience Opinions 294
Credibility 294
Theory in Groups Aristotle’s Ethos 295
Logistics 295
Content 296
Organization 296
Delivery 297
Virtual Groups Mediated Presentations 299
Group Presentations 300
Public Group Presentations 300
Team Presentations 300
Groups in Balance . . . Welcome and Encourage Questions 303
Presentation Aids 304
Creating Presentation Aids 305
The Pitfalls of PowerPoint 307
Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Break the “Slide” Rules 308
Ethics in Groups Respect Copyrights 309
Delivering Presentation Aids 309
Summary Study Guide 311
GroupWork Re-envision the Visual 312
Group Assessment Team Presentation Evaluation 313

Glossary 315
Notes 327
Index 349
Credits 361
 Detailed Contents   xix

Web Chapter: Parliamentary Procedure W-1

Available at www.pearsonhighered.com/engleberg
What Is Parliamentary Procedure? W-2
Who Uses Parliamentary Procedure? W-2
When Should a Group Use Parliamentary Procedure? W-3
The Guiding Principles of Parliamentary Procedure W-3
The Parliamentary Players W-4
Quorum W-4
Chair W-5
Clerk W-5
Parliamentarian W-5
The Basic Rules of Parliamentary Procedure W-6
Making a Main Motion W-7
Other Types of Motions W-9
Requesting Privileges W-10
Informal Rules W-11
A Balanced Approach to Parliamentary Procedure W-12
Summary Study Guide W-13
Glossary W-14
Group Assessment Parliamentary Procedure Assessment Instrument W-15

Notes W-16
Guide to Features
Case Ethics in Follow the Groups in Theory in Virtual
Chapter
Study Groups Research Balance Groups Groups

Chapter 1: • The Study • The National • What Is the • Create Synergy • Systems • Using
Introduction Group Communication Ideal Group • Enjoy Their Theory Technology
to Group Dilemma Association Size? Work • Relational to
Communication Credo for Ethical • Empower Dialectics Communicate
Communication Members Theory

Chapter 2: • Nice to • Ethical Group • Group • Socialize New- • Goal • Develop-

Group Meet Norms Development comers Theory and mental Tasks
Development You, Too Models • Change Group
• Beware of Norms as Work
Unreasonable Needed
Norms

Chapter 3: • Taming • Managing • Curbing • Adapt to Both • Belbin’s • Confidence

Group Tony Manipulators Compulsive High and Low Team-Role with
Membership the Tiger Communi- Levels of Theory Technology
cators Member
Apprehension
• Know When to
Say No

Chapter 4: • No • The Golden Rule • Where Is Your • Seek Intellectual • Muted Group • Cultural
Diversity Offense May Not Apply Face in the Diversity Theory Dimensions in
in Groups Intended in Diverse U.S. Census? • Value Both Cyberspace
Groups • Who Talks Introverts
More—Women and Extroverts
or Men?

Chapter 5: • The Leader • Leadership • The Two Sides • Value Leader- • The Evolution • Sharing
Group in Sheep’s • Integrity of “Great” ship and of Leadership Leadership
Leadership Clothing Leadership Followership Theory Functions

Chapter 6: • How to • Sticks and Stones • Immediacy in • Speak “Silently” • The Whorf • Expressing
Verbal and Sink the May Break Your Groups • Survive Hypothesis Emotions
Nonverbal Mayflower Bones, but Online
Communication Words Can Hurt
in Groups Forever

Chapter 7: • That’s • Self-Centered • Listening and • Ask Questions • The HURIER • Listening
Listening Not What Roles and Working to Enhance Listening Online
in Groups I Said Listening • Memory Theory Comprehension Model
• Learn the Art of
High-Context
Listening

xx
 Guide to Features   xxi

Chapter 8: • Sociology • The Group and • Does Diversity • Know When • Attribution • Conflict in
Conflict and in Trouble the Golden Enhance or and How to Theory and Cyberspace
Cohesion Mean Inhibit Group Apologize Member
in Groups Cohesiveness? • Let Members Motives
Save Face

Chapter 9: • No More • The Morality of • Which Is • Avoid False • The Functional • Adapting
Structured Horsing Creative Better—Brain- Consensus Perspective Decision-
and Creative Around Outcomes storming or and Group Making and
Problem the Nominal Problem Problem-
Solving Group Solving Solving
in Groups Technique? Methods

Chapter 10: • Slicing • Ethical • Emotional • Document • Argumentative • Think

Critical Thinking the Pie Argumentation Intelligence in Sources of and Aggressive Critically
and Argumen- Groups Evidence Communication About the
tation in Groups Internet

Chapter 11: • Monday • Use Discretion • Why Do Many • Choose Good • Chaos and • Meeting in
Planning and Morning When Taking Meetings Fail? Meeting Places Complexity Cyberspace
Conducting Blues Minutes • Avoid Meeting- Theories
Meetings think
• Pace the
Meeting

Chapter 12: • Virtual • The Ten • Internet • Negotiate the • Media Richness • A Chapter-
Technology and Misunder- Commandments Addiction Dialectics of and Media by-Chapter
Virtual Groups standing for Computer Virtual Groups Synchronicity Review
Ethics • Use Netspeak, Theories
Netlingo,
and Leet
Appropriately
• Take Advantage
of Collaborative
Presentation
Technology

Appendix: • Team • Respect • Adapting to • Welcome and • Aristotle’s • Mediated

Group Challenge Copyrights Audience Encourage Ethos Presentations
Presentations Opinions Questions
• Know When
to Break the
“Slide” Rules
 Preface

One central question has always guided our research and writing for Working in
Groups:

What do college students enrolled in a group

communication course really need to know?
Our guiding question led us to include both classic and current theories of group
communication that focus on “how groups work” as well as practical group com-
munication strategies and skills that emphasize “how to work in groups.”

New to This Edition

The Sixth Edition of Working in Groups includes a variety of new features and key
updates intended to continue a tradition of intellectual rigor, practical focus, and
c­ ommitment to student learning.
• Follow the Research features in every chapter explain why and how we
­behave and work in groups with a focus on current research.
• Remember This features highlight key ideas and critical research with
a­ uthoritative quotations and comments.
• Video Scenarios applicable to chapter content are now highlighted in every
chapter.
• Contemporary approaches to group roles, listening, and ­leadership ­reflect
the newest research. Updated topic coverage focuses on ­effectively working
in virtual groups and successfully managing groupthink, meetingthink, and
disruptive group members.
• Expanded and updated treatment of virtual groups and technology helps
­students apply group theory, methods, and skills to the work of virtual
groups.
• A revised group dialectics approach emphasizes the book’s continuing theme
of balance while better explaining how group members balance and negotiate
the contradictory tensions they encounter while working together to achieve a
common goal.

Unified Perspective: Balance and Group

Dialectics
Beginning with the first edition of Working in Groups, we have used the concept of
balance as a central metaphor. A group that reaches a decision or completes a task
is not in balance if group members end up disliking or mistrusting one another.
A group that relies on two or three members to do all the work is not in balance.
Effective groups balance factors such as task and social functions, individual and
group needs, and leadership and followership.
xxii
 Preface   xxiii

We further developed the balance metaphor by introducing the concept of group

dialectics—the interplay of opposing or contradictory forces inherent in group
work. A dialectic approach examines how group members negotiate and resolve the
tensions and pressures they encounter while working together to achieve a common
goal. We apply contemporary theories and research to illuminate the nine group dia-
lectics that characterize the delicate balance achieved by effective groups.

Group Dialectics
Individual Goals ­ Group Goals
Conflict ­ Cohesion
Conforming ­ Nonconforming
Task Dimensions ­ Social Dimensions
Homogeneous ­ Heterogeneous
Leadership ­ Followership
Structure ­ Spontaneity
Engaged ­ Disengaged
Open System ­ Closed System

Comprehensive Topic Coverage

The Sixth Edition of Working in Groups strengthens the textbook’s scholarship and
applicability. Before reading further, flip through the detailed table of contents to get
a feel for the depth and breadth of topic coverage. We include classic and traditional
group communication subject matter, such as

• Group Development • Group Norms and Roles

• Member Diversity • Leadership Theories and Power
• Verbal and Nonverbal Communication • Group Cohesiveness and Conflict
• Decision Making and Problem Solving • Planning and Conducting Meetings

We also include cutting-edge theories and topics such as

• Group Dialectics and Balance • Working in Virtual Groups

• “Team Talk” Strategies and Skills
• Communication Apprehension in Groups
• Belbin’s Group Roles
• Group Goal Setting
• Group and Member Motivation
• Effective Argumentation in Groups
• Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model
• Personality Traits in Groups
• Decision-Making Models
• 5M Model of Effective Leadership

Pedagogical Features
The Sixth Edition of Working in Groups includes pedagogical features that link the
theories of group communication (how groups work) with communication strate-
gies and skills (how to work in groups). Two of these features are new: Follow the
Research and Remember This. Continuing pedagogical features include Case
Studies, Ethics in Groups, Groups in Balance, Theory in Groups, and Virtual
Groups as well as Summary Study Guides, GroupWork activities, and Group
Assessment instruments at the end of each chapter.
 use touch all of our lives. From
unning the United Way drive to
ng Mt. Everest and reaching for
e in modern times.1

skill you learn in college. A

an Colleges and Universities
g outcomes needed xxiv  
by college Preface
major categories (“Intellectual
sponsibility”), the top-ranked
aborate with others in diverse
Follow the Research New Feature: Follow the Research
me learning outcomes as top
What Is the Ideal Group Size?
wrote that they look Research
for em- Question: What’s the ideal size for a group development and productivity. She con-
The new Follow the Research feature offers the latest
lse. I can teach the technical.”3to achieve a common goal? Answer: cludes that groups of three to nine members
group working
in relevant academic research and answers commonly
It depends. It depends on member knowledge, are more effective than groups of ten or more
-related communication skills
attitudes, and skills; on the nature and needs of the members. As group size increases, cohesion and
asked questions about the nature of effective group
task; and—most important of all—on the group’s goal. effective collaboration decreases, and members
oficiency in the field ofFortunately,
study, researchers have looked at the group-size tend to divide into subgroups. In large groups,
communication.
question and given us some useful guidelines: members are more argumentative, less unified,
and more competitive than cooperative. Some
• Groups of three to nine members are generally
he Group Assessment survey
more productive.
• Groups of more than nine members are gener-
members may feel left out or inconsequential. As
a result, member satisfaction also decreases.7 Examples of Follow the Research Features
you stack up against the ally
listless of 6 Now, can you answer the question: What’s
productive.
the ideal size for a group working to achieve a • W hat Is the Ideal Group • W ho Talks More—
In general, the ideal group size for a problem- common goal? Although there are always excep-
solving discussion is five to seven members. To tions to most rules, you’d be wise to aim for three Size? Women or Men?
avoid ties, an odd number of members is usually to nine members. When possible, follow Susan
better than an even number. Wheelan’s advice and limit “group size to the • Beware of Unreasonable • Curbing Compulsive
Group communication scholar Susan Wheelan smallest number of members necessary to accom-
further defines the relationship of group size to plish group goals.”8 Norms Communicators
• The Two Sides of “Great” • Why Do Many
Leadership Meetings Fail?
• Does Diversity Enhance or • Immediacy in
Inhibit Group Cohesiveness? Groups

New Feature: Remember This

r Th i s
Re m e m b e on is
Remember This, another new feature, highlights significant and memo-
mmunicati rable quotations and author excerpts in every chapter to help students
Group co th ree
ction of identify and remember key ideas and critical research.
the intera e n d ent
terdep
or more in in g to
work
members al.
e a c o mmon go
achiev Examples of Remember This Features
• “ The United States is the most individ- • “ The way a team talks reveals where
ualistic culture in the world.” —Geert the team is coming from and where it is
Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences headed.” —Anne Donnellon, Team Talk
• “A meeting without an agenda is like a • “Time and again, researchers find that the
search party without a map.” —Harvard arguments group members make matter.”
Business School, Running Meetings —John Gastil, The Group in Society
• “Effective leaders welcome disagree- • “Communication apprehension may
ment. They do not suppress conflict, be the single most important factor in
they rise and face it.” —Jorge Correia predicting communication behavior in a
Jesuino, Understanding Group Behavior small group.” —James C. McCroskey and
Virginia P. Richmond

New and Revised Feature: Case Studies

and Related Video Scenarios
The Sixth Edition of Working in Groups provides case studies at the beginning of every
chapter, followed by critical questions students should be able to discuss and answer
after reading the chapter. The case studies questions do not offer a single or correct
answer. Rather, they ask students to apply what they learn in the chapter to select
what they believe is an appropriate response.
Six Video Scenarios that portray a case study or a similar situation are available
upon request from Pearson. Two Video Scenarios are highlighted in every chapter.
 Preface   xxv

Examples of Case Study Features

• T
 hat’s Not What I Said. What
should a group of marketing
students do when several
members fail to listen to one
• T
 he Leader in Sheep’s Clothing. Case Study
What would you do when Case StudyThat’s Not What I Said A junior-level marketing class has been divided into “I’m just so excited,” says a grinning Lilly. “Just
Nice to Meet You, Too
the public face of your boss
four project teams. Each team must research and two more days ’til he’s here.”
prepare a marketing proposal for a small business in “Excuse me,” John interrupts, “but what about
the community. The members of Group
A group of community volunteers meets for the first justthetoresearch?
4 are Lilly,
proposed, I didn’tBill
get started. get seems
any email a from you with
bit annoyed
is gentle as a lamb, but his hood
Wendy, Michael, John, and Peter. it attached. Did anyone? You said you’d have it by
Today, Group 4 is holding its eighthwith
time to plan and raise funds for building a neighbor- Dave’s
meeting at the suggestion,
today. Come but doesn’t
on, Lilly, this issay
not anything.
the first time you’ve
playground. Although Dave, Betty, Ray, Bill,
usual time and place: 2:00 p.m. in Library Study DaveRoom notesletthat regardless of the cost, they need to
us down.”

another as they work on a private behavior is unreason- discuss ways of Lilly

303B. Members are worried because they haven’t fin- is no longer smiling. “That’s not what I said.
and Aisha live in the same community, they don’t raising money for the playground. At
ished the research portion of the project even What I said was that I’d try to get it done by
know one another well or at all. They begin the meet-
though the due date for their marketing this point Aisha begins taking
today. Look,notes.
it’s notBetty
that says, “Well—
big a deal. We
ing by introducing themselves. They all smile a lot, it worked at our church—in can go aheadthe and other
work oncity where I
major group project? able and ruthless?
project and group presentation is three the marketing
weeks away. It’s now 2:15 and everyone is plan with or without this research because
but communication seems a bit stiff and awkward.
there except Lilly.
lived . . . we had great there’s bake nothing
sales—twice a year.” Ray
in it we don’t already
Betty’s handshake connects to“Hi!” other members
shouts a bright-eyed Lilly as politely
only she tells Betty thatknow. a bake saletweaking
I’m still is a great idea,andbut
the data I

• M
 onday Morning Blues. How • S
 ociology in Trouble. How at her fingertips, while Ray and rushedBillinto offer
the room.
firm that it may not raise didn’tenough
have timefunds.
to finishThe
the graphics.
rest of We the
“Lilly,” says John crisply, “before you get can add the research later and adjust the
handshakes. As Aisha introduces carried away with something else, please tell us group grimaces
herself, report.” and ignores Betty’s offer to run
she giggles and runs a handthat through herthe research we need in order to fin- a bakeMichael,
sale. Aisha thenpaying
asksattention
if group members
would you help a group would you manage a
you brought who’s been now that he’s
ish this part of the project report. At our last meeting, turned off his iPod, can no longer sit still. “Damn it,
long hair. Dave sits at the head of the table know anyone who works for a foundation
you said you’d have it done before today or, at the lat- Lilly, you haven’t been part of this group since day
and chairs the meeting. thatone.
might
We’redonate some for of you
thetomoney.
show up.Betty
that meets every two weeks Sociology Department in
est, would give it to us at today’s meeting.” always waiting And
Aisha has come to the meeting Thewellotherpre-
group members nod as John speaks. reveals
when youthattakesheon ahas
task, ayoudear
either friend
don’t do who
it or fin-is

pared. She hesitantly raises her They

hand are impressed with how well he addressed what ish it late. What’s up with you? Don’t you care?”
to speak, actively involved in a large, local foundation.
on Monday afternoons even which faculty members
had become an increasing group problem. “Of course I care,” Lilly retorts.
and Dave recognizes her. She reports “Guess that,
what?”ac- Lilly throws her books down Theon group sits reminds
“Now,” up andPeter,pays“We a lot more
know Lilly attention
had some
cording to her research, a simple playground
the table can “Jack is coming
and leans forward. totoBetty.
visit Ray
healtheven jokes
problems that
early maybe
in the semestertheandfoundation
we agreed
this weekend! He didn’t think he could get away until to make some allowances for her. Certainly everyone
when there’s no reason to pursue personal rather than range from $5,000 to $50,000. Thanksgiving
would be a good target budget.
She suggests
Bill starts
I’m late—to
thatbut$35,000
break,
say he to
can help with the bake sale, too. Everyone laughs.
he just called—that’s why knows that Lilly often comes up with some great
two days off. He’sOnly
gotrespond leavingthree minutes of the meeting have gone by.
in ideas.”
the morning to drive
thatdown!”
Ray has The group has aJohn throws toupdiscuss
his hands,but “Does that mean we
have a meeting? group goals that would by saying, “Well, uh . . .” but when
raised his hand, he concludes with
Lilly’s
he sees
“Go ahead.”
excitement Ray “Butslowly
and happiness. could webecome
lot more
“That’s great, Lilly,” nods Peter, acknowledging have to make allowances when Jack shows up for two
talk daysbetter
of sex?” acquainted with one another
members have

says, “Oh, I was going to say—ah—I’ve

about your good looked
news it over
after the ameeting?
andWe have
have a better The feeling
rest of theabout
members how wince they
and will work
fear that he
ensure the department’s bit—$35,000 is—ah—I don’t know—I lot to do today.”
guess that would together and get may have gone too far. “Out of line. Out of line,” mur-
along.
Lilly laughs. “Yeah, I know. Work, work, work and murs Michael in an audible whisper.
be good, but I think we shouldnostay play as high
makes us asdullwe
boyscan.”
and girls. You guys are Lilly stands glaring at the group. “Well,” she says,

success and survival? Bill now responds with “Ah—Iworse

posite—kind of—we should go
wastask thinking just our
masters than theprofessor.”
op- When you finish “if reading
that’s howthis chapter,
all of you feel,you
Michael looks up and takes out his earbuds. my work. Oh—and thanks for ruining my day.” With
lower—uh. . . .” Dave in- answer the following
should
I guess be able
you don’t

critical thinking questions about this

needto

“What? Is there a problem here?” that, Lilly picks up her books and strides out of the
terrupts and suggests that they goEveryone
with the $35,000
rolls Aisha
their eyes. “Go back case study:
to dreamland!” room.
snaps Peter. The remaining group members look at one another
“Lilly,” says Wendy in a hopeful tone, “we need in frustration and begin talking about whether they
to go through your research and see whether we’re should suck it up and do Lilly’s work or ask the pro-
1 What verbal and nonverbal behaviors demonstrated the forming
ready to move ahead with our marketing plan.”
stage of group development?
fessor if they can “fire” Lilly.

Continuing and Revised

2 In your opinion, which members are most likely to compete for status and influence in the storming
(continued)
stage?

3 What strategies did group members use or should they have used to decrease primary tension? 149

Features 4 What, if any, dialectic tensions will affect how well this group achieves its goal and how well mem-
bers get along with one another?

Working in Groups Video Scenarios
The Working in Groups Video Scenarios, available from
Before you read any further, visit Pearson’s
MyCommunicationLab website and watch this case study’s
video, “Planning the Playground.” You may also want
to watch the short video, “The Group Project,” which
illustrates Chapter 2 concepts. Each video comes with a set

Pearson, offer original case studies that highlight im- of study questions to keep in mind as you read this chapter.
Planning the Playground The Group Project

portant group communication theories, strategies, and 26

skills. Two specific videos are recommended for instructional use with every chapter.
Instructors can use these videos to supplement classroom lectures and discussions,
as the basis for exam questions, or as cases for analysis in student papers. The Sixth
Edition of Working in Groups offers two new videos.
Video case studies include the following scenarios:
• The Group Project. A group of college students is having a difficult time finishing their
group project and preparing for the group presentation in class.
• Planning a Playground. A group of community residents meets for the first time to
discuss raising funds for a neighborhood playground. (The related case study, “Nice
to Meet Your, Too” is included in Chapter 2).
• The Politics of Sociology.  Members of a college’s sociology department discuss possible
course offerings for the next semester. (The related case study, “Sociology in Trouble,”
is included in Chapter 9.)
• Helping Annie. A school nurse has called a meeting with a psychiatrist and a social
worker to discuss the best treatment plan for Annie, a high school student with pos-
sible depression and an eating disorder.
• The Reunion. Three family members have very different ideas about planning a family
reunion.
• Virtual Misunderstanding. A project manager has organized a conference call with
an offsite staff writer and designer to discuss a missed deadline for an important
sales brochure. (The related case study, “Virtual Misunderstanding,” is included in
Chapter 12.)
 What Is Leadership? 101

As we see it, there is an obvious reason why some leaders succeed whereas oth-
ers fail: Those who fail often lack effective and appropriate communication skills.
In his book on leadership, Antony Bell describes communication as the mortar
or glue that connects all leadership competencies. The ability to think and act,
self-awareness, and self-discipline are critical leadership competencies, but it takes
communication to bind these building blocks together.3
Ronald Heifetz, director of the Leadership Education Project at Harvard’s School
of Government, describes the dialectic tensions inherent in leadership. Leaders, he

xxvi   Preface
writes, must create a balance between the tensions required to motivate change and
the need to avoid overwhelming followers.4 Effective leaders walk a line between

Groups in Balance . . . Groups in Balance

Value Both Leadership and Followership
Who wants to be a follower? In the United States—
the number one individualistic country in the
Leadership Followership The Groups in Balance feature calls attention to group dia-
lectics and the need to balance the contradictory forces inher-
world—we praise and value individual leaders. This
admiration of leaders is not shared by all cultures.
In collectivist cultures, standing out from the group
is considered arrogant. Instead, loyal, hard-working
followers are admired. In the United States, being a
ent in all group work. The feature also examines the ways in
which groups negotiate and resolve a variety of tensions using
follower receives little praise. Garry Will captured
this perception in his book, Certain Trumpets: The Call
of Leaders: to put their egos aside and bring out the leadership in

Talk about the nobility of leaders, the need for

them, our reliance on them, raises the clear suspi-
others.6 Think of how many “ordinary” people came
forward to take leadership roles during the horrific a both/and approach. Many of the Groups in Balance features
are new or revised for the Sixth Edition.
events of September 11, 2001. Office workers in the
cion that followers are not so noble, not needed—
World Trade Center organized coworkers to carry
that there is something demeaning about being a
injured colleagues down thousands of stairs. Local
follower. In that view, leaders only rise by sinking
businesses worked cooperatively to provide food to
others to subordinate roles.5
workers during the rescue and recovery operation.7
Of course, in an effective group, none of these suspi- Other businesses donated office space to companies Examples of Groups in Balance Features
cions make sense. Leaders and followers share ideas whose operations had been destroyed when the tow-
and opinions. They collaborate to achieve a common ers collapsed.8 Despite the fact that Mayor Rudy
14 goal. Followers
Chapter have a to
1 Introduction sayGroup
about where they are being Giuliani was widely credited and praised for his
Communication
• G roups in Balance . . . Create • G roups in Balance . . . Avoid
led. After all, without followers, there would be no leadership during the crisis, there were hundreds of
one to lead. extraordinary followers doing what was needed to Synergy False Consensus
In Chapter 1, we Groups
identified intheBalance
leadership ↔ fol- help the stricken New York City community recover
lowership dialectic asAll
emphasized that effective
significant
leaders
to group
of us balance
have
competing We from
success.options
you spend or save? Should you eat ashocks
the confidence
everythe emotional,
day.
big bowl
Should you
it suffered.
physical,
work orlogistical, and financial
play? Should
of ice cream or a fresh salad? These
• Groups in Balance . . . Seek • Groups in Balance . . . Change
kinds of tensions are best resolved by taking a both/and approach rather than an
either/or perspective. For example, if you’re lucky, you may both have a job that pays Intellectual Diversity Norms as Needed
well and enjoy it as much as play. If you both spend wisely and save more, you can
look forward to a more secure financial future. If you eat both small portions of ice
cream and fresh salads, the result is a more balanced diet. Even in close personal
• Groups in Balance . . . Avoid • Groups in Balance . . . Socialize
relationships, a couple may both cherish their time together and respect each other’s
need for time apart. As you will see, this both/and approach also applies to achieving
balance in group interactions.
Meetingthink Newcomers
Group Dialectics
• Groups in Balance . . . Value • Groups in Balance . . . Value Both
We define group dialectics as the contradictory tensions groups experience as they
work toward a common goal. Effective groups engage in a cooperative effort to bal- Both Introverts and Extroverts Leadership and Followership
ance group dialectics through effective communication strategies.
Although the word dialectics may be new to you, it captures the way in which
successful groups balance competing pressures. It may help you to remember that
the prefix di- means two, as in diagonal (joining two opposite points) or dialogue (a

Theory in Groups
Relational Dialectics Theory
Communication scholars Leslie Baxter and Barbara
Montgomery use the term dialectics to describe the
complex and contradictory nature of personal rela-
tionships. Their Relational Dialectics Theory claims
that relationships are characterized by ongoing, dia-
lectic tensions between the multiple contradictions,
complexities, and changes in human experiences.30
The following pairs of common folk proverbs illus-
trate such contradictory, dialectic tensions:
“Opposites attract,” but “Birds of a feather flock
together.”
“Two’s company; three’s a crowd,” but “The more,
the merrier.”31
Theory in Groups
• You can choose different options for different
situations or different points in time. Example: A
group’s monthly meeting always follows a highly
Every chapter of Working in Groups includes significant theo-
structured agenda. When group members have
difficulty coming up with a new ideas or possible
solutions to a problem, however, you may set
ries and research that explain why and how we behave and
work in groups. Throughout this edition, we use the Theory
aside the agenda and do some unstructured
brainstorming.
• You can choose one option and ignore the other.
Example: Even though a group knows that two
absent members would vote against a proposal
they’re discussing, they go ahead and make the
in Groups feature to focus on why groups succeed or fail and
decision anyway.

Generally, choosing one option over another is

Rather than trying to prove that one of these contra-
dictory proverbs is truer than the other—an either/
or response—relational dialectics takes a both/and
approach. There are several ways to resolve relational
dialectic tensions:
how the strategies and skills in this book can enhance group
effectiveness. Many of the theories in the Sixth Edition are re-
the least effective way to resolve relational dialectics
because you or someone else must “give up” or “lose”
one option over another. Engaging both options to
some degree is usually a better way.
vised or new to the textbook.
Examples of Theory in Groups Features
•  ystems Theory
S • G oal Theory and Group Work
• Muted Group Theory • Argumentative and Aggressive
• Attribution Theory Communication
• The Evolution of Leadership Theory • Relational Dialetics Theory
• Belbin’s Team-Role Theory • The HURIER Listening Model

184 Chapter 8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups

Ethics in Groups
The Group and the Golden Mean
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle equates eth-
ics with virtue (such as goodness, moral excellence,
righteousness, and integrity). Aristotle explains that
virtue can be destroyed by too little or too much of
certain behaviors. For example, someone who runs
away is a coward while someone who fears nothing is
reckless. The virtue bravery is the mean between two
extremes. Aristotle offered his “doctrine of the mean,”
also known as the “golden mean,” as a practical way of
looking at ethical behavior.36 Ethical behavior is based
on moderation and appropriateness. If, for example,
you face an ethical decision, you should select an appro-
priate response somewhere between the two extremes
of expressing mild annoyance and uncontrolled rage.
Thus, if a group member says something that angers
you, according to the golden mean, you should find an
Dialectic Tension
Cowardice ↔ Rashness
Ethics in Groups
appropriate response somewhere between screaming
back at the other person in anger or simply giving in.
It may be much more appropriate and productive to
Every chapter includes an Ethics in Groups feature that exam-
ines the many ethical issues that frequently arise when interde-
state in a strong, but reasoned tone that you disagree.
Aristotle maintained that anyone can become angry—
that is easy. But to be angry at the right things, with
the right people, to the right degree, at the right time,
for the right purpose, and in the right way—is worthy pendent members interact to achieve a group goal.
of praise.37 For Aristotle, being “brutally honest” in all
situations is not an ethical virtue because your honesty
may do more harm than good.38
In examining the nature and consequences of
Examples of Ethics in Groups Features
• T he National Communication • T he Ten Commandments for
group conflict, Aristotle’s golden mean represents a
desirable balance of two dialectic extremes. Consider
how the following table illustrates dialectic tensions
and the golden mean for three of Aristotle’s virtues.39
Association Credo for Ethical Computer Ethics
Golden Mean
Communication • Ethical Group Norms
Courage

Shyness ↔ Shamelessness Humbleness • Leadership Integrity • Ethical Argumentation

Boastfulness ↔ Understatement Truthfulness
• The Morality of Creative • The Group and the Golden
Outcomes Mean

Arbitration. If mediation does not work, a group may seek arbitration.

Arbitration, like mediation, involves a third party. After considering all sides,
the agreed-upon arbitrator decides how to resolve the conflict. The arbitrator may
choose one person’s solution or may develop a solution the group has not con-
sidered. Whatever the final decision, group members are obligated to accept and
implement the solution, no matter what they think about it.
When turning to an arbitrator, group members “have acknowledged that their
own decision-making powers are insufficient to resolve the dispute. Their function,
therefore, is to present their side of the case as fully and as capably as possible so
that fairness and justice can prevail.”40 Despite the hope for a just outcome, pro-
fessional arbitrators understand that their decisions may not please everyone in a
group. However, for groups that cannot solve problems on their own or with the
help of a mediator, arbitration may be the only way to resolve a conflict.
 behavior. It is best to begin with the least confrontational approach and then work
toward more direct methods as necessary.

Adapting to Differences
Very often, group members from different cultural, ethnic, and age groups do not
share similar expectations about group roles and individual behavior in meetings.
In some cultures, a young group member would never interrupt an older member; a
new group member would not challenge a veteran member. In such cases, it is easy
to interpret lack of participation as inattention or lack of interest, when, in fact, the
group member is demonstrating a high degree of respect for its members.
At one college, the president appointed an advisory council to coordinate
activities designed to improve the racial climate on campus. A member of the group
reported the following observation:
One council member was a former diplomat from a West African country. He rarely
Preface  xxvii
spoke, but when he did, he always began with a very formal “Madam Chairman.” After
that, he would deliver a three- to five-minute speech in which he would summarize

Virtual Groups Virtual Groups

Meeting in Cyberspace
In virtual groups, write Deborah Duarte and Nancy _____ 4. Is the group small enough to allow

In each chapter, the Virtual Groups feature guides readers in
the use of technology to help achieve group goals in face-to-face
Snyder, “The right technical tools enhance our abil-
ity to share concepts, merge ideas, and use synergy to
everyone a chance to contribute actively?
_____ 5. Is the group meeting at the most
accomplish our group goals.” At the same time, they
emphasize, “Technology cannot make up for poor plan-
ning or ill-conceived meetings. In fact, it can make the
convenient time for the most members?
_____ 6. Is the group using the most appropriate

settings as well as in virtual groups. situation worse.”35 Fortunately, many of the same prin-
ciples that apply to planning a productive face-to-face
meeting apply equally well to planning virtual meet-
technology for achieving the meeting’s goal?

_____ 7. Does the group have access to the

technology or facilities that support
ings. Test your group’s readiness to meet in cyberspace
audioconferences, videoconferences, and
by checking off items on the following “to-do” list:
text conferences?

Examples of Virtual Groups Features _____ 1. Does everyone know the meeting’s goal?

_____ 2. Did all members get the agenda in advance,

_____ 8. Do all the members have compatible
technology?

• C ultural Dimensions in •  haring Leadership Functions

S including notes on which discussion items
will use any specialized technology?
_____ 9. Are all members trained adequately on the
chosen technologies?

Cyberspace • Listening Online _____ 3. Are only the members who need to
participate invited?
_____ 10. Does someone always test the technology
prior to the meeting?

• Developmental Tasks • Conflict in Cyberspace

• Thinking Critically About • Mediated Presentations
the Internet

286 Chapter 12 Technology and Virtual Groups

Summary Study Guide Summary Study Guide

The Nature of Virtual Groups • Group decision support systems are effective for
• Technology allows virtual groups to collaborate group work, but they rely on expensive, networked

At the end of every chapter, a Summary Study Guide reviews across space and time.
• Media Richness Theory and Media Synchronicity
equipment; staff support; and (in some cases) time
and money to travel to a fully equipped GDSS site.
Theory examine the relative advantages of using more

the major concepts in the chapter. Readers should be able to communication channels as well as matching specific
media channels to a group’s needs and purpose.
Asynchronous Groupware
• Email discussions are a highly accessible and
inexpensive way for virtual groups to communicate,
• Virtual groups can interact synchronously (simultane-

explain and apply summary statements to a variety of group
ously in real time) or asynchronously (consecutively
and without being interrupted).
although written messages may be misinterpreted and
members may ignore messages or fake participation.
• Bulletin board discussions make fewer demands

situations and contexts. Synchronous Groupware

• Groupware refers to computer-mediated methods and
tools that support group collaboration, even though
members may not be together in either time or location.
• Audioconferences are coordinated phone calls and
computer voice links among three or more group
members.
• Videoconferences can be as effective as face-to-face
interaction, but they may require expensive equip-
ment and technicians to run the meeting.
• Textconferences are very effective for sharing infor-
mation and data, and resolving simple problems, but
they can also lead to misunderstanding, frustration,
and lack of social support for members.
on members than email and can be highly focused,
although written messages may be misinterpreted
and ignored.
Group Diversity and the Digital Divide
• The digital divide refers to inequalities in access to,
distribution of, and use of information technology
among different populations.
• Older group members, geographically isolated
members, and members from low-income house-
holds may not have access to communication
technology or may be less skilled and less comfort-
able with technology, particularly as an alternative
to face-to-face meetings.

GroupWork GroupWork 241

The GroupWork feature at the end of each chapter provides GroupWork

Analyze the Argument
several new and revised activities that demonstrate and/or Read the following example in which each of Toulmin’s six components is identified. Then read the second argument and
see if you can identify the six components.38

apply chapter principles. In addition to including additional Want whiter teeth? Want to stand out in photographs with a sparkling white smile? Then get yourself
a tube of White Up, our tooth-whitening dental paste. Independent laboratories have confirmed that
White Up will make your teeth 50 percent whiter after using it for two weeks. Of course, if you drink a

class activities, the Instructor’s Manual gives directions for ex- lot of coffee—the most significant cause of stained teeth—we can’t guarantee such good results. So put
down that coffee cup and pick up a tube of White Up.

panding each GroupWork feature into interactive collabora- Initial Claim

Evidence
Buy White Up, the tooth-whitening dental paste.

Independent laboratories have confirmed that your teeth will become 50 percent whiter after

tive exercises. Warrant

using White Up for only two weeks.

Most people want whiter teeth.

Examples of GroupWork Features Backing People want whiter teeth in order to look better in photographs, to mask ugly stains, and to
impress others with a sparkling smile.

Reservation Coffee drinking is the most significant cause of stained teeth and may negate the effects

• C
 lassroom Norms •  isrupting Disruptive Behavior
D Qualifier
of a tooth whitener.

Coffee drinkers should not expect their teeth to become 50 percent whiter.

• The Least-Preferred • Conflict Awareness Log Qualified Claim If you want whiter teeth and a bright smile, put down that coffee and pick up a tube of White Up.

Now it’s your turn. Read the following argument. Identify the six components of the Toulmin Model of Argument. Then

Co-Worker Scale • Group Attraction Survey write the final qualified claim:
The U.S. Congress should ban animal research because animals are tortured in experiments that have no

• What Is Your • Practice Paraphrasing

necessary benefits for humans, such as testing cosmetics. The well-being of animals is more important
than the profits of the cosmetics industry. Only Congress has the authority to make such a law because
corporations can simply move from state to state to avoid legal penalties. On the other hand, a law to ban all

Decision-Making Style? • Analyze the Arguments

animal research could go too far, such as banning critical medical research. So the law would probably have to
be written carefully to define the kinds of animal research that should be banned.

Initial Claim : __________________________________________________________________________________________

Evidence : __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Warrant : __________________________________________________________________________________________

Backing : __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Reservation : __________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Qualifier : __________________________________________________________________________________________

Qualified Claim : __________________________________________________________________________________________

xxviii   Preface

Group Assessment 147 Group Assessment

Group Assessment The Group Assessment feature at the end of each chapter pro-
Auditing Team Talk
Directions: Circle the term that best describes the extent to which the members of your group engage in productive
team talk. vides several new and revised instruments for evaluating stu-
When your group communicates . . . dent and group understanding of textbook theories, strategies,
1. Do members use plural pronouns rather than Often Sometimes Rarely
singular ones?
2. Do members use language that acknowledges Often Sometimes Rarely
and skills. Additional assessment instruments are provided in
shared needs?
3. Do members solicit opinions and express the
need for cooperation?
Often Sometimes Rarely
the Instructor’s Manual.
4. Do members talk to one another on equal terms? Often Sometimes Rarely

5. Do members use casual language, nicknames,

and/or slang?
Often Sometimes Rarely
Examples of Group Assessment Features
• G roup Communication • P ersonal Report of
6. Do members express empathy and liking? Often Sometimes Rarely

7. Do members express interest in solving Often Sometimes Rarely

problems?
8. Do members use a nonthreatening tone and
nonjudgmental language?
Often Sometimes Rarely
Competencies Survey Communication
• Auditing Team Talk Apprehension (PRCA-24)
9. Do members paraphrase one another? Often Sometimes Rarely

10. Do members ask what-if questions? Often Sometimes Rarely

11. Do members propose objective criteria for

solutions?
Often Sometimes Rarely • Are You Ready to Lead? • How Do You Respond to
12. Do members summarize areas of agreement? Often Sometimes Rarely
• Argumentative Scale Conflict?
Scoring: Analyze your group’s team talk by looking at
the number of times you circled “Often,” “Sometimes,”
For a more accurate assessment of team talk in your
group, each member should complete the questionnaire and • Identifying Cultural • Problem-Solving
and “Rarely.” The more times you circled “Often,” the share their responses. Is there a consistent response to each
more likely it is that your group engages in productive
team talk. The more times you circled “Rarely,” the more
question? Can members identify specific examples of team
talk within the group? If there are significant disagreements Dimensions Competencies
likely it is that talk inhibits the progress and success of on several questions, the members of your group may
your group. benefit from a discussion about the nature of their team talk.

Glossary
abdicrat A group member whose need for control
is not met; an abdicrat is submissive and avoids
responsibility.
abstract word A word that refers to an idea or con-
cept that cannot be perceived by your five senses.
accommodation conflict style An approach to con-
flict in which a person gives in to other group
members, even at the expense of his or her own
goals.
achievement norm A norm that determines the
quality and quantity of work expected from group
members.
action item An item in the written minutes of a
meeting that identifies the member responsible for
an assigned task.
ad hominem attack The fallacy of making an irrele-
vant attack against a person’s character rather than
a substantive response to an issue or argument.
adjourning stage The group development phase in
which a group has achieved its common goal and
begins to disengage or disband.
A-E-I-O-U Model A conflict resolution model with
five steps: Assume that other members mean
well; Express your feelings; Identify your goal;
clarify expected Outcomes; and achieve mutual
Understanding.
affection need The need to express and receive
warmth or to be liked.
affective conflict A type of conflict that reflects the
emotions stirred by interpersonal disagreements,
differences in personalities and communication
styles, and conflicting core values and beliefs.
agenda An outline of the items to be discussed and
the tasks to be accomplished at a meeting.
aggressiveness Critical, insensitive, combative, or
abusive behavior that is motivated by self-interest
at the expense of others.
aggressor A group member who puts down other
members to get what she or he wants (a self-cen-
tered role).
agreeableness trait A Big Five Personality Theory
trait that describes a cooperative, friendly, flexible,
trusting, and tolerant personality.
amendment A modification or change to a motion
under consideration in a meeting using parliamen-
tary procedure.
analytical listening A type of listening that fo-
cuses on evaluating and forming opinions about
a message.
Glossary
Key words, phrases, and the names of theories are printed
antecedent phase The first phase of new member
in bold in the chapters. These terms and phrases are de-
socialization in which the newcomer’s beliefs and
attitudes, culture, traits, and prior experiences are fined in the Glossary at the back of the book.
identified.
anticipatory phase The second phase of new mem-
ber socialization in which group members deter-
mine if a newcomer meets the group’s expectations
in terms of characteristics and motives.
appeal to authority The fallacy of using the opin-
ions of a supposed expert when in fact the per-
son has no particular expertise in the area under
consideration.
appeal to popularity The fallacy of claiming that an
action or belief is acceptable because many people
do it or believe it.
appeal to tradition The fallacy of claiming that
people should continue a certain course of action
because that is the way it has always been done.
arbitration A conflict resolution method that involves
a third party who, after considering all sides in a
dispute, decides how to resolve the conflict.
argument A claim supported by evidence and rea-
sons for accepting it.
argumentation The use of critical thinking to ad-
vocate a position, examine competing ideas, and
influence others.
argumentativeness The willingness to argue with
others and take public positions on controversial
issues.
assertiveness Speaking up and acting in your own
best interests without denying the rights and inter-
ests of others.
assimilation phase The fourth phase of new mem-
ber socialization in which a newcomer becomes
fully integrated into the group and works toward
the common group goal.
asynchronous communication Electronic commu-
nication that does not occur simultaneously or in
real time; communication that is linear and not
interactive.
Attribution Theory A theory that claims we make
judgments about people’s motives and characteris-
tics that go beyond what we see and hear.
audioconference A voice-only communication me-
dium that usually takes one of two forms: a tele-
conference or a computer-based voice link.
authority rule A situation in which a leader or an
authority outside a group makes final decisions for
the group.

315
 Preface   xxix

Supplements Package
Name of Availability Instructor or Description
Supplement Student
Supplement

Instructor’s Online Instructor The Instructor’s Manual is text-specific, comprehensive,

Manual and Supplement easy to use, and written by the authors and Todd Allen of
Test Bank Geneva College. The Instructor’s Manual includes the
following resources:
• An introduction to group communication studies and
pedagogy
• Sample syllabi
• Ready-to-use group assignments
• Ready-to-use assessment instruments
• Service learning assignment and assessment instruments
• Chapter-by-chapter activities with accompanying teaching tips
• An instructor’s resource library
• A guide to using the Working in Groups Video Scenarios
The Test Bank contains multiple-choice, true/false, and essay
questions for each chapter. Test questions are referenced by
difficulty level to assist with question selection.

MyTest Online Instructor MyTest is a flexible, online test-generating software that

Supplement includes all questions found in the Test Bank. Computerized
software allows instructors to create their own personalized
exams, edit any of the existing test questions, and even add new
questions. Other special features of this program include random
generation of test questions, creation of alternate versions of the
same test, scrambling of question sequence, and test preview
before printing. This resource is available at
www.pearsonmytest.com (access code required).

PowerPoint™ Online Instructor Created by Susan M. Ward of Delaware County Community

Presentation Supplement College, the text’s PowerPoint™ Presentation Package includes
Package slides and sample lecture notes for each chapter of Working in
Groups. Many of the images from the book are also included.
Available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc (access
code required).

Pearson’s Small DVD Instructor This small group communication collection presents video case
Group Commu- Supplement studies of groups working in diverse contexts and highlights key
nication Video concepts of communication, including group problem solving,
Library leadership roles, diversity, power, conflict, virtual group communi-
cation, and more. For adopters only; some restrictions apply.
Contact your Pearson representative for details.

Pearson’s Group Online Student This open-access student website features small group
Communication Supplement communication study materials, including a complete set
Study Site of practice tests (multiple-choice, true/false, and essay questions)
for all major topics. Students will also find web links to valuable
sites for further exploration of major topics. The site can be
accessed at http://www.pearsonsmallgroups.com.

MySearchLab® Online Instructor & MySearchLab with eText features access to the EBSCO
with eText Student Content Select database and Associated Press news feeds,
Supplement and step-by-step tutorials offering overviews of the
writing and research process.
xxx   Preface

Proven. Engaging. Trusted.

MySearchLab is an interactive website that features an eText, access to the EBSCO
ContentSelect database and Associated Press news feeds, and step-by-step tu-
torials that offer complete overviews of the entire writing and research process.
MySearchLab is designed to amplify a traditional course in numerous ways or to
administer a course online. Additionally, MySearchLab offers course-specific tools
to enrich learning and help students succeed.
eText: Identical in content and design to the printed text, the Pearson eText pro-
vides access to the book wherever and whenever it is needed. Students can take
notes and highlight, just like with a traditional book.
MediaShare: This comprehensive file upload tool allows students to post speech-
es, outlines, visual aids, video assignments, role plays, group projects, and more
in a ­variety of formats including video, Word documents, PowerPoint, and Excel.
Structured much like a social networking site, MediaShare can help promote a sense
of community among students. Uploaded files are available for viewing, ­commenting,
and grading by instructors and class members in face-to-face and ­online course set-
tings. Integrated video capture functionality allows students to record video ­directly
from a webcam to their assignments, and allows instructors to record videos via
webcam in class or in a lab and attach them directly to a specific student and/or
­assignment. Instructors also can upload files as assignments for students to view
and respond to directly in MediaShare. Grades can be imported into most learning
m
­ anagement systems, and robust privacy settings allow instructors and students to
ensure a secure learning environment.
Video Clips: Videos related to key text content are included on the site. These clips
will allow students to gain a deeper, more nuanced understanding of basic commu-
nication principles.
Online Quizzes: Chapter quizzes test student comprehension and are automatically
graded. Grades flow directly to an online gradebook.
Chapter-specific Content: Each MySearchLab chapter contains Learning Objectives
and Flashcards. Flashcards review important terms and concepts from each chapter
online. Students can search by chapter or within a glossary and also access drills to
help them prepare for quizzes and exams. Flashcards can be printed or exported to
your mobile device. These chapter resources can be used to enhance comprehension,
help students review key terms, prepare for tests, and retain what they have learned.
A MySearchLab with eTEXT access code is no additional cost when packaged with
new print copies of this text. To get started, contact your local Pearson Publisher’s
Representative at www.pearsonhighered.com/replocator.
Acknowledgments

Although the title page of Working in Groups puts our names front and center, this
project would never have seen the light of day without the talent, dedication, and cre-
ativity of our publishing team. We are particularly grateful to the group of production
editors, graphic designers, photo editors, copy editors, and behind-the-scenes tech-
nicians who transformed a manuscript into an engaging, cutting-edge textbook: at
Integra-Chicago, Heather Johnson, Managing Editor, Jessica Werley, Project Manager,
and Emily Friel, Design Manager; and at PreMedia Global, Carolyn Arcabascio,
Image Researcher.
We extend very special thanks to Karon Bowers, our dynamic, multitasking Editor
in Chief at Pearson, whose wise advice, problem-solving ability, flexibility, creative
spirit, and friendship have supported and sustained us through this and other text-
book projects. We also welcome our new editor, Melissa Mashburn, who joined us
as Senior Acquisitions Editor midway through this project. She immediately became
our sounding board and quality assurance expert in the production process. And, as
always, we extend heartfelt thanks to Jerry Higgins, our dependable sales represen-
tative and loyal friend.
We extend our gratitude to Assistant Editor Stephanie Chaisson for helping us
expertly shepherd this textbook and to Associate Development Editor Corey Kahn
for transforming our ancillaries into a multitude of useful formats.
We are grateful to our Digital Editor Lisa Dotson for all her work and creativity
on the MySearchLab website.
A great deal of credit for this Sixth Edition of Working in Groups goes to Elsa
Peterson, our resourceful and supportive Development Editor, whose professional-
ism, innovative ideas, and kindness made all the difference—especially when one
of us lost a lot more than textbook documents in a North Carolina tornado. Thanks,
Elsa, for seeing us through thick and thin. We are also grateful to Marketing Manager
Blair Tuckman and her team. Without her help, this book would have neither caught
the eyes of the faculty who will adopt it nor the attention of the students who will
use it to become more effective and ethical communicators.
In addition to our publishing team, we enjoyed, learned a great deal from, and
made needed changes based on the advice of our conscientious reviewers, whose
excellent suggestions and comments enriched every edition of Working in Groups:
Todd Allen, Geneva College
Audrey Wilson Allison, Kennesaw State University
Diane Auten, Allan Hancock College
Amy Bippus, California State University, Long Beach
Kevin James Brown, Oregon Institute of Technology
Susan S. Easton, Rollins College
Dennis S. Gouran, Penn State University
Nancy Hoar, Western New England College
Bernadette Kapocias, Southwestern Oregon Community College

xxxi
xxxii   Acknowledgments

Nan Gesche Larsen, University of Minnesota

Suzanne Southerland, Clark College
Roxane Sutherland, Clark College
Jenna Yeager, Towson University
We are particularly indebted to the students and faculty members who have
shared their opinions and provided valuable suggestions and insights about our
teaching and our textbooks. They are the measure of all things.

Isa Engleberg and Dianna Wynn

About the Authors

Isa Engleberg, professor emerita at Prince George’s Community

College in Maryland, is a past president of the National
Communication Association. In addition to writing six col-
lege textbooks in communication studies and publishing more
than three dozen articles in academic journals, she earned the
Outstanding Community College Educator Award from the
National Communication Association and the President’s Medal
from Prince George’s Community College for outstanding teach-
ing, scholarship, and service. Her professional career spans appointments at all
levels of higher education as well as teaching abroad.

Dianna Wynn is a professor at Nash Community College in North

Carolina. Previously she taught at Midland College in Texas and
Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, where stu-
dents chose her as the Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has
co-authored two communication textbooks and written articles in
academic journals. In addition to teaching, she has many years of
experience as a trial consultant, assisting attorneys in developing
effective courtroom communication strategies.

xxxiii
This page intentionally left blank
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN