ME 207/307: Heat Transfer Equipment Design

Concept of Thermal System Design

1
 Engineering Design

• Design is generally regarded as a creative process by which

new methods, devices, and techniques are developed to solve
new or existing problems.

• Due to increasing worldwide competition and the need to

develop new, improved, and more efficient processes and
techniques, a growing emphasis is being placed on design.

• Interest lies in producing new and higher quality products at

minimal cost, while satisfying increasing concerns regarding the
environmental impact and safety.

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 Engineering Design
• It is no longer adequate just to develop a system that performs the desired
task to satisfy a recognized need of the society.

• It is crucial to optimize the process so that a chosen quantity, known as the

objective function, is maximized or minimized. Thus, for a given system, the
output, profit, productivity, product quality, etc., may be maximized, or the
cost per item, investment, energy input, etc., may be minimized.

• The survival and growth of most industries today are strongly dependent on
the design and optimization of the relevant systems.

• For example : with the advent of many new materials, such as composites
and ceramics, and new manufacturing processes, several classical industries,
such as the steel industry, have diminished in importance in the recent years,
while many new fields have emerged.

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 Engineering Design

• It is important to keep abreast of changing trends in these areas

and to use new techniques for product improvement and cost
reduction.

• Even in an expanding engineering area, such as consumer

electronics, the prosperity of a given company is closely linked
with the design and optimization of new processes and systems
and optimization of existing ones.
•
• Consequently, the subject of design, which had always been
important, has become increasingly critical in today’s world and
has also become closely coupled with optimization.

4
 Engineering Design

• In recent years, we have also seen a tremendous growth in the

development and use of thermal systems in which fluid low
and transport of energy play a dominant role.

• These systems arise in many diverse engineering fields such as

those related to manufacturing, power generation, pollution,
air conditioning, and aerospace and automobile engineering.

• Therefore, it has become important to apply design and

optimization methods that traditionally have been applied to
mechanical systems, such as those involved with transmission,
vibrations, controls, and robotics, to thermal systems and
processes.
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 Engineering Design
• One of the most important tasks confronted by
engineers is that of design.

• It may be the design of an individual component, such as a thermostat, low

valve, gear, or spring, or it may be the design of a system, such as a furnace,
air conditioner, or an internal combustion engine, which consists of several
components or constituents interacting with each other.

• The perception of design ranges from the creation of a new device or

process to the routine calculation and presentation of specifications of the
different items that make up a system.

• Design must incorporate some element of creativity and innovation, in

terms of a new and different approach to the solution of an existing
engineering problem that has been solved by other methods or a solution to
a problem not solved before.

• The process by which such new, different, or improved solutions are derived
and applied to engineering problems is termed design.
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 Design Versus Analysis
• Analysis
of engineering problems involves information derived
from basic areas such as statics, dynamics, thermodynamics,
fluid mechanics, and heat transfer.

• The problems considered are often relevant to these disciplines

and little interaction between different disciplines is brought
into play.

• All
the appropriate inputs needed for the problem are usually
given and the results are generally unique and well defined, so
that the solution to a given problem may be carried out to
completion, yielding the final result that satisfies the various
inputs and conditions provided.

• Analysis may be termed as closed-ended.

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Engineering Analysis: Examples

Analytical results for

developed fluid low in a
circular pipe

Analytical results for steady-

state one-dimensional heat
conduction in a flat plate.

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 Design Versus Analysis

• The design process, on the other hand, is open-ended, that is, the results are not
well known or well defined at the onset.

• Theinputs may also be vague or incomplete, making it necessary to seek additional

information or to employ approximations and assumptions.

• There is also usually considerable interaction between various disciplines,

particularly between technical areas and those concerned with cost, safety, and the
environment.

•A unique solution is generally not obtained and one may have to choose from a
range of acceptable solutions. In addition, a solution that satisfies all the
requirements may not be obtained and it may be necessary to relax some of the
requirements to obtain an acceptable solution.

• Therefore, trade-offs generally form a necessary part of design because certain

characteristics of the system may have to be given up in order to achieve some other
goals such as greater cost effectiveness or smaller environmental impact.

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 Thermal Design Problem: Example-1
• Ifthe energy dissipated by the
component is given. the solution is
unique for the given geometry, material
properties, and dimensions.

• Design approach that is finding the

appropriate materials, geometry, and
dimensions so that the temperature Tc in
the component remains below a certain
value, Tmax, in order to ensure
satisfactory performance of the
electronic circuit. This is clearly a much
more involved problem.
• There is no unique answer because
many combinations of materials,
dimensions, geometry, fan capacity, etc.,
may be chosen to satisfy the given
requirement Tc < Tmax.
An electronic component being cooled by
forced convection and by a heat pipe.
• Considerable freedom and flexibility
in choosing the different variables
that characterize the system.
• Thus, open-ended and many
solutions may be obtained to satisfy
the given need and constraints, if
any, on cost, size, dimensions, etc.
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 Thermal Design Problem: Example-2
• Knowledge on the properties of
the material undergoing
solidification and of the various
parts of the system, such as the
mold wall and the insulation, are
given along with the relevant
dimensions, the initial The casting process in an enclosed region.
temperature, and the convective
heat transfer coefficient h at the • Corresponding design problem by
outer surface of the mold, the allowing a choice of the materials and
problem may be solved by dimensions for the mold wall and
analysis or numerical insulation and of the cooling conditions at
computation to determine the the outer surface, in order to reduce the
temperature distributions in the solidification time below a desired value.
solid material, liquid, and various
parts of the system, as well as the • Many combinations of wall material and
rate and total time of thickness, cooling parameters, insulation
solidification for the casting parameters, etc., are possible. Again, there
is no unique solution and, indeed, there is
no guarantee that a solution will be found.
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 Design and Analysis: Difference & Dependency

• An open-ended nature of design

problems that design is often much
more involved than analysis.
Consequently, while extensive
information is available in the
literature on the analysis of various
thermal processes and on the resulting
effects of the governing variables, the
corresponding design problems have
received much less attention.

• Even though design and analysis are very different in their objectives and goals, analysis
usually forms the basis for the design process.

• Itis used to study the behavior of a given system, choose the appropriate variables for
the desired effects, and evaluate various designs, leading to satisfactory and optimized
systems.

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 SYNTHESIS FOR DESIGN

• Synthesis is another key element in the design process, since several

components and their corresponding analyses are brought together to yield
the characteristics of the overall system.

• Results from different areas have to be linked and synthesized in order to

include all of the important concerns that arise in a practical System.

• Information from different types of models, including experimental and

numerical results, and from existing systems are incorporated into the design
process.

• The cost, properties, and characteristics of various materials that may be

employed must also form part of the design effort, since material selection is a
very important factor in obtaining an acceptable or optimal system.

• Additional aspects, such as safety, legal, regulatory, and environmental

considerations, are also synthesized in order to obtain a satisfactory design.
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SYNTHESIS FOR DESIGN

Schematic of a typical design procedure

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 SELECTION VERSUS DESIGN
• In many engineering applications, task of selecting parts in order to assemble a system or
a device that will perform a desired duty is obvious.

• In several cases, the entire equipment may be selected from what is available on the
market, for instance, a heat exchanger, a pump, or a compressor.

• Even though selection is an important ingredient in engineering practice, it is quite

different from designing a component or device.

• Selection largely involves determining the specifications of the item from the
requirements for the given task. Based on these specifications, a choice is made from the
various types of items available with different ratings or features: a process termed as
‘Ratings”.

• Design involves a ‘not so easy process’ starting with a basic concept, modeling and
evaluating different designs, and obtaining a final design that meets the given
requirements and constraints.

• Design is directed at creating a new process or system, whereas selection is concerned

with choosing the right item for a given job. The cost, properties and characteristics of
various materials that may be employed must also form part of design effort, since
material selection is a very important factor in obtaining an acceptable or optimal system15.
 SELECTION VERSUS DESIGN

• Selection and design are frequently employed together in the development of a system,
using selection for components that are easily available over the ranges of interest.

• Standard items such as valves, control sensors, heaters, low meters, and storage tanks
are usually selected from catalogs of available equipment. Similarly, pumps,
compressors, fans, and condensers may be selected, rather than designed, for a given
application. Obviously, design is involved in the development of these components as
well; however, for a given system, the design of these individual components may be
avoided in the interest of time, cost, and convenience.

• Selection is clearly a much less involved process, as compared to design. The

requirements and specifications of the desired component or equipment are matched
with whatever is available. If an item possessing the desired characteristics is not
available, design is needed to obtain one that is acceptable for the given purpose.
Because selection is often used as part of the overall system design, the two terms are
sometimes interchanged.

• Selection of components needed for a system will be considered only as a step in the
design process, particularly during the synthesis of the various parts.

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 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
NEED OR OPPORTUNITY

• Need refers to a specific requirement and implies that a suitable item is not
available and must be developed for the desired purpose. Defining a need or
opportunity is always the first step in an engineering undertaking because it
provides the impetus to develop a product or system.

• The need for a given item may be felt at various levels, ranging from the
consumer and the retailer to the industry itself, and may involve developing a
new system or modifying and improving existing ones.

• The opportunity to move into a new area, develop a new product or system,
substantially increase the quality of an existing item, or significantly reduce the
cost of an item can also form the starting point for an engineering undertaking.
This is particularly true of new materials because the substitution of materials in
existing systems by new or improved materials could lead to substantial
improvement in the system performance and/or reduction in cost.

• The replacement of metal casings in electronic equipment by plastic or ceramic

ones and of metal frames in sports equipment by composites represents such
changes. 17
 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
EVALUATION AND MARKET ANALYSIS

• An important consideration in the

development of a new concept is its
evaluation for economic viability, since profit
is usually the main concern in engineering
undertakings.

• Even if need and opportunity have indicated

that a particular product or system will be
useful and will have a secure market, it is
necessary to determine how big the market is,
what price range it will bear, and what the
possible expenses involved in taking the Typical variation of volume of sales with
concept to completion are. price.

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 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
• FEASIBILITY AND CHANCES OF SUCCESS
• It is important to determine if a
particular enterprise is feasible.

• It is also necessary to evaluate the

chances of success. These considerations
are usually brought in early in the project,
though inputs from research,
development, and design may be needed
to make a reliable judgment. The future of
the project is strongly influenced by the
results obtained from this study.

• Feasibility is most cases are mainly

governed by financial consideration that is
profit. However there are some cases
where other considerations such as
pollution and environmental requirements
are important.
Probability distribution curve for the rate of
return r, along with anticipated change in the
maximum value fmax and the deviation σ with
time 19
 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
• ENGINEERING DESIGN

• Following a detailed market analysis and evaluation of the chances of success and
the feasibility of the undertaking, an engineering design of the system is initiated if all
of these indicators are acceptable.

• Design will determine the specifications of the various components of the system,
often termed system hardware, and also the range of operating conditions that would
yield the desired outputs for satisfying the perceived need or opportunity. Thus,
design involves a consideration of the technical details of the basic concept and
creation of a new or improved process or system for the specified task.

• The design process starts with the basic concept; then models and analyzes various
constituents of the system; synthesizes information on materials, existing systems, and
results from different models; evaluates the design with respect to performance.

• Finally communicates the design specifications for fabrication and prototype

development. As part of the design of the system, the effort may also involve the
selection of components that are easily available rather than designing these, as
discussed earlier. Safety and environmental considerations usually form part of the
design process. 20
 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation

• RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Frequently, the information needed for design and optimization is not readily
available and the research and development division of the company is employed to
obtain this information from the literature on relevant processes and systems and
from independent detailed investigations of the basic aspects involved. The research
and development group normally interacts with most engineering activities within
the company and provides inputs at various stages of product or system
development.

• NEED FOR OPTIMIZATION

It is no longer sufficient to develop a workable system that performs the desired task
while staying within the constraints imposed by safety, environmental, economic,
and other such considerations. Due to the growing worldwide competition and need
to increase efficiency, it has become essential to optimize the process in order to
maximize or minimize a chosen variable. This variable is generally known as the
objective function and may be related to quantities such as profit, cost, product
quality, and output.
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 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
FABRICATION, TESTING, AND PRODUCTION

• The final stages in an engineering enterprise, before proceeding to

advertising, promotion, and sales, are the fabrication and testing of a
prototype of the designed system and production of the system in the desired
quantities for sale.

• The outputs from the design process must be communicated to the

appropriate technical facilities in order to fabricate, operate, and test the
system. This communication may include many items such as engineering
drawings to indicate the dimensions and tolerances, design specifications,
particulars of selected components, ranges of operating conditions, chosen
materials, power and space requirements, details of waste and energy
disposal, system control strategy, and safety measures.

• The information provided must be detailed enough to allow the machine

shop and other relevant facilities to proceed with fabrication of the system
prototype.
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 Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation
• FABRICATION, TESTING, AND PRODUCTION
• Once the prototype is obtained, it is subjected to extensive testing over the expected
range of operating conditions. Accelerated tests may be carried out to study the
reliability of the system over its expected life.

• Conditions much worse than expected in normal use are usually employed for such
performance tests. For instance, an air conditioner or a refrigerator may be kept on for
several days to test if it can survive such a punishing use. A car engine may be run at
speeds higher than the recommended range to simulate variations in real life and to
determine how much overload the system can safely withstand. In some cases, the
temperature, speed, pressure, etc., are raised until permanent damage occurs in order
to determine the maximum safe levels for the system.

• Following prototype development and testing, the system goes into production.
Existing facilities are modified or new ones procured to mass produce the product or
system. Economic considerations play a very important role in the development of the
production facilities needed.

• The mass production of the product is also closely coupled with its marketing, which
involves advertising, promotion, and sales.
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Design Steps: From Thinking to Implementation

Schematic of
design as part of
an engineering
enterprise

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ME 207/307: Heat Transfer Equipment Design

Thermal System Design Parameters

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 THERMAL SYSTEMS DESIGN
• Design - Process of devising a component, a subsystem, a system, and a
process to meet desired needs. Following types of design are common in
thermo-fluid science:
• Process Design: The manipulation of physical and/or chemical processes
to meet desired needs. Example: introduce boiling or condensation to
increase heat transfer rates.

• System Design: The process of defining the components and their

assembly to function to meet a specific requirement. Examples: (a) Steam
turbine power plant system consists of turbines, pumps, pipes and heat
exchangers, (b) Hot water heating system, complete with boilers.

• Subsystem Design: The process of defining and assembling a small group

of components to do a specified function. Example: Pump/piping system
of a large power plant. The pump/piping system is a subsystem of the
larger power plant system used to transport water to and from the boiler
or steam generator.

• Component Design: Development of a piece of equipment or device. 26

 Analysis of Thermal Systems
• Different types of systems arise in engineering design depending on the
main features that characterize these systems.

• Systems that involve a consideration of thermal sciences to a significant

extent in their analysis and characterization are termed as thermal systems
– include areas such as heat transfer, thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and
mass transfer.

• The analysis of thermal systems is often complicated because of the

complex nature of fluid low and of heat and mass transfer mechanisms that
govern these systems.

• The focus in thermal systems is on the transport of energy., particularly

thermal energy, and fluid flow and mass transport are important additional
ingredients in these systems.

27
Thermal Systems Analysis: Characteristics
• Time-dependent
• Multidimensional
• Nonlinear mechanisms
• Complex geometries
• Complicated boundary conditions
• Coupled transport phenomena
• Turbulent low
• Change in phase and material structure
• Energy losses and irreversibility
• Variable material properties
• Influence of ambient conditions
• Variety of energy sources
28
 THERMAL SYSTEM: TYPES

• Thermal systems are important in a wide variety of engineering fields and

disciplines.
• Several different ways of classifying thermal systems may be employed
because of their diversity. A common method is in terms of the function
or application of the system.

Manufacturing and Materials Processing Systems

• Examples include processes such as casting, crystal growing, heat

treatment, metal forming, drying, soldering and welding, laser and gas
cutting, plastic extrusion and injection molding, powder metallurgy, optical
fiber drawing, ceramics, and glass processing.

• Also included are food processing systems as well as common household

appliances such as ovens and cooking ranges.
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 plastic screw extrusion

Continuous casting,

30
 Hot Rolling

Optical Fiber Drawing

31
 Energy Systems
• Examples of energy systems include power plants, solar energy utilization,
geothermal energy systems, energy storage, solar ponds, and conventional and
nonconventional energy conversion systems.

• Most of these systems are covered in thermodynamics courses and are often treated
as steady, lumped systems.

Solar Power system Nuclear Power system 32

 Cooling Systems for Electronic Equipment
• Systems that are of interest in this area include air cooling, liquid
immersion, heat pipes, heat sinks, heat removal by boiling, and microscale
systems.
• This is one of those areas where
thermal considerations are
extremely important for the
satisfactory performance of the
system even though the main
application is in a different area.
Thus, electronic systems, such as Forced air cooling
computers, televisions, digital
multimeters, and signal conditioners,
are used for a variety of applications,
most of which are not directly
connected with fluid low and heat
transfer.

Liquid immersion cooling 33

 Environmental and Safety Systems
• Examples of these systems include arrangements for heat rejection to
ambient air and water, control of thermal and air pollution, cooling towers,
incinerators, waste disposal, water treatment plants, smoke and temperature
control systems, and fire extinguishing systems.

• The growing concern with the environmental impact of waste and energy
disposal, including global warming and depletion of the ozone layer, has
made it essential to minimize the effect on our environment by developing
new and improved methods for disposal.

• These include systems based on fluids that would substitute refrigerants like
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) that adversely affect the ozone layer, improved
incineration techniques for solid waste disposal, catalytic converters in
automobiles to reduce harmful emissions, and scrubbers in power plants to
reduce pollutants.

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 Heat rejection system of thermal power system

FIre Accident

35
 Aerospace Systems

• Many thermal systems in aerospace applications are of interest here. Some of the
common ones are gas turbines, rockets, combustors, and cooling systems.

• This has been a particularly important area over the last three decades because of
the space program. Considerable progress has been made on the various thermal
systems and subsystems that are needed. Because of the large thrust needed at rocket
launch and high cooling rates during reentry, much of the effort in designing efficient
systems has been directed at these two stages.

• In spacecraft design, the function of thermal control system (TCS) is to keep all the
spacecraft’s component system within acceptable temperature ranges during all
mission phases. It must cope with the external environment, which can vary in a wide
range as the spacecraft is exposed to deep space or to solar or planetary flux, and
with ejecting to space the internal heat generated by the operation of the spacecraft
itself.

• However, cooling, air conditioning, and electronic and energy systems during orbit,
as well as for a space station, have their own requirements and challenges.
36
 Transportation Systems
• Most of the relevant systems in this area are thermal in nature. These include internal
combustion engines such as spark ignition and diesel engines; steam engines; fuel cells;
and modern automobile, airplane, and train engines.

• This is an extensive field, closely associated with different kinds of thermal systems.
Though a traditional mechanical engineering field, this area has seen many significant
changes in recent years, most of these being related to the optimization of existing
systems.

• New systems have also evolved in response to the need for higher efficiency, size that
is more compact, greater safety, and lower costs.

37
 Air Conditioning, Refrigeration, and Heating Systems

• Several different thermal systems are associated with this application,

which is of considerable interest to us in our daily lives. These include vapor
compression and vapor absorption cooling systems, heat pumps, ice and food
freezing plants, gas, oil, and water heating systems, and refrigerators.

• Even though this field has been around for a long time, the need for more
efficient, dependable, and safe systems, at lower cost, has led to many
improvements.

• In particular, better design of the main components such as the compressor

and the condenser, better control of the system, and better design of the
overall system to minimize losses have resulted in reduced energy
consumption and lower costs.

38
 Fluid Flow Systems and Equipment
• These include components and fluid low circuits such as pipe lows,
hydraulics, hydrodynamics, fluidics, turbines, pumps, compressors, fans, and
blowers.

• Many of these are auxiliary subsystems to the main thermal systems and
may be used for control; power transmission; cooling; and transport of
mass, energy, and momentum.

39
 Heat Transfer Equipment
• Equipment includes heat exchangers, condensers, boilers, furnaces, ovens,
hot water baths, and heaters.

• Heat transfer equipment often forms part of the various other applications
such as condensers and boilers may be part of a power system. Similarly,
furnaces may be regarded as constituents in a heat treatment system.

Alternative Approach for Classification of Thermal Systems

According to the three main stages undergone by thermal energy

• Generation: Solar, geothermal, nuclear and oil-fired power systems,

combustors, engines, energy conversion systems, turbines, boilers, and
chemical reactors

• Utilization: Manufacturing, car engines, airplanes, and rockets

• Rejection: Heat removal, pollution, waste disposal, electronic systems, air

conditioning, heat pumps, cooling towers, and radiators
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 FORMULATION OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM
• We must determine what is required of the system, what is given or fixed,
and what may be varied to obtain a satisfactory design.

• The final design obtained must meet all the requirements, while satisfying
any constraints or limitations due to safety, environmental, economic,
material, and other considerations.

• The design process depends on the problem statement, as does the

evaluation of the design.

• Complete Design Formulation includes:

• Requirements and specifications
• Given quantities
• Design Variables
• Limitations or constraints
• Safety, environmental, and other considerations

41
 FORMULATION OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM
• System Requirements
It is necessary to express the requirements quantitatively and to determine
the permitted variation, or tolerance level.

In the design of thermal systems, common requirements concern

temperature distributions and variations with time, heat transfer rates,
temperature levels, and low rates.

Required temperature variation, with an envelope of acceptable variation, for the

thermal process of annealing of a given material. 42
 FORMULATION OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM
• System Specifications

• The system designed on the basis of the given requirements can be

described in terms of its main characteristics. These form the product design
specifications, which list the requirements met by the system and the outputs
from the design process that characterize the system.

• The final specifications of the system may include the performance

characteristics; expected life of the system; recommended maintenance,
weight, size, safety features; and environmental requirements.

• For instance, the specifications of a heat exchanger could be the overall heat
transfer rate for given fluids and its dimensions. For a water chilling system,
these could be the lowest attainable temperature and the corresponding flow
rate and power consumption.

• The specifications of the system are, thus, the means of communication

between the consumer and the designer/manufacturer.
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 DESIGN VARIABLES
• The design variables are the quantities that may be varied in the system in
order to satisfy the given requirements.
• Hardware
This includes the components of the system, dimensions, materials, geometrical
configuration, and other quantities that constitute the hardware of the system.
Varying these parameters generally entails changes in the fabrication and
assembly of the system.

• Operating Conditions
These refer to quantities that can often be varied relatively easily, over specified
ranges, without changing the hardware of the given system, such as the settings
for temperature, flow rate, pressure, speed, power input, etc.

• Constraints or Limitations
The design must also satisfy various constraints or limitations in order to be
acceptable. These constraints generally arise due to material, weight, cost,
availability, and space limitations. The maximum pressure and temperature to
which a given component may be subjected are limited by the properties of its
material.
44
An air-conditioning system is to be designed for a residential building. The
interior of the building is to be maintained at a temperature of 22 ± 50 C. The
ambient temperature can go as high as 380 C and the rate of heat dissipated in
the house is given as 2.0 kW. The location, geometry, and dimensions of the
building are given. Formulate the design problem and give the problem
statement.

Given: Maximum ambient temperature, which is 380C, and the rate of energy input due to
activities in the house, specified as 2.0 kW. The location, geometry, and dimensions.
Requirements: Temperature inside the house must be maintained within 170 C–270C. In
typical cases the rate of cooling or response time τr is also a requirement.
Constraints: Limitations on size, volume, weight, and cost of air conditioner. Also on
maximum air low rate circulating in the house.
Design variables: Systems parts, such as condenser, evaporator, compressor, and throttling
valve. Also, the refrigerant may be taken as a design variable.
45
 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

• At the very core of any design activity lies the basic concept for the process
or the system.

• Conceptual design is a creative process, though it may range from

something innovative, representing an invention or a new approach not
employed before, to modifications in existing systems.

• The design effort starts with the selection of a conceptual design, which is
initially expressed in vague terms as a method that might satisfy the given
requirements and constraints.

• Sometimes, these are simply back-of-the-envelope calculations that yield

the overall inputs, outputs, expected ranges, etc. Such estimates allow the
design group to narrow down the selection of the conceptual design to a few
possible approaches.

46
 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
• For the soldering problem sketched in the figure below consider different
heating strategies to obtain a conceptual design for the condensation
process.

47
 Conceptual Design : Soldering Facility
Requirements
• Rapid heating
• Even heating of board materials
• No damage to materials by overheating
• Electrically insulating environment
• Clean, nontoxic medium

Heating of the solid solder perform by forced convection and thermal radiation.48
Conceptual Design : Condensation Soldering Facility

A possible conceptual design for a condensation soldering facility

49
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS

50
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS

51
 MATERIAL SELECTION

• The choice of materials for the various parts of the system has become an
extremely important consideration in recent years because of the availability
of a wide range of materials, because material cost is a substantial portion of
the overall cost, and because the performance of the system can often be
substantially improved by material substitution.

• Many different types of materials are available for engineering applications.

These may be classified in terms of the following broad categories:
• Metals and alloys
• Ceramics
• Polymers
• Composite materials
• Liquids and gases
• Other materials

52
 Different types of
materials used in
engineering systems

53
54
Material Properties and Characteristics for Thermal Systems

• Thermal conductivity, k
• Specific heat, C
• Density, ρ
• Viscosity, μ
• Latent heat during phase change, hsl or hfg
• Temperature for phase change, Tmp or Tbp
• Coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion, α
• Mass diffusivity, DAB

55
 SELECTION AND SUBSTITUTION OF MATERIALS
• Factors involved in the selection of a suitable material in the design of a
thermal system are:
• Satisfactory thermal properties
• Manufacturability
• Static, fatigue, and fracture characteristics
• Availability
• Cost
• Resistance to temperature and corrosion
• Environmental effects
• Electric, magnetic, chemical, and other properties

• Material selection is not an easy process because of the many

considerations that need to be taken into account. These lead to a variety of
constraints, many of which may be conflicting. Though cost is an important
parameter in the selection, it is not the only one. We want to choose the
best material for a given application while satisfying many constraints.

56
 SELECTION AND SUBSTITUTION OF MATERIALS
• The basic procedure for material selection may be described in terms of
the following steps.
• Determination of material requirements
• Consideration of available materials
• Selecting a group of possible materials
• Study of material performance
• Selection of best material

• Material selection is an involved process and is somewhat similar to the

iterative design process discussed earlier for thermal systems.

• Several options are considered and the best one is chosen based on
available property data and material characteristics.

• Expert systems may also be used to help in this selection process by

bringing in existing expert knowledge on materials and information on
current practice.

57
 SELECTION AND SUBSTITUTION OF MATERIALS

• In several applications, plastics, ceramics, and composite materials have

recently replaced metals and alloys.

• Plastics are now used for most containers and housings because of lower
weight and cost involved.

• Similarly, composite materials lead to improvements over metals in many of

their important characteristics, while keeping the cost lower.

• Thus, substantial improvements in system performance and reduction in

costs are obtained by material substitution.

58
Risk, Reliability and Safety

59
 Definition of Risk, Reliability and Safety

• Risk is usually defined as the probability or the frequency of

occurrence of a hazard or damage to human, infrastructure, property or
environment.

• Reliability refers to the ability of a product to perform its specified

function under service conditions. In other words, reliability can be
depicted as the probability that an item will perform appropriately for a
specified time period under a given service condition. For example, a
reliability of 0.997 for a typical part implies that there is a probability of
failure (an inverse of reliability) of 3 parts in every 1000 parts.

• Safety is referred to the relative protection from exposure to hazards.

60
 Risk Assessment
• A product is considered safe if the risks associated with the product are
assessed to be acceptable.

• The risk assessment often involves the determination of the frequency

of the occurrence of a specified hazard and a conclusion on the
acceptability of the hazard. Alternately, the levels of risk can be
classified as:

• Tolerable Risk - This level of risk is usually accepted while a

constant review of its cause and ways to reduce the same is the
must.

• Acceptable Risk - This level of risk is also acceptable and does not
need immediate attention.

• Unacceptable Risk - This level of risk is deemed to be

Unacceptable.

61
 Why System Fails??

Failure of any system occurs due to the fact that frequency

distribution of system state overlaps with the frequency
distribution of material property, i.e. in some case local
stress is higher that yield strength.

Pf = P(σ > σy)

R = 1.0 - Pf
62
 Quantify Reliability
• Reliability can be defined as the probability that a system, component, or
device will perform without failure for a specified period of time under a
given operating conditions. If R(t) and F(t) are respectively is the Reliability
and the Probability of failure with respect to time t, and are mutually
exclusive, we can write:
R(t) + F(t)=1.0
Furthermore, considering a typical test for reliability with N, number of
parts, and Ns (t) and Nf (t) are respectively the number of parts surviving
and failing till time t, we can write:

Ns (t) + Nf (t) = N0
Ns (t ) N f (t )
+ = 1.0
N0 N0
N s (t ) N f (t )
R(t) + F(t)=1.0 ; R(t ) = , F (t ) =
N0 N0
R(t) = 1.0 - F(t)

63
 Quantify Reliability

• Instantaneous failure rate (h) can be envisages as the number of failures

per unit time for the total number of parts exposed during time t and given
as:
h(t)= dNF (t) 1
dt N0(t)
• In a statistical form, the Instantaneous failure rate, h(t), can be envisages
as the probability that a given test item has survived till time t1 and would
fall between time interval t1 and t1 +dt1, and can be expressed as-

f (t) f (t) dR(t )

h(t ) = = = P(t1  t  t1 + dt1 ) = −h(t )dt
1− F (t) R(t) R(t )
dF (t) = d1− R(t) = dR(t )
f (t) = ln R(t )= −  h(t )dt
t
dt dt dt 0
dR(t )
R(t ) = exp −  h(t )dt
t
dR (t )  0 
h(t)= dt ; = −h(t )R(t )
R(t) dt 64
 Quantify Reliability

dR(t )
= −h(t )dt
R(t )
ln R(t )= −  h(t )dt
t

R(t ) = exp −  h(t )dt

t

 0 
forcons tan t" FailureRate" say
dF (t) dR(t )
h(t ) = Const =  = =
dt dt
R(t ) = exp(− t )

65
Characteristic Failure Rate Curve: The Bathtub Curve

66
Characteristic Failure Rate Curve for different systems

Electrical Systems
Mechanical Systems

Digital/IT Systems

67
 Quantify Reliability
With respect to the reliability of components, mean life of a part or
component refers to the average life a specified number of components
which is measured over the entire span of their life.

• The mean time to failure (MTTF) refers to the sum of survival time (up
time) for all the components put under test divided by the number of
components, which are failed.
•
For example, assume the testing of 3 identical systems starting from time 0
until all of them failed. The first system failed at 23 hours, the second failed
at 26 hours and the third failed at 20 hours. The MTTF is the average of the
three failure times, which is 23 hours.

68
 Quantify Reliability
The Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) refers to the mean or average time
between two successive component failures.

MTBF is usually applied to a group of similar equipment, for example all the
pumps in a refinery. If there are 40 operating pumps with a total of 23
failures over one month, the MTBF during that month is calculated as
(40/23) or 1.74 months.

For a single item, MTBF is just the time period/number of failures. For
example, if a pump fails thrice in one month, the MTBF would be 1/3 = 0.33
months

Forcons tan t" FailureRate",   

MTTF = t mean =  tf (t )dt = 0 R(t)dt =
1
R(t ) = exp(− t ) 0 
F (t) = 1− R(t ) = 1− exp(− t ) MTTF MTBF = t mean =
1

dF (t ) dR(t ) R(t) = exp(− t / tmean )
f (t) = =− =  exp(− t )
dt dt 69
 System Reliability
The overall reliability of a typical mechanical or any system will be governed
by the reliability of the individual components.

Series configuration

In series configuration elements or components are arranged in a series.

Figure shows a system consisting of 'n' units which are connected in series.
For the successful operation of the system it is necessary that all 'n' units
function satisfactorily. If the successful operation of each unit is independent
of the successful operation of the remaining units (for example heat
dissipated by the first unit which may be a resistor should not affect the
performance of remaining units), then system reliability is expressed as
follows:

Rsystem = R1  R2  R3..... Rn
70
 Series Reliability

R(t ) = R1  R2 ..... Rn (t )
= exp(− 1t )exp(− 2t )......exp(− nt )
= exp− (1 + 2 +.....+ n )t
= exp− nt
 = n
Example:
The influence of the number of elements can be illustrated on several systems where
all components have the same probability of failure Ft = 0.02; the
corresponding reliability Rt 0.98. What will be the reliability of a system composed of
(a) 2 components, (b) 10 components, (c) 50 components, and (d) 200 components?
71
 Parallel Reliability

Parallel configuration
In parallel configuration elements or components are arranged in a parallel.
Figure shows a system consisting of n units which are connected in parallel. In
parallel configuration, satisfactory functioning of any one of the elements leads
the successful operation of the system. If 'n' elements are identical and
independent of one another, then, The probability of a simultaneous
occurrence of mutually independent events equals the product of individual
probabilities. In parallel systems, the resultant probability of failure is thus
calculated as:

Fsystem = F1  F2  F3........ Fn
Rsystem = 1− Fsystem
= 1− F1  F2  F3....... Fn
= 1− (1− R1 ) (1− R2 ).... (1− Rn )

72
 Parallel Reliability
For 2 component system with parallel configuration
R 1 (t ) = e x p ( − 1t ); R 2 (t ) = e x p ( −  2 t )
R ( t ) = 1 − F (t )
= 1 − F1 (t )  F 2 (t )
= 1 − 1− R 1 (t ) 1− R 2 (t )
= 1 − 1− ex p ( − 1t ) 1− ex p ( −  2 t )
R ( t ) = ex p ( −  1 t ) + ex p ( −  2 t ) − ex p (  1 +  2 )t
R ( t )dt =  1 − ( 1 +  2 )


 + 
−1 −1 −1
MTTF = 0 2

if1 =  2 = 
3 −1 3
MTTF =  = MTTF c
2 2

50% longer system MTTF than the

individual component’s MTTF
73
 Parallel Reliability

Example
Calculate the resultant probability of failure (F) and failure-free operation (R) for
a combined series-parallel system. Assume that the components are
independent. The failure probabilities of individual elements are:

F1 = 0.08,
F2 = 0.30,
F3 = 0.20, and
F4 = 0.10.

74
Requisiteness of Reliability of Product

• Reputation
• Customer Satisfaction
• Warranty Costs
• Repeat Business
• Cost Analysis
• Customer Requirements
• Competitive Advantage

75
 Difference between Quality and Reliability

Even though a product has a reliable design with all checks from the
point of view of design for quality, its reliability in service can be
unsatisfactory that can be attributed to inappropriate manufacturing
process and / or the quality of the material used. So, even though
the product has a reliable design, it is effectively unreliable when
fielded, which is actually the result of a substandard manufacturing
process and/or due to poor quality of material used for the
manufacturing of the product.

76
 Design for Reliability
Design for reliability is a process which is performed during the design of the
product so as to ensure that the product is able to perform to a required level
of reliability. Traditionally, the reliability achieved is the outcome of-

• The reliability that naturally accompanies with the design required for the
product, and
• The reliability that come due to standard and historic practices followed
by the design and manufacturing units

Previously design practices tend to focus on mainly on functionality and

robustness or product integrity. In developing the design for the products, the
following characteristics are usually missed:

(a) key failure modes and failure rate of the product

(b) key failure mechanisms that may be present in the service environment
(c) usable life of the product
(d) cost of maintenance required to maintain the inherent reliability
(e) availability, and
(f) rigorous testing.
77
 Key Elements of Design for Reliability
Some of the key elements for design for reliability is as follows.

Concurrent Engineering
Concurrent engineering is a feature that ensures the design is not completed
before reliability requirements are identified and dealt with.

Configuration Design
The physical configuration is the key important characteristic that determines
the reliability of an asset. Depending on the severity of the product service
and the maximum economic reliability of available components present in the
product, it may be necessary to build redundancy into some locations.

Component Selection
The second important characteristic that determines reliability is the choice of
components that make the product. Components with better load bearing
ability rather than cheap components should be considered as better option.

78
 Key Elements of Design for Reliability
Some of the key elements for design for reliability is as follows.

Design and Build

It is possible to create a strong configuration and select robust components, and still
produce a product that is unreliable. There are design and assembly practices like use
of protective grommets at points of wear, use of strain relief at bends, or changes in
direction that ensure the configuration and components deliver the desired reliability.

Verification and Performance Testing

The final assembled product may not always perform as expected. Interactions between
dynamic components can produce unexpected effects. As a result, it is necessary to
verify that the assembled product functions as expected. It is also essential to simulate
the wear and tear that represents an entire life using accelerated testing.

Customer Needs

The product must be designed not only based on functionality but also considering the
customer needs.
79
 Ways to Improve Reliability by Design
Various techniques are used by the design team to improve reliability. The work of the
design department is not finished even after the designs are released to-

Reducing variability

Mechanical properties of engineering material exhibit variability. Fracture and fatigue

properties show greater variability that the yield strength and the tensile strength.
Conservative design values of material properties are essential so as to obtain design
of a reliable product. Variability in the material property had a huge impact on the
probability of the failure of product hence affecting the reliability of the product too.
The probability of failure can be reduced if without changing the mean value of the
material properties if we could reduce the variability in the properties.

Derating

The reliability of the product can be increased if their maximum operating conditions
(temperature, pressure, etc) are at values lower than their nameplate values. This
reduces the probability of failure and increases the reliability of the product.

80
 Ways to Improve Reliability by Design
Redundancy

One of the most efficient ways to increase reliability is with redundancy. Components
that are critical are duplicated such that two or more of them may exist in parallel to
perform the same function within the product thus increasing the reliability of the
product. The existence of parallel paths results in load sharing and each duplicate
component is derated and has its life increased by a longer than the average time.
Another way to increase the redundancy is by having a standby unit that cuts in and
takes over when the current operating unit fails. The unit should be provided by
sensors and switching mechanisms to sense the failure and to place the unit in service.
The sensors and the switching mechanisms are the weak links in a standby redundant
system.

Durability

The material selection and the design details should be finalized with the objective of
producing a product that is resistant to degradation from factors like corrosion, erosion,
fatigue, wear, etc. This usually requires selection of high performance material which
can be expensive so as to increase service life and reduce the maintenance cost. Such
decisions can be justified by using techniques like life cycle costing and so on.
81
 Ways to Improve Reliability by Design
Ease of inspection
It is very essential that cracks or any other flaws are identified when they occur in the
product. Ideally it should be possible to perform various visual methods for detections of
such cracks or other flaws, but special design features may have to be provided in order
to ensure this. The product should be designed in such a way that it is capable for ready
inspection.

Simplicity
Simplification of the component and the product reduces the chances for failure and
errors and increases the reliability.

Specificity
The greater the level of specificity, the higher will be the inhere reliability of the design.
Specifying standard components for the product increases the reliability. It means the
component being used has a history and their reliability is known.

Replacement
Whenever it is required to use components with high failure rates the design should
specifically take care for the ease of replacement of such component.
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