Final Group Project Report

Weight Reduction of Engineering Products with Special

Reference to Single Cylinder Engines

MENG 4208-02
Selection of Materials & Processes for Design

Prepared by:
Danny Ayoub (ID: 900182278)
Lama Abouelseoud (ID: 900194284)
Mrwan Thabet (ID: 900192940)
Ola Haiba (ID: 900191339)
Youssef Hermina (ID: 900193482)

Presented to:
Dr. Mahmoud Farag
December 12, 2023
Fall 2023
I have participated in the discussion and performed a fair share of the load for this assignment.
Abstract
This report focuses on the weight reduction of the connecting rod and piston of a portable
water pump. Initially, the applications of the single internal combustion engines are explored.
This study then delves into internal combustion engine driven water pumps, and specifically the
centrifugal water pump. The specifications, materials and types and applications of the
centrifugal water pump were discussed in detail as well as the advantages of having an internal
combustion engine in the water pump. The connecting service conditions, performance
requirements, materials and manufacturing process of the connecting rod and piston were
analyzed in depth. To further improve the efficiency and performance of the engine we proposed
an optimized design on SolidWorks aimed at reducing the weight of both components with the
use of finite element analysis (FEA) on ANSYS. The proposed design of both components were
further examined to ensure that they still meet minimum strength and durability requirements.
The results have shown that the weight of the connecting rod and piston could be reduced up to
0.24% and 16.4% , respectively.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 5
2. Portable Water Pumps 7
2.1 Background 7
2.2 Types and Uses 7
2.3 Centrifugal Water Pumps 8
2.3.1 Specifications 8
2.3.2 Materials Used 9
2.3.3 Applications 9
2.3.4 Advantages of Internal Combustion Engine in Water Pumps 10
2.3.5 Sketch 10
3. Internal Combustion Engine Parts 11
3.1 Background 11
3.2 Connecting Rod 13
3.2.1 Parts of a Connecting Rod 13
3.2.2 Function of a Connecting Rod 14
3.2.3 Service Conditions & Performance Requirements 14
3.2.4 Materials Used 15
3.2.5 Manufacturing Processes 15
3.2.6 Sketch 17
3.3 Piston 17
3.3.1 Parts of a Piston 17
3.3.2 Function of a Piston 18
3.3.3 Service Conditions & Performance Requirements 18
3.3.4 Material Used 19
3.3.5 Manufacturing Process 20
3.3.6 Sketch 21
4. Weight Reduction 22
4.1 Connecting Rod 22
4.2 Piston 25
5. Infographic 29
6. Conclusion 30
7. References 31

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Single Internal Combustion Engine 5

Figure 2: Single Internal Combustion Engine in a Motorcycle 6

Figure 3: Honda WT30X Medium Sized (6.5 hp) Portable Water Pump 8

Figure 4: Sketch of a Medium-Sized Pump (6.5 hp) 10

Figure 5: Section Sketch of a Medium-Sized Pump (6.5 hp) 11

Figure 6: Parts of a Single Internal Combustion Engine 12

Figure 7: Labeled Connecting Rod 13

Figure 8: Sketch of 6.5 hp Portable Water Pump’s Connecting Rod 17

Figure 9: Labeled Piston 18

Figure 10: Sketch of a 6.5 hp Portable Water Pump’s Piston 21

Figure 11: The Designed SolidWorks Model of the Connecting Rod 22

Figure 12: One-millimeter Mesh FEM Connecting Rod Model on ANSYS 22

Figure 13: Equivalent (Von-mises) Stress Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod 23

Figure 14: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod 23

Figure 15: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod 24

Figure 16: Equivalent Stress Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design 24

Figure 17: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design 24

Figure 18: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design 25

Figure 19: The Designed SolidWorks Model of the Piston 25

Figure 20: 5-millimeter Mesh FEM Piston Model on ANSYS 26

Figure 21: Equivalent (Von-mises) Stress Obtained on ANSYS of Piston 26

Figure 22: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of Piston 27

Figure 23: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of Piston 27

Figure 24: Equivalent Stress Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design 28

Figure 25: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design 29

Figure 26: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design 29

Figure 27: Infographic 30

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 1. Introduction
The single-cylinder engine, a foundational component in the domain of internal
combustion engines as portrayed in Figure 1, stands as a testament to simplicity, efficiency, and
adaptability. Essentially, a single cylinder, cylinder block, cylinder head, piston, connecting rod,
crankshaft, camshaft, valves, timing belt/chain, spark plug, flywheel, fuel injection system,
ignition system, lubrication system, and other related parts are what define a single-cylinder
engine's simplistic design. The complex dynamics matched between the cylinder and piston
define the four-stroke cycle, which consists of the intake, compression, ignition, and exhaust
stages. The engine's power generation is based on this well-structured series of reciprocating
motion, which is supported by the principles of precision engineering [1].

Figure 1: Single Internal Combustion Engine [1]

Thermodynamics must be explored in order to fully understand the mechanics of

combustion in a single-cylinder engine. The fuel-air mixture is carefully burned to release
energy, which is then transformed into mechanical work. In order to maximize combustion
efficiency, engineers carefully consider variables like compression ratio and thermal efficiency
when designing combustion chambers and fuel systems. Finding a balance between fuel
consumption, pollutants, and power production is essential to this technical fulfillment [2].

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 While often associated with smaller applications like motorcycles, as shown in Figure 2,
the single-cylinder engine finds a wide range of uses. Its versatility includes applications in
snowmobiles, small boats, water pumps, lawnmowers, agricultural machinery, go-karts and
off-road vehicles, portable construction equipment, and portable generators. Given its
affordability, dependability, and ease of maintenance, this engine type is favored in situations
where there are constraints on space and reliability concerns [3].

Figure 2: Single Internal Combustion Engine in a Motorcycle [3]

The single-cylinder engine has drawbacks despite its benefits. Inherent vibration and
imbalance requires sophisticated counterbalancing mechanisms. Engineers continually innovate
to address these challenges, incorporating electronic fuel injection, variable valve timing, and
advanced engine management systems. These innovations enhance combustion control, fuel
efficiency, and overall performance, aligning single-cylinder engines with contemporary
standards of sustainability [4]. One of the foundations of contemporary engineering is the
single-cylinder engine. Its seemingly simple design hides a level of complexity that engineers
find fascinating. The single-cylinder engine is a great example of the continuous legacy of
innovation and adaptation in the field of internal combustion, regardless of its application.

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 2. Portable Water Pumps
2.1 Background
Internal combustion (IC) engine-driven water pumps, in particular, are essential
engineering solutions that make fluid management easier in a range of situations. The product in
question, portable water pumps, has a variety of uses, including emergency flood control,
agricultural irrigation, and off-grid water supply in areas without easy access to electricity [5].
The strong and small design of portable water pumps is usually powered by a single-cylinder
internal combustion engine. The device can extract water from a source and release it to a
designated area through the use of an engine and an effective pump mechanism. These pumps
are engineered for durability and mobility, often mounted on sturdy frames with handles for ease
of transportation [6].

2.2 Types and Uses

Internal combustion engine-driven water pumps are a flexible option for a range of uses,
including drainage, firefighting, dewatering, irrigation, and flooding control. Types of portable
water pumps mainly include: centrifugal water pumps, diaphragm water pumps, submersible
water pumps, high-pressure fire pumps, and axial flow pumps. Centrifugal water pumps,
commonly used for dewatering, irrigation, and construction applications, operate via the
utilization of a centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to move water from one point
to another. Diaphragm pumps are advantageous as they can handle solids in the moving water, in
addition they are suitable for applications which require a positive displacement pump. In
contrast, submersible water pumps are immersed in bodies of water and are often used in
draining flooded areas. High-pressure fire pumps are also another type of pumps that is
commonly used by emergency response and firefighting teams to deliver high pressure water
streams. Lastly, axial flow pumps are designed for high flow and low-head applications as they
move bodies of water parallel to the pump axis [7].

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 2.3 Centrifugal Water Pumps

2.3.1 Specifications
The focus will be limited to portable centrifugal water pumps as they are the most
commonly used type of pump covering the widest range of applications. The portable centrifugal
water pump comes in a variety of sizes, typically ranging from 500 to 1500 mm in length, 300 to
900 mm in width, and 300 to 800 mm in height. Furthermore, its engine power ranges from 2 to
20 hp, providing a discharge ranging from 20 to 350 meter-cubed per hour, and a head ranging
from 10 to 40 m [8]. Small sized portable water pumps, ranging from 2 to 6 hp, have a weight
ranging from 20 to 40 kg [9]. Medium sized portable pumps, have a range of 7 to 12 hp, and
weigh from 40 to 60 kg [8]. Large sized portable pumps, ranging from 13 to 20 hp, have a weight
range of 60 to 100 kg [8]. Although small and large-sized portable pumps are noted to vary in
technical specifications, it was shown that Honda and Wacker Neuson both classify
medium-sized commercial and residential water pumps with technical specifications of 4-stroke
engine, 6.5 hp, 192 meters cubed per hour discharge, 26 m head which are found in the Honda
WT30X and the Wacker Neuson PS40 models respectively [8]. The Honda WT30X model is
shown in Figure 3 [9].

Figure 3: Honda WT30X Medium Sized (6.5 hp) Portable Water Pump [8]

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 2.3.2 Materials Used
According to ISO 228/1, the pump body's material composition is typically cast iron
treated with an epoxy electrocoating and threaded ports. The pump's impeller, which is its central
component, is constructed of AISI 304 Stainless Steel. In order to perform the difficult task of
impelling the water, this complex component needs to be adjusted in terms of strength, wear
resistance, and corrosion resistance. Since stainless steel AISI 4140 has a high strength and
stiffness, it is used in the motor shaft. The material used to construct the motor shaft needs to be
able to sustain the torque and rotational forces produced by the water pump. The seals which are
responsible for preventing any leak are made of material that has high wear resistance such as
IC50, IC100H (Ceramic, Graphite or NBR). In addition, the frame of the centrifugal water pump
with internal combustion engine is built from sheet metal steel AISI 304 or cast aluminum A356
[10].

2.3.3 Applications
Irrigation of farms is one of the main uses for portable centrifugal water pumps. Farmers
may efficiently irrigate their fields by using these pumps to pull water from nearby sources such
as wells, ponds, and rivers [10]. This raises the overall yield of agriculture and ensures a
consistent supply of water for crops, particularly in regions where conventional irrigation
infrastructure could be limited. Additionally, in remote locations where access to power is
impractical, portable water pumps help in supplying water. When installed in off-grid
environments, these pumps provide a consistent source of water for domestic use, livestock, or
small-scale farming [11].
Because of its independence, the internal combustion engines may function in places
without access to traditional power sources. Furthermore, in situations where heavy rain or
unexpected flooding occurs, portable water pumps are crucial for rapidly draining flooded areas.
These pumps can quickly move massive volumes of water, which makes them extremely helpful
for emergency response teams and local government organizations. They can be swiftly deployed
to strategic locations because of their mobility, reducing the harm that floods will do to residents
and infrastructure [11].

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 2.3.4 Advantages of Internal Combustion Engine in Water Pumps
The use of an internal combustion engine to power these water pumps provides several
benefits. The engines are well-known for their reliability, strength, and ease of maintenance, all
of which are critical in applications where robustness is required. Furthermore, the IC engine's
autonomy ensures operational independence, making the pumps suitable for use in remote and
difficult environments. Portable water pumps powered by single-cylinder IC engines demonstrate
the combination of engineering creativity and practical utility. These pumps are versatile
solutions to complex fluid management challenges, whether they are contributing to agricultural
sustainability, responding to emergency flooding, or providing water access in remote locations.
As technology develops, these systems' improvements will probably result in more durable and
efficient versions, establishing their place in meeting vital water-related needs in a variety of
environments [12].

2.3.5 Sketch
As shown in Figures 4 and 5, a medium-sized portable centrifugal water pump (6.5 hp) is
connected to the engine through the shaft on the left end of the Figure 4 using a coupling. The
pump is designed to work on speeds ranging from 1000 rpm to 3500 rpm; therefore, no gearbox
is needed between the engine and the pump [8].

Figure 4: Sketch of a Medium-sized Pump (6.5 hp)

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 Figure 5: Section Sketch of a Medium-sized Pump (6.5 hp)

3. Internal Combustion Engine Parts

3.1 Background
The single air-cooled, four-stroke internal combustion engine's core is home to the
cylinder and its close companion, the piston. Combustion occurs inside a sealed compartment
that is the cylinder. Inside the engine, the piston, which is often composed of aluminum and
includes sealing rings, rises and falls, producing the pumping motion that powers it [13]. The
connecting rod is essential in connecting the piston to the crankshaft. This stiff rod delivers the
force of the piston's movement to the crankshaft, the main rotating shaft in charge of converting
the reciprocating motion into the rotational motion that is then used in rotating the impeller
inside the pump [14]. The parts of the single internal combustion engine are illustrated and
labeled in Figure 6.

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 Figure 6: Parts of a Single Internal Combustion Engine [14]

The camshaft controls the precise opening and closing of the valves in the cylinder head.
The crankshaft ensures precise timing for air and fuel entry and gas leaving, allowing the engine
to breathe efficiently. In order to ignite the combustion process, the spark plug delivers a spark
when needed. Fins fastened to the cylinder allow heat to be released. Under load, the engine
remains cool because of a dedicated fan that blows air over these fins . When the ignition system
sparks, a carburetor or fuel injection system produces the ideal air-fuel mixture. Furthermore, the
lubricating system's network of oil tubes maintains everything functioning. The flywheel aids in
smooth functioning and stores rotating energy, while the timing gear maintains precise timing.
The essential oil pan serves as a holding tank for engine oil, and gaskets and seals make sure that
leaks don't happen. Lastly, bolts, nuts, and fasteners firmly hold everything together [15].

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 3.2 Connecting Rod

3.2.1 Parts of a Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is an intricate part with many important parts that work together to
provide its overall functionality. The big end at the lower end forms a link that is fastened with
nuts and bolts when it attaches to the crankshaft's crank pin. The small end of the connecting rod,
which helps with motion transfer, is connected to the piston or crosshead on the other side by
means of the gudgeon pin. The small and big ends are connected by the rod. In addition, the rod
comes in a number of shapes, such as H-beam and I-beam, both of which meet the required
engineering specifications [16]. To ensure smooth motion between the piston and the small end,
a bush is utilized. Semi-circular bearings are also added to the crankshaft and connecting rod at
the big end to reduce friction and offer the required support. Finally, bolts and nuts act as stressed
fasteners, securely holding the components together under the demanding operating conditions of
an internal combustion engine, to ensure the structural stability of the connecting rod. Each and
every one of these components, portrayed in Figure 7, is necessary to maintain the connecting
rod's longevity and efficient operation within the engine system [17].

Figure 7: Labeled Connecting Rod [17]

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 3.2.2 Function of a Connecting Rod
The connecting rod in an internal combustion (IC) engine is an essential component that
serves a critical function in the overall operation of the engine. Its main function is to provide a
linkage inside the engine system by transferring the thrust produced by the piston to the torque
produced by the crankshaft. Solid journal bearing half shells are added at the split big end to
accomplish this coupling and guarantee a sturdy connection to the crankshaft. Concurrently, the
connecting rod uses a gudgeon pin to provide an essential connection to the piston. Because of
this complex relationship, the piston and crankshaft may move in unison, efficiently
transforming the piston's initial reciprocating motion into the rotating motion required for the
engine to run. In order to keep the coordinated connection between various engine parts, the
connecting rod is essential [18].

3.2.3 Service Conditions & Performance Requirements

Connecting rods operate under intricate and demanding service conditions, as they are
subjected to a variety of dynamic loading conditions while operating. The connecting rod must
endure both axial compression and flexural bending. The constant stresses experienced by the
connecting rod are various, involving tensile stresses during starting and stopping, compressive
stresses during running, shear stresses, and bending stresses arising from centrifugal forces
during rotation [19]. These service conditions could be affected by compression ratio, camshaft
overlap, charge air pressure, ignition timing, engine power, speed, and torque. Connecting rods
must adhere to design specifications, keeping their straightness, roundness, and proper bore
sizing while also being defect-free, in order to guarantee maximum performance and endurance.
Comprehensive inspection becomes essential to guarantee the structural integrity and reliability
of the connecting rod in the face of these demanding service conditions, regardless of the
engine's intended use, racing or performance [20].
In internal combustion engines, meeting connecting rod performance standards is crucial
to guaranteeing reliability and life expectancy. According to these specifications, connecting rods
must be able to withstand calculated piston forces caused by changes in the cylinder's internal
gas pressure. The connecting rod needs to be highly resistant to impact damage, corrosion
deterioration, and fatigue. The connecting rod also needs to have a high strength to weight ratio
and be extremely stiff. To guarantee the component's durability and safety, stress levels must also

14
stay well below the material's yield strength [20]. Following these performance criteria is
primarily about optimization, with a particular emphasis on mass reduction without sacrificing
structural integrity. This optimization plays a major part in improving fuel efficiency in addition
to improving the engine's overall performance and efficiency. Numerous factors, such as engine
specifications, load conditions, and environmental considerations, impact the performance
requirements. It takes precise machining methods to satisfy particular original equipment
manufacturer (OEM) standards in order to meet these demanding standards. Internal combustion
engines depend heavily on connecting rods, which are made to perform well under such
conditions [21].

3.2.4 Materials Used

Connecting rods come in a variety of materials designed to satisfy particular application
and performance requirements. Cast medium carbon steel (AISI 1045), which has a yield
strength of 449.32 MPa, an ultimate strength of 648.03 MPa, and a ductility of 225%, has
historically been the material of choice. Strong durability, good mass considerations, and
strength are all well-balanced in this material. Each material brings specific properties to the
table; carbon steel excels in impact absorption, titanium offers a unique blend of strength and
lightness, cast iron ensures durability with its hardness, and forged aluminum alloys contribute to
the overall lightness of the connecting rod and is used in applications with high compressive
forces. This diverse material palette underscores the adaptability of connecting rods across a
spectrum of engines and operational conditions [22].

3.2.5 Manufacturing Processes

The manufacturing of connecting rods is a meticulous process that combines various
techniques to achieve the delicate balance required for optimal performance. The connecting
rod's intricate structure, consisting of a shank, a small end, and a big end, allows for flexibility in
adopting cross-sectional shapes like rectangular, circular, tubular, I-section, or H-section,
depending on the desired application [23]. Forging processes are essential to the production of
connecting rods where initial forming and subsequent forging enhance material properties.
Connecting rods can be classified into four types based on manufacturing methods: cast rods,
forged rods, powdered metal rods, and billet rods [24]. Each type caters to specific performance
requirements, with cast rods suitable for low-power, low-speed applications, and forged rods

15
excelling in strength and mechanical properties. Powdered metal rods offer a cost-effective
alternative with high performance, while billet rods, manufactured from a single billet using
CNC methods, provide precision and customization [25].
Hot forging is a common technique involving cutting rods from billets, followed by
heating and forging in two stages using upper and lower dies. Visual inspection post-forging
ensures quality, and subsequent heat treatment, dependent on steel grade and desired properties,
enhances ductility. The advantages of hot forging include customized part manufacturing,
excellent surface quality, and reduced yield strength. Precision forging, including milling,
drilling, and boring, is vital to meet technical requirements, with rigorous attention to detail
ensuring adherence to design specifications, symmetry, and positional accuracy. This
comprehensive manufacturing process underscores the intricate craftsmanship involved in
producing connecting rods that meet the diverse demands of modern engines [26].

3.2.6 Sketch
Figure 8 illustrates a labeled sketch of a connecting rod based on the dimensions of a medium
sized engine that can be used to power a (6.5 hp) portable water pump [8].

Figure 8: Sketch of 6.5 hp Portable Water Pump’s Connecting Rod

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 3.3 Piston

3.3.1 Parts of a Piston

An essential part of an internal combustion engine, the piston is responsible for
converting combustion energy into mechanical force, and it consists of several parts as shown in
Figure 9. The piston head, which is the highest part of it, is in direct contact with the extreme
pressure and heat found in the combustion chamber. The piston rings are found when moving
down from the head. They are positioned in such a way as to seal the combustion chamber. The
piston skirt, a cylindrical piece that directs the piston's movement inside the cylinder to reduce
friction and unwanted noise, is located further below the rings.The crankshaft is in charge of
ensuring that the engine operates effectively and of converting linear motion into rotational
motion [27]. Proper lubrication of the moving parts is ensured by strategically drilled tiny oil
holes throughout the piston. To further improve the piston's efficiency, relief grooves etched onto
the piston head control oil flow and stop ring flutter. The piston makes a significant contribution
to the durability and overall performance of the engine through the smooth operation of these
different components [28].

Figure 9: Labeled Piston [28]

3.3.2 Function of a Piston

An internal combustion engine's piston is an essential part that performs two main tasks.
The first task is transferring force. As the ignited fuel-air mixture rapidly expands during
combustion, high pressure is produced. By forcing the piston down the cylinder, this pressure

17
transforms the fuel's chemical energy into mechanical energy. Regarding the second task, sealing
the combustion chamber which will keep the high pressure gasses inside the combustion
chamber by a tight seal formed by the piston and piston rings. This guarantees that the engine is
driven effectively by the energy released during combustion [29].

3.3.3 Service Conditions & Performance Requirements

In the heart of every internal combustion (IC) engine lies the piston, which operates
under extreme conditions of high temperature, pressure, and friction. The piston requires
exceptional material properties to perform its duty reliably and efficiently. Inside the cylinder of
the engine, the piston experiences harsh environmental conditions. The temperature during the
combustion can reach up to 2,500°C (3,632°F) near the piston crown, and the pressure can reach
several hundred atmospheres. Additionally, the cylinder wall and piston are in continual contact,
creating strong frictional forces. In order for the piston to survive the harsh conditions without
melting, there should be several factors taken into account while designing it. The material of the
piston should be chosen with high thermal conductivity since it will allow heat to go from the hot
crown towards the cooler cylinder walls to avoid overheating. Additionally, the actual exposure
time for each combustion cycle is very short which enables the heat to escape before it damages
the piston [30].
Regarding the functional requirements of the piston, the cylinder's piston must be
constantly moving upward and downward in order to seal the combustion chamber and provide
the pumping action required for the intake of fuel and air, combustion, and the release of exhaust
gasses. The piston withstands the immense pressure peaks during combustion since it has high
fatigue resistance and strength [31]. Moving on to its processability, there are several factors
considered when choosing the material and its compatible manufacturing process. Firstly, the
castability of the material where the material should flow easily and smoothly when filling the
mold cavity. Secondly, the material should be easily machined to obtain the design of the piston
with the required tolerances. Lastly, to obtain the required shape and qualities, the metal powder
must be able to be sintered and compressed [32].

3.3.4 Material Used

Pistons need to be designed of materials with particular characteristics in order to
withstand these harsh environments. Firstly, the material should be fatigue resistant and has high

18
strength to withstand the stresses and loads generated during the operation of the engine.
Secondly, the material composition should be of high thermal conductivity to transfer heat away
from the combustion zone and to prevent overheating. To lower the engine's reciprocating mass
as a way to improve performance and fuel economy, the material should have a low density [33].
The specific materials used in pistons can differ depending on the engine type, as there
are aluminum casting alloys and wrought alloys. The aluminum casting alloys can be
Al-Si-20Cu, Al-Si-18Mg-Ni which have high strength and fatigue at high temperatures, and low
thermal expansion. Additionally, aluminum-silicon alloys with copper are under the category of
aluminum casting alloys such as A356 and A390. A356 and A390 have high heat conductivity
and are resistant to corrosion. As for the wrought alloys, it consists of powder metallurgy alloys
which can be Fe-Cu-C and Fe-Al-P. They have improved fatigue strength and reduced porosity
compared to cast alloys [34].

3.3.5 Manufacturing Process

A malfunctioning piston can cause severe damage to the engine, making it a crucial
component, hence, it must be highly reliable. Usually, the piston has a life long service since it is
expected to last for thousands of engine miles before replacing it. Additionally, the piston needs
to maintain its dimensions and shape for the engine to operate properly over time as well as
having a good thermal stability to prevent cracking under high temperatures [35].
From raw materials such as steel billets or aluminum ingots, the piston goes through a
series of delicately controlled changes to become the engine's powerful component. The first step
is to prepare the selected material, which can be vacuum-melted for exceptional strength or
melted and alloyed with elements for particular properties [35]. The shaping process then uses
methods like casting, forging, or powder metallurgy to give the piston shape and design required.
Among the techniques used are sand casting, permanent mold casting, hot forging, and sintering,
each have advantages concerning material qualities, cost, and precision. Following extensive
machining and finishing, the piston undergoes extensive machining to achieve precise
dimensions and tolerances. The processes of turning, milling, drilling, and honing are used to
produce the required features, dimensions, and smooth surface finish [36].
Additionally, heat treatment improves the material's qualities as well as quenching and
tempering add resilience and strength. Surface treatments such as anodizing and coating are used

19
to improve wear resistance, friction reduction, and thermal conductivity in order to further
optimize the performance. Along the manufacturing process, thorough quality checks are
performed to guarantee the piston satisfies all requirements. Several methods used to ensure the
component's integrity and performance such as fatigue testing and non-destructive testing.
Finally, when the piston is ready to release its power inside the engine cylinder, it is assembled in
its final form using parts like piston rings and pins [36].

3.3.6 Sketch
Figure 10 illustrates a sketch of the piston based on the dimensions of a medium sized (6.5 hp)
portable water pump [8].

Figure 10: Sketch of a Portable Water Pump’s Piston (6.5 hp)

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 4. Weight Reduction

4.1 Connecting Rod

For the purpose of optimizing and reducing the weight of the connecting rod we utilized
SolidWorks and ANSYS in order to develop a structural model and conduct a finite element
analysis on the connecting rod and conduct topology optimization. Initially, a model of the
connecting rod was drawn on SolidWorks as shown in Figure 11. Afterwards, the model was
transferred to ANSYS and a five millimeter element size mesh was generated as shown in Figure
12.

Figure 11: The Designed SolidWorks Model of the Connecting Rod

Figure 12: 5-millimeter Mesh FEM Connecting Rod Model on ANSYS

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 In order to analyze the equivalent stresses and total deformation which the connecting rod
is subjected to during each cycle, the fixed constraint was added to the connecting rod in addition
to axial loading. As displayed in Figure 13, the highest stress concentration which the connecting
rod experiences is near the middle-lower section of the link between the big and small ends.
Additionally, the maximum stress value was 259.6 MPa. The total deformation was additionally
analyzed as the highest value was noted to be 0.096455 mm as displayed in Figure 14. In
addition, the maximum equivalent elastic strain was shown in Figure 15 to be 0.001229 m/m. In
order to optimize the weight, it was aimed to investigate the uncritical sections from the finite
element stress analysis conducted in order to accordingly reduce the weight of the connecting
rod. As illustrated in Figure 13, the lowest stress areas are evident to surround the big and small
end sections of the connecting rod, ranging between 86.7 to 2.99 MPa.

Figure 13: Equivalent (Von-mises) Stress Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod

Figure 14: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod

22
 Figure 15: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of Connecting Rod

After conducting a finite element analysis on the connecting rod using ANSYS, our
objective was to develop a new design which aims for weight reduction. It must be
acknowledged that the regions where the stress is low would be most suitable for tackling when
removing weight. However, the areas subjected to the lowest stress such as the small and big
ends are restrained by their respective diameter sizes in order to avoid any further design
alterations to other assembled components. Additionally, as portrayed in Figure 12, the link
between the small and big ends possesses the largest amount of volume which has a higher
potential of being optimized. Accordingly, in our new proposed optimized design, we introduced
two holes nearer to the big end in order to be further away from the highest stress point, which is
located close to the small end of the connecting rod. Hence, we altered the design on SolidWorks
to introduce holes with a diameter of 4 mm each and utilized ANSYS to test the new optimized
design.
As expected, the new proposed design of the connecting rod had a higher maximum
stress value of 262.5 MPa as evident in Figure 16. Compared to the old design, higher stresses
were present around the geometric discontinuities. In addition, the total deformation of the
connecting rod increased to 0.098943 mm and the equivalent elastic strain increased as well,
reaching a value of 0.0013259 m/m. Obtaining the masses of both models from SolidWorks, it is
noted that the masses of the old and new models are 506.1 grams and 504.88 grams respectively.
Hence, the weight was reduced by 0.24%. In order to increase the weight reduction percentage, it
is recommended to add more slots or holes along the link of the connecting rod while making
sure that the stresses subjected to the connecting rod remain in the permissible range.

23
 Figure 16: Equivalent Stress Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design

Figure 17: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design

Figure 18: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of New Connecting Rod Design

The advantages of the recommended changes include obtaining a lighter engine

component would be more fuel efficient as less energy would be required for operation.
Nonetheless, it must be acknowledged that the production cost would increase due to the drilling

24
process required to shape the introduced holes. On a similar note, the production time would
increase. In addition, the strength of the material would decrease and stress concentrations would
form, as previously analyzed, due to the presence of geometric discontinuities. Modifying the
weight distribution of the connecting rod may significantly impact the natural modes of vibration
of the connecting rod as well as introducing an imbalance to the system.

4.2 Piston
We were able to create a structural model and do a finite element analysis on the
connecting rod using SolidWorks and ANSYS in order to optimize and decrease its weight. First,
as seen in Figure 19, a model of the piston was created in SolidWorks. Subsequently, the model
was imported into ANSYS, where a five millimeter element size mesh was created as shown in
figure 20.

Figure 19: The Designed SolidWorks Model of the Piston

Figure 20: 5-millimeter Mesh FEM Piston Model on ANSYS

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 The fixed constraint was added to the surface of the two pin holes, in addition the
pressure loading of two megapascals which the piston is subjected to was modeled on ANSYS in
order to examine the equivalent (Von-mises) stress and total deformation which is experienced
by the piston [38]. The top section of the piston is subjected to the highest stress as illustrated in
Figure 21. In addition, it is observed that the piston is subjected to a maximum stress of 27.783
MPa. On the contrary, the lowest stress regions are shown to be on the sides perpendicular to the
holes of the piston, as well as near the top edges of the piston. Further analysis was conducted on
the total deformation, with the highest value found to be 0.0052379 mm, as shown in Figure 22.
In addition, the maximum equivalent elastic strain was shown in Figure 23 to be 0.00014165
m/m.

Figure 21: Equivalent (Von-mises) Stress Obtained on ANSYS of Piston

Figure 22: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of Piston

26
 Figure 23: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of Piston

After conducting a finite element analysis on the piston using ANSYS, our objective was
to develop a new design which aims for weight reduction. It must be acknowledged that the
regions where the stress is low would be most suitable for tackling when removing weight.
Therefore, the sides of the piston perpendicular to the holes were suitable candidates for reducing
their weight. Accordingly, it was chosen to reduce the length of both sides by 8 mm. In order to
validate our new proposed design, the piston was remodeled on SolidWorks and utilized in
ANSYS for finite element analysis. As portrayed in Figure 24, the maximum equivalent stress of
the new piston design increased to 29.1 MPa. In addition, it was observed that the total
deformation, shown in Figure 25, and the equivalent elastic strain, displayed in Figure 26,
increased to 0.0052988 mm and 0.0001468 m/m respectively. Comparing the masses of both
models on SolidWorks, a weight reduction of 16.4% is observed.

Figure 24: Equivalent Stress Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design

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 Figure 25: Total Deformation Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design

Figure 26: Equivalent Elastic Strain Obtained on ANSYS of New Piston Design

The advantages of the recommended changes include obtaining a lighter engine

component that would make the engine more fuel efficient as less energy would be required for
operation. In addition, a lighter piston indicates that a lighter crankshaft counterbalance mass is
required for operation as the inertial forces would be reduced. Furthermore, the reduced mass of
the piston will allow the single internal combustion engine to reach higher RPM more easily as
less energy is required for the piston to move up and down in the cylinder, resulting in quicker
response times. Nonetheless, the strength of the material would decrease and stress
concentrations would form, as previously analyzed, due to the presence of distributed force on a
smaller area. Modifying the weight distribution of the piston may significantly impact the natural
modes of vibration of the piston as well as introducing an imbalance to the system.

28
 5. Infographic
An infographic which emphasizes the advantages of portable water pumps is illustrated in Figure
27.

Figure 27: Infographic

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 6. Conclusion
The study is primarily concerned with engineering products' weight reduction, with a
focus on single-cylinder engines. It highlights the advantages of weight reduction in single
cylinder engines, such as increased power, decreased emissions, and improved fuel efficiency
and includes a case study of a medium-sized portable centrifugal water pump (6.5 hp). The
concept of weight reduction is addressed for engineering products and its significance in diverse
industries. In Section 4, the potential for weight reduction in the connecting rod and piston of an
internal combustion engine was analyzed. Ensuring that the components still meet the required
standards for strength and durability, FEM was utilized to optimize the component design. After
conducting FEM, the results have shown that the connecting rod's weight can be lowered by
0.24% without affecting its stiffness or strength. Likewise, the piston's weight can be decreased
by 16.4% without affecting its performance. To conclude, weight reduction is a crucial design
factor for engineering products, particularly in the power generation and automotive sectors.
Manufacturers can increase power, decrease emissions, and improve fuel efficiency by reducing
component weights.

30
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