CET206 TE Mod1 Ktu

CET 206
TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
Module 1
Hima S
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Trinity College of Engineering
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Transportation Engineering
• Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that is
involved in the planning, design, operation and maintenance of safe
and efficient transportation systems.
• These systems include roadways, railways, waterways etc.
• It is a basic component of any area’s physical, economic and social
structure.
• It plays a vital role in development of rural areas of the country.
• They improve the employment opportunities.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION
ROMAN ROADS
TRESAGUET’S CONSTRUCTION

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION
METCALF CONSTRUCTION
TELFORD CONSTRUCTION
MACADAM’S CONSTRUCTION

Highway development in India
➢Roads in ancient India
➢Roads in Mughal period
➢Roads in 19th century
➢Jayakar committee and recommendations

Classification of roads
Based on type of Based on type of pavement

Depending on weather
pavement surface
All weather Surfaced

Paved roads
roads roads
Fair weather Unpaved Unsurfaced

roads roads roads

20 Year Road Development Plan
Nagpur Road Plan
Bombay Road Plan
Lucknow Road Plan

National Highway
State Highway
Classification of roads based on
Major District Roads
Nagpur Road Plan
Other District Roads
Village Roads

Express
Highways
Primary System
National
Highways
State Highways
Classification of roads based on Lucknow
Secondary System
Road Plan
Major District
Roads
Other District
Roads
Tertiary System
Village Roads

Arterial Roads
Classification of Urban Sub-arterial Roads

Roads Collector Streets
Local Streets

National Highway: These are the main highways running
through the length and breadth of the country connecting major ports,
foreign highways, capitals of large states etc.
State Highway: These are main roads of a state connecting to NH of

adjacent state, district headquarters, main cities. In some places SH
carries more traffic than NH, but this will not alter the designation. Both
NH and SH have same design speed and geometric design.
Classification of Major District Roads: These are the important roads within a
roads based on district serving areas of production and markets and connecting with main
highway of a district. MDR has lower design speed than NH and SH.
Nagpur Road Plan
Other District Roads: These are roads serving rural areas of
production and providing them with outlet to market centres, taluk head
quarters, block development quarters etc.
Village Roads: These are roads connecting villages or group of

villages with each other to nearest road of higher category.

Express Highways: These are
separate class of highways with
superior facility and design standards
and are meant as through routes
Primary System
having very heavy traffic.
National
Highways
Classification of roads based on Lucknow State Highways

Road Plan Secondary System
Major District
Roads
Other District
Roads
Tertiary System
Village Roads

➢ Arterial & sub arterial are
street roads for through
Arterial Roads traffic on continuous route.
Sub-arterial Roads ➢ Collector streets provide

Classification of Urban
Roads access to arterial streets.
Collector Streets
They collect traffic to and
Local Streets
from local streets.
➢ Local streets provide access
to abutting property.

TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ROADS

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal Alignment:- Straight path, horizontal deviations

and curves
• Vertical Alignment:- Changes in gradients, vertical curves
Necessity of highway alignment
If not properly aligned, it would result in

• Increase in construction cost
• Increase in maintenance cost
• Increase in vehicle operation cost
• Increase in accident rate

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Requirements
a. Short
b. Easy
c. Safe
d. Economical

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
a. Obligatory points
b. Traffic
c. Geometric design
d. Economy
e. Other considerations

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
a. Obligatory points
i. Points through which the
alignment should pass
ii. Points through which the
alignment should not pass

Geometric Design
Geometric design deals with the following:
• Cross section elements

• Sight distance considerations
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Intersection elements

Geometric design
Factors controlling geometric design
a. Design speed
b. Topography
c. Traffic factors
d. Design hourly volume
e. Environmental and other factors

Design speed

Topography

Geometric design
Cross section Elements
a. Pavement surface characteristics: Friction, Pavement unevenness, Light

reflecting characteristics, drainage of water
b. Cross slope
c. Width of pavement
d. Kerbs
e. Road margins
f. Width of roadway
g. Right of way
Highway cross section elements
• Pavement surface characteristics • Road margins

1. Friction • Width of roadway or formation
2. Pavement unevenness • Right of way
3. Light reflecting characteristics
• Cross slope / Camber
• Width of pavement
• Traffic separators / Medians
• Kerbs
Pavement surface characteristics
a. Friction: Skid resistance
Factors affecting skid resistance: Type of pavement surface, Toughness, pavement condition,
Speed of vehicle, Brake efficiency, Tyre pressure, Temp
a. Pavement unevenness:
Bump Integrator- unevenness index
<150cm/km – good pavement surface
250cm/km – satisfactory
>350cm/km - uncomfortable
c. Light reflecting characteristics

Cross slope / Camber
• It is provided in the transverse direction to drain of water from surface.
❖ Importance: To prevent entry of water to subgrade
❖ To prevent entry of water to bituminous layers
❖ To improve skid resistance
• Expressed as: 1 in n or x%

Cross slope / Camber
• Shape of cross slope

Soln: Straight line cross slope
Case i: WBM pavement
W = 3.8m
I in n = 1 in 33
W 3.8
y = 2n = 2 x 33 = 0.058m
Case ii: Bituminous concrete pavement
W = 7m
I in n = 1 in 50
W 7
y = 2n = 2 x 50 = 0.078m


• Kerbs
Width of pavement
• Depends on width of traffic lane and no. of lanes

Traffic separators/Medians
• Functions:
1. To channelize flow at intersections
2. Separate the crossing and turning of traffic Markings
3. Segregate slow traffic and protect pedestrians

• Markings
• Physical Dividers
• Area separators
Physical Dividers Area separators

Kerbs
• Kerbs indicates the boundary between Pavement and
shoulders or footpath.
• Low or mountable kerbs
• Semi Barrier
• Barrier
• Submerged


• Kerbs
Road margins
Shoulders Parking lanes, Cycle tracks Lay byes
Bus bays Frontage roads

Guard rails
Embankment slopes
Drive ways
Footpath
Width of Roadway / Formation
• Width of pavement + width of shoulder

Right of way
• Area of land acquired for road along its alignment.

Sight distance- The actual distance along the road surface, which a driver from a
specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationery or moving objects.
• Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance

• Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
• Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections
• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

The standards for SD should satisfy three 2
conditions:
• Driver travelling at design speed has sufficient SD or length
of road visible to stop the vehicle in case of any 1
obstruction.
• Driver travelling at design speed should be able to
overtake, without causing obstruction to traffic of opposite
2
direction.
• Driver entering uncontrolled intersections has sufficient
1
visibility to enable him to control his vehicle and to avoid
collision.

Stopping Sight Distance(SSD)
• Minimum SD available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient

length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without colliding
with any other obstruction.
• Non passing SD
• SD available on a road to a driver at any instant depends on
1. Features of the road ahead
2. Height of driver’s eye above the road surface
3. Height of object above the road surface

SSD depends on:
1. Total reaction time
• Perception time
• Brake reaction time
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance
5. Gradient
PIEV Theory

SSD depends on:
1. Total reaction time
• Perception time
• Brake reaction time
2. Speed of vehicle:
• Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
• As speed increases, SD increases.
3. Efficiency of brakes
• SD required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less

4. Frictional resistance
• More frictional resistance, SD will be less.
5. Gradient
• + ve gradient – Less SD
• - ve gradient – More SD

ANALYSIS OF SSD (On level Road)
SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance
Lag distance
• Distance travelled during reaction

time.
• Lag distance = V x t in meters

• V – design Speed in m/s
• t – reaction time in sec
• Lag distance = 0.278V x t in meters

• V – design Speed in Kmph
• t – reaction time in sec

ANALYSIS OF SSD
Braking distance
• Distance travelled during brake reaction time.
• Work done by friction = KE of vehicle moving at design speed

• WD = KE
• WD by friction = f W x L
1
• KE = mV²
2
• f W x L = mV²
1 V²
2 SSD = Vt + , V in m/s
1W 𝟐𝐠𝐟
• fWxL= V²
2 g
V² V²
• L=
2gf SSD = 0.278Vt + , V in Kmph
𝟐𝟓𝟒𝐟

ANALYSIS OF SSD (at slopes)
For Gradients
When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds to braking
action and hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to
n
the surface which adds to the braking force = W
100
WD = KE
n 1W
fWxL+W x L = V²
100 2 g
n% nV
V² V²
L= n = α
2g(f+ ) 2g(f+0.01n)
100
100 H
α
W
When there is an descending gradient of say -n%,
V²
L=
2g(f−0.01n)

ANALYSIS OF SSD
V²
SSD = Vt + , V in m/s
𝟐𝐠(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝐧)
V²
SSD = 0.278Vt + , V in Kmph
𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝐧)
SSD for one lane, one way traffic = SSD
SSD for one lane, two way traffic = 2 x SSD

Qn: Calculate SSD for speed 50kmph for
a) 2 lane 2 way Road
b) 1 lane 1 way Road
c) 1 lane 2 way Road

Ans: V²
SSD = 0.278Vt + 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝐟 , V in Kmph
V = 50 Kmph
f = 0.37
t = 2.5s
50²
SSD = 0.278 x 50 x 2.5 + = 61.4m
254 x 0.37
a) 2 lane 2 way Road, SSD = 61.4m
b) 1 lane 1 way Road, SSD = 61.4m
c) 1 lane 2 way Road, SSD = 2 x 61.4 = 122.8m

Qn: Calculate minimum SD required to avoid head on collision of 2 cars approaching from opposite direction
at 90 and 60 kmph. Given f= 0.7 and brake efficiency = 50%
Ans:
V²
SSD = 0.278Vt + 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝐟 , V in Kmph
Given,
V1 = 90 Kmph
V2 = 60 Kmph
f = 0.7
Brake efficiency = 50%
Coefficient of friction due to braking efficiency of 50% = 0.7 x 0.5 = 0.35
90²
SSD of first car, SSD1 = 0.278 x 90 x 2.5 + = 153.6m
254 x 0.35
60²
SSD of second car, SSD2 = 0.278 x 60 x 2.5 + = 82.2m
254 x 0.35
Total SSD = 153.6 + 82.2 = 235.8m

Qn: Calculate SSD on a highway at positive and negative gradient of
2% for design speed of 80kmph. Assume other data as per IRC.
Ans: V²
SSD = 0.278Vt + 𝟐𝟓𝟒(𝐟±𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝐧) , V in Kmph
Given,
V = 80 Kmph
f = 0.35
t = 2.5s
80²
SSD for +ve gradient= 0.278 x 80 x 2.5 + = 123.69m
254 x( 0.35+0.01 x 2)
80²
SSD for –ve gradient = 0.278 x 80 x 2.5 + = 132m
254 x (0.35−0.01 x 2)

SIGHT DISTANCE

• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

Overtaking Sight distance
It is the minimum distance open to the vision of driver of fast moving vehicle intending
to overtake a slow moving vehicle with safety against traffic from opposite direction.
Factors affecting OSD
➢ Speeds of overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and vehicle from opposite direction.
➢ Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicle.
➢ Skill and reaction time of vehicle.
➢ Rate of acceleration.
➢ Gradient if any.

Analysis of OSD
A – Overtaking vehicle
B – Overtaken vehicle
C – Vehicle travelling in opposite direction
d₁ - Distance travelled by A during time ‘t’ from A₁ to A₂
d₂ - Distance travelled by A during overtaking operation ‘T’ from A₂ to A₃
d₃ - Distance travelled by C during ‘T’ from C₁ to C₂
A is travelling at design speed V m/s or V kmph
B is travelling at slow speed Vb m/s or Vb kmph
C is travelling from opposite direction at design speed V m/s or V kmph
Analysis of OSD
Assumptions:
1. It is assumed that ‘A’ is forced to reduce speed to speed Vb of slow moving vehicle
while it waits for safe gap for overtaking during reaction time ‘t’ sec and maintain gap
between ‘B’. During this time A travels from A₁ to A₂, which is ‘d₁’.
d₁ = Vb x t
2. From A₂, ‘A’ starts accelerating, shifts to adjacent lane, overtakes ‘B’ and shifts back to
previous lane in front of ‘B’ with gap ‘S’. During this overtaking time ‘T’, ‘A’ travels
from A₂ to A₃, which is d₂. ‘B’ travels a distance ‘b’ from B₁ to B₂
d₂ = S + b +S = b +2S

Analysis of OSD
Assumptions(conti….)
By empirical formula,
S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters
1 Therefore,
Also, d₂ = Vb T + aT²
2 1 4S
d₂ = Vb T + a ²
1 2 a
b + 2S = Vb T + aT²
2 d₂ = Vb T + 2S
Also, b = Vb T
1
Vb T + 2S = Vb T + aT²
2
4S
T=
a
Analysis of OSD
Assumptions(conti…..)
3. During overtaking time ‘T’ , ‘C’ moves from C₁ to C₂, which is d₃
d₃ = V T For 2 lane 1 way road,
So, OSD = d₁ + d₂
For 2 lane 2 way road,
OSD = d₁ + d₂ + d₃ OSD = d₁ + d₂ + d₃
𝟒𝐒
If Vb is not given,
When V is in m/s, S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters, T =
𝐚
Vb = V – 4.5, V in m/s
Vb = V – 16, V in kmph
OSD = Vb t + Vb T + 2S + VT
𝟏𝟒.𝟒𝐒
When V is in kmph, S = (0.2Vb + 6) meters, T =
𝐚
OSD = 0.278Vb t + 0.278Vb T + 2S + 0.278VT

Maximum Overtaking Acceleration at different Speeds

SIGHT DISTANCE

• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

OSD
𝟒𝐒
When V is in m/s, S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters, T =
𝐚
OSD = Vb t + Vb T + 2S + VT
𝟏𝟒.𝟒𝐒 For 2 lane 1 way road,

When V is in kmph, S = (0.2Vb + 6) meters, T = OSD = d₁ + d₂
𝐚
For 2 lane 2 way road,
OSD = 0.278Vb t + 0.278Vb T + 2S + 0.278VT OSD = d₁ + d₂ + d₃
If Vb is not given,
Vb = V – 4.5, V in m/s
Vb = V – 16, V in kmph

Effect of Gradient
➢ For ascending and descending gradient, OSD required will be more.

➢ For ascending and descending gradient, OSD will be almost same.
➢ OSD on slopes is taken as same as on level road.
➢ Overtaking time varies from 9 to 14 seconds.

Overtaking Zones
➢ For safe overtaking, overtaking zones are provided at regular intervals.
➢ OSD and pavement width of these zones should be sufficient for overtaking.
➢ Sign post will be provided before entry and before exit of overtaking zones.
➢ Length of overtaking zones is 3 to 5 times of OSD.
➢ Minimum overtaking zone length = 3 x OSD
➢ Maximum overtaking zone length = 5 x OSD

Intermediate SD
➢ ISD is provided where OSD cannot be provided.
➢ On curves, OSD cannot be provided and hence overtaking should be
prohibited by regulatory signs. In such cases ISD is provided.
➢ ISD = 2 x SSD

Headlight SD
➢ It is the distance available under the illumination of headlight.
➢ HSD = SSD

Question 1
Calculate the values of (i) HSD (ii) ISD for highway with
design speed 65kmph.

Answer
V²
SSD = 0.278Vt + , V in Kmph
𝟐𝟓𝟒𝐟
Given,
V = 65kmph
t = 2.5s
f = 0.36
65²
SSD = 0.278 x 65 x 2.5 + = 91.38 m
254 x 0.36
HSD = SSD = 91.38m

ISD = 2 x SSD = 2 x 91.38 = 182.76m

Question 2
The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are

70kmph and 40kmph respectively. Given a = 0.99m/s²
Calculate:
a) OSD
b) Minimum and maximum length of overtaking zones
c) Draw a sketch of zone

Answer
𝟒𝐒
Given, When V is in m/s, S = (0.7Vb + 6) meters, T = 𝐚
V = 70kmph = 70/3.6 = 19.44m/s OSD = Vb t + Vb T + 2S + VT
Vb = 40kmph= 40/3.6 = 11.11m/s

a = 0.99m/s²
834 to 1390 m
t = 2s 277.56m
a) S = 0.7 x 11.11 + 6 = 13.7m 277.56m
4 x 13.7
T= = 7.46s
0.99
277.56
OSD = 11.11 x 2 + 11.11 x 7.46 + 2 x 13.7 +19.44 x 7.46 277.56
= 277.56m 834 to 1390 m
b) Minimum length of zone = 3 x OSD = 3 x 277.56 = 834m

Maximum length of zone = 5 x OSD = 5 x 277.56 = 1390m

SIGHT DISTANCE

• Intermediate SD
• Headlight SD

Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections
➢ On all approaches of intersecting roads, there should be

clear view from sufficient point to avoid collision.
➢ The area of unobstructed sight formed by the lines of
Major Road 2
sight is called sight triangle. B
Minor Minor
Road 1 A C Road 3
Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

Design of SD at intersection is based on 3 conditions
1. Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed.
✓ SD should be sufficient to enable either one or both the approaching vehicles to
change speed to avoid collision.
✓ The vehicle approaching from minor road should slow down.
✓ The total reaction time required for driver to change speed may be assumed as 2s Major Road 2
and additional 1s is needed to change the speed. B
✓ Minimum length of AC and BC is distance covered in 2s.

Minor
2. Enabling the approaching vehicle to stop. Road 1 A C
Minor
Road 3
✓ SD should be available for vehicle approaching from minor road to stop.
✓ Hence AC = BC = safe SSD Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

Design of SD at intersection is based on 3 conditions
3. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a road.
✓ SD should be sufficient for stopped vehicle to cross.
✓ In case of minor road vehicles stopped by stop sign, they should have adequate
SD from stopped position to start, accelerate and cross the road.
Major Road 2
✓ The time ‘T’ required to cross the road depends on
B
i. Reaction time of driver
ii. Width of main road
Minor Minor
iii. Acceleration Road 1 A C Road 3
iv. Length of vehicle

Major Road 4
Sight Triangle

Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections
➢ IRC recommends:
➢ Minimum visibility distance of 15m along minor road.
➢ Along major road:
Major Road 2
Design Speed(kmph) Minimum Visible

distance(m)
Minor Minor
100 220 Road 1 A C Road 3
80 180
65 145
Major Road 4
50 110 Sight Triangle

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Due to the presence of obligatory points alignment of highways
has to be changed.
• Alignment should enable safe, consistent and smooth movement
of vehicles operating at design speed.
• So sharp curves and reverse curves should be avoided.
• Improper alignment would necessitate speed changes.
• Speed changes depends on:
1. Terrain
2. Class of road
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal curves
• Super elevation
• Radius of horizontal curve
• Widening of pavement on horizontal curves- Extrawidening
• Horizontal transition curve

Horizontal curves

HORIZONTAL CURVES
• Horizontal curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction of central line of the
road.
• When a vehicle traverses a curve, centrifugal force acts, horizontally outwards through
C.G of vehicle.
• Centrifugal force depends on radius of horizontal curve and speed of vehicle negotiating
the curve.
• Centrifugal force is counteracted by transverse frictional force which help the vehicle to
change direction along the curve and maintain stability of vehicle.
P – centrifugal force, kg
WV² W – weight of vehicle, kg
• Centrifugal force, P = V – speed, m/s
gR
R – radius of curve, m
g – acceleration due to gravity m/s²
Centrifugal Ratio / Impact Factor
Ratio of centrifugal force to weight of vehicle is called centrifugal ratio or

impact factor.
P WV² 1 V²
= x =
W gR W gR
Centrifugal force on vehicle at curves have two effects:
i. Tendency to overturn the vehicle about outer wheels.
ii. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outward.

The analysis of stability of the two conditions against overturning and transverse
skidding of the vehicles negotiating horizontal curves without superelevation.
i. Overturning effect
Centrifugal force that tends vehicle to overturn about B is given by ‘ P’.

Overturning moment due to centrifugal force about B = P h
b
This is resisted by moment due to weight of the vehicle = W
2
h = height of C.G. of vehicle above road surface
b = width of wheel base

P b
For equilibrium, =
W 2h
b P b
Ph=W If > , overturning will occur.
2 W 2h
P b
So should be less than
W 2h
The analysis of stability of the two conditions against overturning and transverse
skidding of the vehicles negotiating horizontal curves without superelevation.
ii. Skidding Effect
Centrifugal force, P has a tendency to push the vehicle outwards in the transverse
direction.
If ‘P’ exceeds frictional force, vehicle will start skidding in transverse direction.
For equilibrium, P = FA + FB
= f R A + f R B = f (R A + R B )
Since R A + R B = W
P = fW
If centrifugal ratio is equal to ‘f’ there is danger of skidding.
WV²
gR
=fW P
Therefore, W should be less than f .
P
=f
W
Super Elevation

SUPER ELEVATION
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout length of curve.
• This transverse inclination given to the pavement is called Cant / Banking / Super
elevation.
• Super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of height of outer edge with respect to
horizontal width.
NL
• e= = tan ɵ
ML
NL
• Since ɵ is small, tan ɵ ≅ sin ɵ = L
MN
NL E 𝐄
• e= = e=
MN B 𝐁
Analysis of Super Elevation
• Forces acting on vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R meters, at speed V
m/s are:
WV²
i. Centrifugal force P = acting horizontally outwards through CG.
gR
ii. Weight ‘W’ of vehicle acting through CG.

iii. Frictional force developed between wheels and pavement.
• Centrifugal force is opposed by friction developed and component of gravity due to super
elevation provided.

• For equilibrium
P cosɵ = W sinɵ + FA + FB
= W sinɵ + f (R A + R B )
= W sinɵ + f (P sinɵ + W cosɵ)
ɵ P
P cosɵ - f P sinɵ = W sinɵ + f W cosɵ ɵ
P(cosɵ - f sinɵ) = W(sinɵ + f cosɵ)
Dividing throughout with W cosɵ ɵ
P(1- f tan ɵ) = W (tan ɵ + f) P sinɵ
W
P tan ɵ + f W cosɵ
=
W 1− f tan ɵ
Value of f is taken as 0.15 and value of tanɵ should not exceed 0.07.
f tan ɵ = 0.01 P
= tan ɵ + f = f + e
W
1 – f tan ɵ = 0.99 ≈ 1
• For equilibrium • If f = 0 , the equilibrium superelevation required to counteract
P centrifugal force fully will be given by,
=f+e
W
V²
V² e=
=f+e 127R
gR
• In some places where super elevation cannot be provided, e =
e – rate of super elevation = tan ɵ
0, centrifugal force is fully counteracted by frictional force.
f – lateral coefficient of friction = 0.15
V²
V – speed in m/s f=
127R
R – radius of curve in m • In some type of intersections, it is not possible to provide

g – acceleration due to gravity super elevation and in such cases frictional force fully
V² counteracts the centrifugal force and allowable speed will be
If V is in kmph, =f+e
127R
restricted to, V = 127 f R

Design of Super elevation
Super elevation should be provided so that centrifugal force due to 75% design speed is
compensated. Lateral friction is neglected and maximum super elevation is taken as 0.07.
Steps for super elevation design
(0.75V)² V²
1. Super elevation for 75% design speed is calculated by the formula, e = =
127R 225R
2. If calculated super elevation is less than 0.07, then ok.
3. If calculated super elevation is greater than 0.07, put e = 0.07 and calculate ‘f’ using the
V²
equation, e + f =
127R
If f < 0.15, then ok. Else go to step 4.
4. If f > 0.15, put e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and calculate restricted speed Va ,

V ²
a
e + f = 127R
Va = 27.94R
Design of Super elevation
If design speed < Va , then design is adequate and provide e = 0.07.
If design speed > Va , then restrict it to allowable speed.
➢ Maximum super elevation

✓ 7% - for mixed traffic( bound by snow plain and rolling terrain)
✓ 10% - for hill roads ( not bound by snow)
➢Minimum super elevation

✓ Minimum camber for the surface

Question 1
The radius of horizontal curve is 100m. Design speed is 50kmph and design coefficient of friction is 0.15.
a. Calculate super elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
b. Calculate coefficient of friction needed if no super elevation is provided.
c. Calculate equilibrium super elevation if pressure on inner and outer wheels should be equal.
Answer
Given, R = 100m 50²

f= = 0.197
127x 100
V = 50kmph
V²
f = 0.15 c. If f = 0, e =
127R
𝐕² 50²
a. If V is in kmph, =f+e e= = 0.197
𝟏𝟐𝟕𝐑 127 x 100
V² 50²
e= -f= - 0.15 = 0.047
127R 127 x 100
V²
b. If e = 0, f =
127R

Question 2
Design the rate of super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m and speed
100kmph.
Answer Given, R = 500m f < 0.15

V = 100kmph Hence ok
V² 100²
e= = = 0.089
225R 225 x 500
e > 0.07
V²
Put e = 0.07, e + f =
127R
100²
0.07 + f =
127 x 500
f = 0.087
Question3
Design speed is 80kmph. Radius is 200m. Design allowable speed.
Answer Given, R = 200m f > 0.15

V = 80kmph e = 0.07
V² 80² f = 0.15
e= = = 0.14
225R 225 x 200
e > 0.07 Va = 27.94R
V²
= 27.94 x 200 = 74.75kmph
Put e = 0.07, e + f =
127R
80²
0.07 + f =
127 x 200
f = 0.18
Attainment of Super elevation
Full SE is attained by the end of transition curve or at the start of
circular curve.
Attainment of SE may be split into two parts:
a. Elimination of crown of cambered section
b. Rotation of pavement

a. Elimination of crown of cambered section
This may be done by 2 methods.
i. In first method, outer half of cross slope is rotated

about crown. The disadvantage is that surface
drainage is not proper at outer edge.
ii. In second method known as diagonal crown

method, crown is progressively shifted outwards.

b. Rotation of pavement
This may be done by 2 methods.

E
i. By rotating the pavement c/s about centre line, depressing the inner edge 2
E
and raising outer edge each by half the total amount of SE, ie by with E
2
2
respect to the centre. In this method earthwork is balanced.
Disadvantage- Drainage problems occurs due to depressing of inner edge
below the general level.
ii. By rotating the pavement c/s about inner edge of pavement section,
E
raising both the centre as well as outer edge is raised by the full amount
of SE, E with respect to inner edge. This method is preferable in very flat
terrain in high rainfall areas.

Question 1
A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480m. Design super elevation. By
how much amount the outer edge should be raised above center line, if pavement is rotated about center line.
Width of pavement is 7.5m
Answer
Given, R = 480m
E
2
V = 80kmph
E
V² 80² 2
e= = = 0.059
225R 225 x 480
e < 0.07
Hence ok, i.e. e = 0.059 If pavement is rotated about centre line, the height
E eB 0.44
e= of outer edge above centre line = = = 0.22m
B 2 2
E = eB = 0.059 x 7.5 = 0.44

Radius of Horizontal Curve
▪ For a certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on radius of
horizontal curve. Centrifugal force is counteracted by ‘e’ & ‘f’ and is given by the
relation.
V²
e+f=
127R
▪ Maximum allowable ‘e’ is fixed and f = 0.15. So if ‘V’ is decided, R can be found
by the following relation.
▪ Ruling minimum radius for ruling design speed V,
V²
R Ruling =
127(e+f)

Radius of Horizontal Curve
▪ Absolute minimum radius for minimum design speed V¹,
2
V1
R Min =
127(e+f)
• V – Ruling design speed in kmph
• V1 - Minimum design speed in kmph
• e – rate of super elevation, e = 0.07 or e = 0.1
• f – coefficient of friction, f = 0.15

Question 2
Calculate value of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve of NH in plain terrain.
Ruling design speed = 100kmph
Minimum design speed = 80kmph
Answer
2
Given, V1
R Min =
127(e+f)
V = 100kmph
802
V1 = 80kmph =
127(0.07+0.15)
= 229.06m
e = 0.07
f = 0.15
V²
R Ruling =
127(e+f)
100²
= = 357.9m
127(0.07+0.15)
Widening of pavement on horizontal curves - EXTRAWIDENING

Reasons for providing extra width

i. Automobiles have rigid wheel base and only front wheels can be turned. When this vehicle
takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, rear wheels do not follow the same path as of
front wheels. This phenomenon is called off-tracking.
If inner front wheel takes a path on inner edge of pavement at curves, inner rear wheel will be
off the pavement on inner shoulder. Off-tracking depends on length of wheel base, turning
angle, radius of curve.

ii. If speeds are higher than design speed, when e and f cannot counteract the
outward thrust, skidding may occur and rear wheels may take paths on
outside of pavement.
iii. Path traced by trailer units, can also be on side of the centre line of towing
vehicle.

iv. In order to take curved path with large radii and to have visibility, drivers
have tendency to use the outside of curve.
v. While vehicles overtake at curves, there a psychological tendency to maintain

greater clearance between vehicles than on straight roads.

Analysis of Extrawidening
i. Mechanical widening
The widening required to account for off-tacking due to rigidity of wheel base called
mechanical widening, Wm
nl²
Wm =
2R
Where, n – number of lanes
I – length of wheel base
R – mean radius of curve

ii. Psychological widening
Extra width provided for psychological reasons such as to provide greater

manoeuvrability of steering at higher speeds to allow for the extra space is called
psychological widening, Wps
V
Wps =
9.5 R
Total extra width, We = Wm + Wps
nl² V
We = +
2R 9.5 R

• Widening may be introduced gradually from starting of transition curve and is
increased at uniform rate till full We is reached at the end of transition curve.
Full value is continued through out the circular curve and decreased along
transition curve. Widening is distributed on either side of the curve.
• On horizontal curve without transition curve, two-thirds the widening is

provided at the end of the straight section and remaining one-third widening is
provided on the circular curve portion. In such cases widening is provided on
the inner side of curve.

Extra width of pavements at horizontal curves
Radius(m) Upto 2m 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 >300
Extrawidth(m)
2-lane 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil
1-lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil

Question 2
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of within 7m on a horizontal curve of radius 250m if the
longest wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7m. Design speed is 70kmph. Compare the value obtained
with IRC recommendation.
Answer
nl² V
Given, We = +
2R 9.5 R
Since the pavement width is 7m,
2 x 7² 70
We = + = 0.662m
n=2 2 x 250 9.5 250
l = 7m
V = 70kmph
R = 250m

Question 3
Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a new national highway to be aligned along a rolling
terrain with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data.
Answer
V²
R Ruling =
Assume the following date, 127(e+f)
80²
=
i. NH on rolling terrain, Ruling design 127(0.07+0.15)
= 229.06m
speed, V = 80kmph
ii. Normal pavement width = 7m nl² V
We = +
2R 9.5 R
iii. No: of lanes, n = 2 2 x 6² 80
= + = 0.71m
2 x 229.06 9.5 229.06
iv. Wheel base of the truck, l = 6m
Total pavement width = 7 + 0.71 = 7.71m
v. e = 0.07 , f = 0.15

Horizontal Transition Curve
• A transition curve is a curve in plan which is provided to change horizontal
alignment from straight to circular curve.
• A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity to radius of

circular curve. When a transition curve is introduced between straight road
and circular curve, radius decreases and becomes minimum at start of
circular curve.
• Rate of change of radius depends on shape of curve.

Object of providing transition curve
▪ Sudden introduction of circular curve after straight portion will cause the
introduction of centrifugal force suddenly and will result in sudden jerk and
discomfort – to introduce centrifugal force gradually.
▪ To enable the driver to steer vehicle with comfort and safety.
▪ To gradually introduce superelevation and extra widening.
▪ To improve the aesthetic appearance of road.

Condition for ideal shape
▪ Should be such that rate of change of centrifugal acceleration or rate of
introduction of centrifugal force should be consistent.
▪ Radius should consistently decrease from infinity to radius of curve.
▪ Length of transition curve should be inversely proportional to radius.
▪ Spiral transition fulfills the requirements.

Types of transition curve
a) Spiral / Clothoid
b) Lemniscate
c) Cubic parabola
• All curves follow almost the same path upto deflection angle of 4º and there is significant difference upto 9º.
• For deflection > 4º rate of change of centrifugal force is not consistent in case of cubic parabola and lemniscate.
• In spiral rate of introduction of centrifugal force is constant and length is inversely proportional to radius of the
curve. So it fulfills condition of ideal curve.
• It is easy to setout in field and geometric calculations are easy. So IRC suggests spiral as ideal curve.

Length of transition curve
▪ It is designed to fulfill three conditions:
i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration developed gradually.
ii. Rate of introduction of super elevation at reasonable rate.
iii. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula.

i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration developed gradually
V²
a=
R
At the start of tangent point, a = 0, Since, R = ∞.
At the end, R has minimum value R m .
V²
a=
Rm
Hence centrifugal acceleration is distributed over length Ls . Let ‘Ls ’ be length of transition
curve in metre. If ‘t’ is time taken in sec to traverse transition length at uniform speed ‘V’. m/s.
Ls
t=
V
V²
Maximum centrifugal acceleration = in time ‘t’.
R

V2
R
Rate of centrifugal acceleration =
t
V2 V V3
C= x = m/s³
R Ls Ls R
Maximum allowable rate of centrifugal acceleration without producing discomfort is

dependent on speed and inversely proportional to radius R.
80
IRC recommends following equation for, C =
75+V
V3
Ls =
𝐶R
V3 Ls - length of transition curve in m

If V is in kmph, Ls = C – allowable rate of acceleration in m/s²
46.5CR
R – radius of curve in m
ii. Rate of introduction of super elevation at reasonable rate
Maximum rate of super elevation is 1 in 150.
So Ls is equal to 150 times total amount by which outer edge of pavement to be raised with
respect to centre line.
If 1 in N is rate of super elevation, Ls = E x N
Ls = e BN
Ls = e(W+We )N If pavement rotated about inner edge.

1
Ls = e(W+We )N If pavement is rotated about centre line.
2

iii. Minimum length by IRC empirical formula
V2
For plain and rolling terrain, Ls = 2.7
R
V2
For mountainous and steep terrain, Ls =
R
Length of transition curve is higher of the above three.
Ls ²
Shift of transition curve, S =
24R

Question 1
Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using the given data, design speed-65kmph, allowable rate of
introduction of super elevation- 1 in 150 (Pavement rotated about centre line), Radius of horizontal curve =
220m Pavement width-7.5m(including extrawidening)
Answer V3 653
Ls = = = 47.1m
Given, 46.5CR 46.5 x 0.57 x 220
ii. Length of transition curve by rate of introduction
V = 65kmph
super elevation at reasonable rate.
1 in N = 1 in 150
1
Ls = e(W+We )N
B = W+We = 7.5m 2
R = 220m V2 652
e= = = 0.085
225R 225 x 220
80 80
C= = = 0.57 e>0.07
75+V 75+65
i. Length of transition curve by rate of change of Put e = 0.07
centrifugal acceleration developed gradually.

Answer
V2
e+f= iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
127R
empirical formula
V2 652
f= - 0.07 = - 0.07 = 0.08
127R 127 x 220 V2 652
Ls = 2.7 = 2.7 x = 51.85m
f < 0.15 R 220
Hence e = 0.07 Length of transition curve, Ls = 51.85m
1 Ls ² 51.85²
Ls = e(W+We )N Shift, S = = = 0.51m
2 24R 24 x 220
1
Ls = x 0.07 x 7.5 x 150 = 39.375m
2

Question 2
A NH passing through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500m. Design the
length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Answer V3 803
Ls = = = 42.3m
Given, 46.5CR 46.5 x 0.52 x 500
For NH on rolling terrain, ii. Length of transition curve by rate of introduction of

V = 80kmph super elevation.
1 in N = 1 in 150 Ls = e(W+We )N
W= 7m
V2 802
R = 500m e= = = 0.057
225R 225 x 500
80 80 e<0.07
C= = = 0.52
75+V 75+80
Put e = 0.057
i. Length of transition curve by rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration.

Answer
nl² V
We = +
2R 9.5 R iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
2 x 6² 80 empirical formula
We = + = 0.45m
2 x 500 9.5 500
V2 802
Ls =e(W+We )N Ls = 2.7 = 2.7 x = 34.56m
R 500
Ls =0.057 x (7+0.45) x 150 = 63.7m Length of transition curve, Ls = 63.7m

Setback distance on horizontal curves
➢ On horizontal curves, in order to provide the required SD, obstructions

on inner side should be at a distance from the centre line of highway.
This clearance distance required from centre line of highway curve to an
obstruction on inner side of curve is the setback distance.
➢ This depends on:
i. Required SD.S
ii. Radius of horizontal curve, R
iii. Length of circular curve, LC , which may be greater than or less than S

Setback distance on horizontal curves
i. If LC > S
α 180S
=
2 2πR
α
m = R – R cos{ }
2
αI
For two or more lanes, mI = R – (R-d) cos{ }
2
Where d is the distance between centre line of road and centre line of inner
lane.
αI 180S
=
2 2π(R−d)
ii. If LC < S
αI 180LC
=
2 2π(R−d)
I αI S−LC αI
m = R – (R-d) cos{ }+ sin { }
2 2 2
Curve Resistance
➢Loss of tractive force due to turning of vehicle on horizontal

curve is termed as curve resistance.
CR = T( 1-cosα )

Question 1
While aligning a highway in a built up area, it was necessary to provide a horizontal circular curve of radius 325m. Design
the following geometric features:
i. Super elevation
ii. Extra widening of pavement
iii. Length of transition curve
Data available are
Design speed=65kmph, Length of wheel base of largest truck =6m, pavement width = 10.5m
Answer i. Super elevation

Given,
V2 652
V = 65kmph e= = = 0.058
225R 225 x 325
l = 6m e < 0.07
W= 10.5m Hence, e = 0.058
R = 325m
ii. Extra widening of pavement i. Length of transition curve by rate of
nl² V
We = + change of centrifugal acceleration
2R 9.5 R
n = 3, since W = 10.5m developed gradually
l = 6m
V3 653
3 x 6² 65
Ls = = = 31.88m
46.5CR 46.5 x 0.57 x 325
We = + = 0.55m
2 x 325 9.5 325 ii. Length of transition curve by rate of introduction of
iii. Length of transition curve super elevation at reasonable rate.

1
80 80 Ls = e(W+We )N
C= = = 0.57 2
75+V 75+65
e = 0.058
1 in N = 1 in 100(for built up areas)
1
Ls = x 0.058 x (10.5+0.55)x 100 = 32.05
2

iii. Minimum length of transition curve by IRC
empirical formula
V2 652
Ls = 2.7 = 2.7 x = 35.1m
R 325
Length of transition curve, Ls = 35.1m

Homework
A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a horizontal

curve of radius to the ruling minimum radius.
i. Design all the geometric features of this curve, assuming
suitable data.

Vertical alignment(Introduction)
➢ While aligning a highway it is the general practice to follow the general topography
or profile of land.
➢ But the natural ground may be level only at some places and otherwise the ground
may have slopes of varying magnitude.
➢ Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well as slopes or
grades.
➢ In order to have smooth vertical movements on the roads, the changes in the grade
should be smoothened out by vertical curves.
➢ The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.

➢ Vertical alignment consists of:
i. Gradients
ii. Vertical curves
➢ Vertical alignment influences:
i. Speed of vehicle
ii. Acceleration, deceleration of vehicle
iii. SD, SSD
iv. Comfort in vehicle movements at high speed

The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients(straight lines in a vertical plane)
and vertical curves.
The vertical alignment is usually drawn as a profile, which is a graph with elevation as
vertical axis and the horizontal distance along the centre line of the road as the the
horizontal axis.

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CET 206

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➢Roads in ancient India

➢Roads in Mughal period

➢Roads in 19th century

➢Jayakar committee and recommendations

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Based on type of Based on type of pavement

All weather Surfaced

Fair weather Unpaved Unsurfaced

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Nagpur Road Plan

Bombay Road Plan

Lucknow Road Plan

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Classification of Urban Sub-arterial Roads

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State Highway: These are main roads of a state connecting to NH of

Village Roads: These are roads connecting villages or group of

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Classification of roads based on Lucknow State Highways

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Sub-arterial Roads ➢ Collector streets provide

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• Horizontal Alignment:- Straight path, horizontal deviations

Necessity of highway alignment

If not properly aligned, it would result in

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Geometric design deals with the following:

• Cross section elements

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a. Pavement surface characteristics: Friction, Pavement unevenness, Light

• Pavement surface characteristics • Road margins

c. Light reflecting characteristics

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Case i: WBM pavement

Case ii: Bituminous concrete pavement

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• Pavement surface characteristics • Road margins

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3. Segregate slow traffic and protect pedestrians

Physical Dividers Area separators

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• Pavement surface characteristics • Road margins

Shoulders Parking lanes, Cycle tracks Lay byes

Bus bays Frontage roads

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