5

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General to Literature Review of Study

Since over 150 years ago, Portland cement has become almost a wonder
material and a household name. The raw materials needed for its manufacture are
available in most parts of the world, and the energy requirements for its production
are relatively modest. Nevertheless many countries have severe shortages of cement,
although their needs are vast. The search for alternative binders or cement
replacement materials has thus become a challenge for national development and
forward planning. In many developed countries, on the other hand, apart from the
need to save energy, there is an urgent requirement to project concrete as a reliable
and durable construction material.
Nowadays, many construction materials are produced and so the construction
work should be done with low cost material. Concrete is a man-made (artificial)
stone. And, concrete is one of the most widely used building materials because of its
compressive strength, resistance to water, and its ability to be easily formed and
placed according to need. Many advanced construction techniques and materials are
required. It is used in many different structures such as dam, pavement, building
frame or bridge. Concrete, the most widely used construction material, essentially
consists of embedded particles of aggregates in a cement paste matrix. This paste is
composed of a mixture of hydration products, un-reacted cement, water and pores.
Cement is the most essential requirements in concrete mix. Although cement plays an
important part of the concrete, admixtures are often used for special purposes. The
reason for the use of admixtures is that they are capable of imparting considerable
physical and economic benefits. The use of admixture can result in savings such as
the cost or the labour required.

2.2. Cement
Cement can be described as a material with adhesive and cohesive properties,
 5

which makes capable of bonding material fragment into a compact mass. Cement, as
used in construction industries, is a fine powder which is mixed with water and
allowed to set and harden. It can join different components of member together to
give a mechanically strong structure. Thus, cement can be used as a bonding material
for bricks or for bonding solid particles of different sizes to form a monolith. Cement
is a very binding material which is a finely ground material consisting primarily of
compounds of lime, silica, alumina and iron. It may be natural cement or artificial
cement.
Natural cement is manufactured by burning and then crushing the natural
cement stones, which contain 20 to 40 of argillaceous matter i.e., clay and remaining
content mainly calcareous matter, which is either calcium carbonate alone or mixture
of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. Natural cement resembles very
closely eminent hydraulic lime.
Artificial cement is manufactured by burning appropriately proportioned
mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials at a very high temperature and then
grinding the resulting burnt mixture to a fine powder. Portland cement is a type of
artificial cement brand name. All Portland cements are hydraulic cements. This means
that they will set and harden under water.
Joseph Aspidin of England first patented the manufacture of a very improved
type of cementitious material for building construction in 1824, and named it
“Portland Cement”, because the hardened stone from his cement resemble Portland
stone was found in England. Portland cement is the name given to the cement
obtained by intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous, or other silica,
and alumina and iron oxide bearing materials, burning them at a clinker. The
definition of the British Standard (BS 12:1991) and the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM C 150-92) are on those lines; no material, other than gypsum,
water and grinding aids may be added after burning [10Nev].

2.2.1. Manufacture of Portland Cement

From the definition of Portland cement given above, it can be seen that it is
made primarily from a combination of a calcareous material, such as limestone or
chalk, and of silica and alumina found as clay or shale. The process of manufacture
consists essentially of grinding the raw materials into a very fine powder, mixing
them intimately in predetermined proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a
 6

temperature of about 1400 °C (2500 °F) when the material sinters and partially fuses
into clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum
added, and the resulting products is the commercial Portland cement used throughout
the world.
The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done either in water or in
a dry condition. Hence, it is named as the wet and dry process. The mixture is fed into
a rotary kiln, sometimes (in the wet process) as large as 7 m (23 ft) in diameter and
230 m (750 ft) long. The kiln is slightly inclined. The mixture is fed at the upper end
while pulverized coal (or other source of heat) is blown in by an air blast at the lower
end of the kiln, where the temperature may reach about 1500 °C (2750 °F). The
amount of coal required to manufacture one ton (2200 lb) of cement is between 100
kg (220 lb) and about 350 kg (770 lb), depending on the process used. Nowadays, gas
and various combustible materials are also used.
As the mixture of raw material moves down the kiln, it encounters a
progressively higher temperature so that various chemical changes take place along
the kiln. First, any water is driven off and CO 2 is liberated from the calcium
carbonate. Further on, the dry material undergoes a series of chemical reactions until,
finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, some 20 to 30% of the material becomes liquid,
and lime, silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses into balls, 3 to 25 mm
(1/8 to 1 in) in diameter, known as clinker.
Afterwards, the clinker drops into coolers, which provide means for an
exchange of heat with the air subsequently used for the combustion of the pulverized
coal. The cool clinker, which is very hard, is interground with gypsum in order to
prevent flash-setting of the cement. The ground material, cement, has as many as
1.1×1012 particles per kg (0.5 × 1012 per lb) [10Nev].

2.2.2. Chemical Composition of Portland Cement

The raw materials used in manufacture of Portland cement consist mainly of
lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. These compounds interact with one another in the
kiln to form a series of more complex, apart from a small residue of uncombined lime
which has not had sufficient time to react, a state of chemical equilibrium is reached.
However, equilibrium is not maintained during cooling, and the rate of cooling will
affect the degree of crystallization and the amount of amorphous material present in
the cooled clinker.
 7

The properties of this amorphous material, known as glass, differ considerably

from those of crystalline compounds of a nominally similar chemical composition.
Another complication arises from the interaction of the liquid part of the clinker with
crystalline compounds already present. Four compounds are regarded as the major
constituents of cement: they are listed in Table 2.1 together with their abbreviated
symbols.

Table 2.1. Major Compounds in Portland Cement [10Nev]

Chemical Oxide Common Weight

Compound Color
Formula Composition Name Percentage

Tricalcium
3CaO.SiO2 C3S White Alite 50%
Silicate

Dicalcium
2CaO.SiO2 C2S White Belite 25%
Silicate

Tricalcium White /
3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Aluminate 12%
Aluminate Grey

Tetracalcium 4Cao.Al2O3.
C4AF Black Ferrite 8%
Aluminoferrite Fe2O3

The silicates, C3S and C2S are the most important compounds, which are
responsible for the strength of hydrated cement paste. The presence of C 3A in cement
is undesirable; it contributes little or nothing to the strength of cement except at early
ages, and when hardened cement paste is attacked by sulfates, the formation of
calcium sulfoaluminate may cause disruption. However, C 3A is beneficial in the
manufacture of cement in that it facilitates the combination of lime and silica. C 4AF is
also present in cement in small quantities. However, it reacts with gypsum to form
calcium sulfoferrite and its presence may accelerate the hydration of the silicates.
Approximate composition limits of Portland cement are shown in Table 2.2.
 8

Table 2.2. Approximate Composition Limits of Portland Cement [10Nev]

Oxide Content (%)
CaO A (not applicable)
SiO2 20 min
Al2O3 6 max
Fe2O3 6 max
MgO 6 max
SO3 3 max

2.2.3. Types of Portland Cement

There are five types of Portland cement for American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM). Table 2.3 shows American (ASTM) Portland cement
classification.

Table 2.3. American Society of Testing and Material (ASTM) Portland Cement
Classification

ASTM C 150-04 Description

I Normal
IA Air-entrainment
II Moderate sulphate resistance or moderate heat of hydration
IIA Air-entrainment
III High early strength
IIIA Air-entrainment
IV Low heat of hydration
V High sulphate resistance

(1) Ordinary Portland (Type I) Cement

This is the most common cement used in general concrete constructions when
there is no exposure to sulphate in the soil or in ground water. Ordinary Portland Type
I cement is used in pavements, sidewalks, reinforced concrete building, bridges,
railways structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, water pipes and masonry units.
Ordinary Portland (Type I) cement is an excellent cement and is most widely used.
 9

(2) Modified (Type II) Cement

It is used where moderate sulphate attack may occur. This cement has higher
rate of heat development than that of Type IV cement, and a rate of gain of strength
similar to that of Type I cement. Type II cement is recommended for structures where
a moderately low heat generation is desirable or where moderate sulphate attack may
occur. The use of Type II cement for highway pavements will give the contractor
more time to see control joints because of the heat generation and resulting slower
setting and hardening.

(3) Rapid-hardening Portland (Type III) Cement

This cement is similar to Type I cement and is covered by the same standards.
The strength of this cement develops rapidly and it can be selected when high early
strength is required. The principal reason for the use of Type III cement is used when
formwork is to be removed early for re-use or where sufficient strength for further
construction is required quickly. Rapid-hardening Portland cement should not be used
in mass concrete construction or in large structural sections because of its higher rate
of heat development. On the other hand, for construction at low temperatures, the use
of this cement may provide a satisfactory safe guard against early frost damage. The
setting time of Type III and Type I is the same. The cost of Type III cement is only
marginally greater than that of ordinary Portland cement. Type III cement allows a
reduction in the heated curing time with no loss in strength.

(4) Low-heat Portland (Type IV) Cement

This cement has a low heat of hydration. It is used in construction of massive
structures to obtain relatively low temperature of concrete hardening. There is a
slower development of strength than ordinary. Portland cement but the ultimate
strength is unaffected.

(5) Sulphate-resisting (Type V) Cement

This cement has a low C 3A content so as to avoid sulphate attack from outside
the concrete. The salts particularly active are magnesium and sodium sulphate, and
sulphate attack is greatly accelerated if accompanied by alternate wetting and drying.
Type V cement is primary used where the soil or groundwater contain high sulphate
concentrations and the structure would be exposed to serve attack. There is general
 10

purpose cement used in concrete design to reach its required strength in about 28
days. The heat developed by sulphate-resisting cement is not much higher than that of
low heat cement, which is an advantage, but the cost of the former is higher due to the
special composition of the raw materials.

2.2.4. Hydration of Portland Cement

The material of interest in practice is the set cement paste. This is the product
of reaction of cement with water. In the presence of water, the silicates and aluminates
of Portland cement from the products of hydration or hydrates, which in time,
produce a firm and hard mass–the hardened cement paste. The two calcium silicates
(C3S and C2S) are the main cementations compounds in cement, the former hydration
which is much more rapidly than the later. The calcium silicates in the commercial
cements contain small impurities of some of the oxides present in the clinker. The
impure C3S is known as alite and the impure C 2S as belite. These impurities have a
strong effect on the properties of the calcium silicate hydrate. A considerable strength
is possessed long before the reaction of hydration is completed and it thus seems that
a small amount of the hydrate binds together the unhydrated reminder, and further
hydration results in little or no increase in strength [10Nev].

2.2.5. Physical Properties of Portland Cement

Concrete performance is largely dependent upon the properties of the
cementious materials. Portland cement having the properties suitable for use in high-
strength concrete is one of the most important. The properties of Portland cement are
(1) fineness of cement, (2) normal consistency, (3) setting time, (4) soundness and (5)
specific gravity.

(1) Fineness of Cement

Fineness of cement is a vital property of cement, the determination of specific
surface (m2/kg). A direct approach is to measure the particle size distribution by
sedimentation or elutriation. Fineness of cement affects the rate of hydration, and
higher fineness increases the rate at which cement hydrate causes greater early
strength and more rapid generation of heat. Another type of the measure of fineness is
known as specific surface. The residue by weight on sieve of ASTM No. 200 shall not
 11

exceed 10% [10Nev].

(2) Normal Consistency

For the determination of the initial setting time, the final setting time, and for
Le-Chatelier soundness tests, neat cement paste of a normal consistency has to be
used. Therefore, it is necessary to determine, for any given cement, the water content
which will produce a paste of normal consistency. Consistence is determined by the
Vicat apparatus using a 10 mm diameter plunger. When the plunger penetrates the
paste to a point 10 ± 1 mm for 30 seconds from the top of the mold, the paste is
considered to be at normal consistency. The water content of the paste is expressed as
a percentage by weight of dry cement. The usual ranges of values are between 26%
and 33%.

(3) Setting Time

A state is reached when the cement paste is sufficient rigidity to withstand a
definite amount of pressure. The setting time is determined by using the Vicat
apparatus shown in Figure 2.1. The time to reach this stage is termed as setting time.
Setting is mainly caused by a selective hydration of C 3A (tricalcium aluminate) and
C3S (tricalcium silicate) and is accompanied by temperature rises in the cement paste.
Initial set corresponds to a rapid rise and final set corresponds to the peak
temperature. Initial set and final set should be distinguished from false set which
sometime occur within a few minutes of mixing with water. No heat is evolved in a
false and the concrete can be re-mixed without adding water. For the determination of
setting time, allow the time of setting specimen to remain in the moist cabinet for 30
minutes after molding without being disturbed. Determine the penetration of the
needle at this time and every 15 minutes thereafter (every 10 minutes for Type III
cements) until a penetration of 25 mm is obtained. This is the initial setting time. The
final setting time is when the needle does not sink visibly into the paste.
Temperature affects the setting time, specifically that the mixing has to be
undertaken at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C and minimum relative humidity of 65% and
the cement paste stored at 20 ± 1°C and maximum relative humidity of 90%. The
initial setting time of ordinary Portland cement should not be less than 45 minutes and
the final setting no more than 375 minutes.
 12

Plunger
Initial set
needle used
setting time

Figure 2.1. Vicat Apparatus [10Bha]

(4) Soundness
It is essential that the cement paste does not undergo a large change in volume.
There must not be disruption of the hardened cement paste. Such expansion may
occur due to reaction of free lime, magnesia and calcium sulphate and cements
exhibiting. This type of expansion is classified as unsound. Free lime is present in the
clinker and is inter-crystallized with other compounds, consequently, it hydrates very
slowly occupying a larger volume than the original free calcium oxide. Free lime
cannot be determined by chemical analysis of cement because it is not possible to
distinguish between unreacted CaO (lime) and Ca(OH) 2 (calcium hydroxide)
produced by a partial hydration of the silicates when the cement is exposed to the
atmosphere.
` Magnesium reacts with water in a manner similar to CaO but only the
crystalline form is deleteriously reactive so that unsoundness occurs. Calcium
sulphate is the third compound liable to cause expansion through the formation of
calcium sulphoaluminate from excess gypsum. No test is available for the detection of
unsoundness due to an excess of calcium sulphate, which can be easily determined by
chemical analysis. Le-Chatelier apparatus and its dimensions are shown in Figure 2.2
and Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.2. Le-Chatelier Apparatus

 13

Figure 2.3. Dimensions of Le-Chatelier Apparatus [10Bha]

(5) Specific gravity

The specific gravity of good Portland cement should be between 3.15 and 3.2.
Specific gravity is an indication of the quality of cement but is used in calculation of
mix proportion. Well-burnt Portland cement should have a specific gravity of at least
3.00.

2.3. Properties of Concrete

Concrete that is durable and otherwise satisfactory under conditions which
gives its protection from the elements might be wholly unsuited in location of severe
exposure to disintegrating influences. The properties of concrete are influenced not
only by the properties of the constituent phases but also by the existence of their
interfaces. Concrete can be classified into two stages, fresh concrete and hardened
concrete.
Concrete is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water. This can be easily molded to desired shape and size before it
looses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression but very weak in
tension. Major ingredients of concrete are binding materials (like cement, lime,
polymer), fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregates (crushed stones) and water. A
small quantity of admixtures such as air entraining agents, water proofing agents and
workability agents, etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain
concrete mixture. Depending on the proportion of ingredients, strength of concrete
 14

varies. It is possible to determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular

strength by mix design procedure. In the absence of mix design the ingredients are
proportioned as 1:1:2, 1:1.5:3, 1:2:4, 1:3:6 and 1:4:8, which are the ratio of weight of
cement to sand to coarse aggregate. In proportioning of concrete, it is kept in mind
that voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and the voids in sand are filled
with cement paste. Properties of concrete are strength, resistance to wear, dimensional
changes, durability and impermeability. Proportion of ingredients usually adopted for
various work are shown in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4. Proportion of Cement, Sand and Coarse Aggregates in Concrete [10 Nev]

No
Proportion Nature of Work
.
For machine foundation, footings for steel columns and
1 1:1:2
concreting under water
Water tanks, shells, and folded plates, for other water retaining
2 1:1 1/2:3
structures
Commonly used for reinforced concrete works like beams,
3 1:2:4
slabs, tunnel lining, bridges
4 1:3:6 Piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of windows, floors
Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for
5 1:4:8
making concrete blocks

2.3.1. Slump Test

This test has a purpose to measure consistency of fresh concrete. The test
specimen is formed as a frustum of a cone with a base 20 cm in diameter, the upper
surface 10 cm in diameter and the height 30 cm. The base and the top of the mould
are open and parallel to each other and at right angles to the axis of the cone.
The slump cone should be placed on a flat, moist, non-absorptive surface. The
cone is filled by using three separate layers of concrete. Each layer is rodded with 25
strokes of 16 mm rod. After the top layer has been rodded, the surface of the concrete
is struck off so that the cone is exactly filled and spilled concrete cleaned from the
base. The cone is immediately removed from the concrete by raising it slowly and
carefully in a vertical direction. Workability, slump, and compacting factor of
 15

concrete with 19 or 38 mm (3/4 or 1 1/2 in ) and maximum size of aggregate are

shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5. Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of Concrete with 19 or 38 mm
(3/4 or 1 1/2 in ) and Maximum Size of Aggregate [10Nev]
Degree of Slump Compacting
Use for Which Concrete is Suitable
Workability (mm) (in) Factor
Road vibrated by power-operated
machines. At the more workable
Very Low 0-25 0-1 0.78 end of this group, concrete in
certain cases with hand-operated
machines.
Road vibrated by hand-operated
machines. At the more workable
end of this group, concrete may be
manually compacted in roads using
Low 25-50 1-2 0.85
aggregate of rounded or irregular
shape. Mass concrete foundations
without vibration or lightly
reinforced sections with vibration.
At the less workable end of this
group, manually compacted flat
slabs using crushed aggregates.
Medium 50-100 2-4 0.92
Normal reinforced concrete
manually compacted and heavily
reinforced sections with vibration.
For section with congested
reinforcement. Not normally
High 100-175 4-7 0.95
suitable for vibration.

2.3.2. Air Content Test

Various methods are employed to determine the air content of fresh concrete.
The following three methods have been standardized by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM).
 16

(1) Pressure method (ASTM C231-03)

(2) Volumetric method (ASTM C173/C173M-01)
(3) Gravimetric method (ASTM C138/C138-01a)
Air content is tested by using pressure method. This method depends on the
principle that the volume of the gas (in this case air) varies inversely with the pressure
applied to it. It consists of a special pressure tight container with accessories, capable
of measuring precisely the volume of concrete. The container is filled with concrete,
air pressure is applied by means of a hand pump (thus compressing the entrapped air),
the volume is read, the pressure is gradually released, and the volume is read again.
The apparatus is so calibrated that the difference in volume gives directly the
percentage of air. The method is considered adequate for all ordinary types of
concrete and mortar, except those made with highly porous aggregates [08Nyi].

2.3.3. Heat of Hydration

The quantity of heat (in joules) per gram of un-hydrated cement, evolved upon
complete hydration at a given temperature, is defined as the heat of hydration. The
temperature at which hydration occurs greatly affects the rate of heat development,
which for practical purposes is more important than the total heat of hydration; the
total heat produced over a longer period can be dissipated to a greater degree with a
consequent smaller rise in temperature. For the usual range of Portland cements, about
one-half of the total heat is liberated between 1 and 3 days, about three-quarters in 7
days, and nearly 90% in 6 months. In fact, the heat of hydration depends on the
chemical composition of the cement, and is approximately equal to the sum of the
heats of hydration of the individual pure compounds when their respective
proportions by mass are hydrated separately [10Nev].

2.4. Mechanical Properties of Mortar and Concrete

Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties in
obtaining good specimens and in testing with a consequent large variability of test
results. There are several forms of strength tests: direct tension, compression, and
flexure. These strengths can be affected by a number of items including; water cement
ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing
conditions, size and shape of specimen, loading conditions and age. Cement mortar
 17

strength is not directly related to concrete strength. Strength tests are done on cement
mortars (cement + water + sand) and not on cement pastes.
2.4.1. Compressive Strength of Mortar
For compressive strength test of mortar, cement and standard sand are taken in
ratio of 1:2.75. The strength tests, generally carried out in tension on samples of neat
cement, are of doubtful value as an indication of ability of the cement to make
concrete strength in compression. Therefore, the mortar cube crushing tests and
concrete compression tests are largely super sealing these. For ordinary Portland
cement, the compressive strength at 3 and 7 days curing should not be less than 16
MPa and 22 MPa or 1600 lb/in2 and 2500 lb/in2.

2.4.2. Tensile Strength of Mortar

Tensile strength test is carried out in briquette testing machine to determine
the tensile strength of cement. Briquettes are made of cement and sand (1:3) ratio
cured under water for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days. The average tensile strength
should be 150 psi and 275 psi for 3 days and 7 days.

2.4.3. Compressive Strength of Concrete

The moisture content of a concrete specimen at the time of test has an
important influence on the observed strength. Under similar condition of preliminary
curing, a compressive specimen may exhibit an apparent strength as must as 15%
higher when tested dry than when tested damp. The lower the temperature of the
specimen at the time of the test, the greater the observed strength. However, within
the normal range of indoor temperature, differences in strength due to temperature
alone are not large. The rate of loading has some influence on the apparent strength of
a specimen; the faster the loading the higher the apparent strength. ASTM requires
that in screw-power machines the speed of the moving head be about 0.05 in. per min.
For testing machines of the hydraulic type, the standard rate of load application in
compression is 35 ± 15 psi per sec.
The diameter of a moulded cylindrical specimen should be measured to the
nearest 0.01 in. by averaging two diameters measured at right angles to each other
near the center of the length of the specimen.
If specimens are obviously defective, it should be disregarded. An additional
rule is to discard any specimens the strength of which varies 15% from the average of
the group of specimen. In general, results of tests on individual specimens of concrete
 18

are considered accurate only within perhaps 10 to 20%; undue weight should not be
given to the results of a single test [10Nev].
2.5. Rice Straw Ash
Every year approximately 600 million tons of paddy are produced globally.
Pathak, Jain and Bhatia (2012) mentions that production of rice straw is a major
agricultural by-product of Asia where its annual production amounts to nearly 95% of
total world production. After extraction of rice from paddy, the rice straw is usually
left behind in the fields. In Indian conditions, farmers resort to field burning of rice
straw treating it as a waste material in order to be ready their fields for next
cultivation since the available time between reaping and sowing of crops is very less.
El-Sayed etal. (2006) states that when burnt, rice straw ash (RSA) is highly
pozzolanic and is suitable for lime pozzolana mixes. El-Sayed further mentions that
rice straw ash satisfies the requirements of ASTM Class N, F and C pozzolan.
The actual composition of rice straw and husk varies with the type of paddy,
inclusion of bran and broken rice in the husk, geographical factors, crop season,
samples preparation and relative humidity. Rice straw is an agricultural residue
abundantly available in rice-producing countries. Locally available rice straws are
taken. The straws were burned properly in a mud oven as used by the villagers for
cooking until it fully transformed into ashes. After it the ashes were sieved by 300
µm. The sieved ashes were used in the cement mix as a partial cement replacement
for making the mortar. The silicon oxide content is found to be 62% in RSA by
chemical analysis. Typical chemical composition of rice straw ash is shown in Table
2.6.

Table 2.6. Typical Chemical Composition of Rice Straw Ash (RSA)

Constituent Rice Straw Ash ( % by weight )

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 61.5

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 15.45

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 4.67

Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 3.08

 19

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1.89

Potassium Oxide (K2O) 1.07

Table 2.6. (Continued)

Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 2.18

Sodium Dioxide (Na2O) 0.501

LOI 9.79

Free Lime 0.30

2.6. Granite Powder

Granite is a common type of intrusive igneous rock that is granular in texture.
Color can range from white to red to black and colors in between, ranging from
pebbles to boulders . It is odorless and not flammable. Granite rock comes from
magma that erupted on the ground surface and then hardened .Granite is nearly
always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use of human
history as a construction stone. By definition, granite is an igneous rock with at least
20% quartz and up to 65% alkali feldspar by volume .These rocks mainly consist of
feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole mineral. Granite powder is defined as “residue,
tailing or other non-valuable waste material after the extraction and processing of
rocks to form fine particles less than 4.75 mm”. Granite powder is obtained from the
granite quarry processing unit’s accounts 30% of the final product from quarry
industry.
Granite powder is a mineral admixture. Granite quarry dust is a promising
material for use in concrete similar to those of pozzolanic materials such as silica
fume, fly ash, slag, and others. These products can be used as a filler material to
reduce the void content in concrete. Granite particles containing silicon dioxide may
be generated by handling granite .Granite powder is a siliceous materials like fly ash,
which in itself possess little or no cementitious property, but will in finely divided
form and in the present of moisture chemically react with calcium hydroxide at
ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The
potential use of granite powder can be an ideal choice for substituting in a
cementitious binder as the reactivity efficiency increases due to the presence of silica.
 20

Granite powder which is released directly into environment can cause

environmental pollution. To reduce the impact of the granite powder on environment
and human, this waste can be used to produce new products or can be used as
admixture in concrete so that the natural resources are used efficiently and hence
environmental waste can be reduced. Recycling of industrial wastes as blending
materials has technical, economical and environmental benefits beside the reduction
of carbon dioxide emission from cement production. Today, granite powder is used
with Portland cement not only for strength, but also for economy and beneficial
modification of certain properties of fresh and hardened. Typical chemical
composition of granite powder is described in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7. Typical Chemical Composition of Granite Powder (GP)

Constituent Granite Powder ( % by weight )

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 58.36

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 1.34

Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 12.63

Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 21.54

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1.29

Potassium Oxide (K2O) 0.52

Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1.40

Sodium Dioxide (Na2O) 1.75

LOI 1.19

Free Lime -

2.7. Aggregates
Aggregates which are inert material and act as filler material in cement
concrete. Aggregate occupied at least three quarters of the volume of the concrete.
Sand, gravel and crushed stone are the aggregates most commonly used in concrete to
provide volume at low cost. The selection of aggregate is of particular importance in
making concrete. Their characteristics aggregate greatly influence the properties, mix
 21

proportions and economy. Aggregate is cheaper than cement and it is economical to

put into the mix.
In ordinary structural concretes the aggregates occupy about 70% to 75% of
the volume of the hardened mass. The remainder consists of hardened cement paste,
un-combined water (i.e. water not involved in the hydration of the cement) and air
voids. In general, the more densely the aggregate can be packed, the better the
strength, weather resistance, and the economy of the concrete. For this reason the
gradation of the particle sizes in the aggregate, to produce close packing, is of
considerable importance. It is also important that the aggregate has good strength,
durability and weather resistance; that its surface is free from impurities such as loam,
silt and organic matter which may weaken the bond with cement paste; and that no
unfavourable chemical reaction takes place between it and the cement.
For convenience, aggregates are generally classified as fine aggregate (sand) or
coarse aggregate (stone). Fine aggregate consists mainly of particles which will pass
through a sieve having 5 mm (3/16 in) or No. 4 ASTM sieve square openings. Coarse
aggregate is made up of particles which are mainly larger than 5 mm. Sand stone are
most commonly used for construction purpose.
Since, the proportion of fine to coarse aggregate in a concrete mix has a very
large influence on its workability, crusher run material, of a natural mixture of sand
and pebbles should not be used in concrete unless the materials are first separated into
sand and stone by passing them through a 5 mm screen. Many types of aggregate are
used for the manufacture of concrete intended for various purposes, e.g; for high
density radiation barriers, for low density insulation concrete or for masonry units.
Sand and stone are the aggregates most commonly used for construction purposes. In
general, aggregates should consist of clean, hard, strong and durable particles which
free from clay coating or materials (especially organic materials) and interfere with
the proper development of strength of the cement paste.

2.7.1. Characteristics of Aggregates

The selection of aggregate is particularly important in making concrete. Good
aggregate must have certain characteristics to give workable, durable and economical
concrete. Aggregate used in cement concrete should have the following
characteristics:
1. Durability
 22

2. Organic impurities and other impurities to be within specified limits

3. Crushing strength
4. Particle size
5. Surface texture
6. Specific gravity
7. Water absorption
8. Bulk density
9. Surface moisture

2.7.2. Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Aggregates are inert materials which act as filler materials in concrete.
Aggregates are generally classified as fine and coarse. Fine aggregate or sand is any
material which passes a No. 4 sieve, i.e.; a sieve with four openings per linear inch
and retained on No. 200 (75 μm) sieve. Material coarser than this is classified as
coarse aggregate or gravel.

2.7.3. Grading of Aggregates

The workability of a concrete mix is also influenced by grading and since
grading which produces maximum density of aggregate tends to produce harsh mixes,
density of the aggregate alone cannot be taken as the final criterion. Therefore, an
optimum gradation of the combined aggregate in a concrete mix is desirable in order
to secure maximum density consistent with good workability of concrete and
minimum cement requirements. A well-graded mix produces a stronger concrete than
a poorly graded one. And loss water is required without seriously affecting the
properties of the resulting concrete.
The proportion of the different sizes of particles making up the aggregate is
found by sieving, the grading being usually given in terms of the percentage by
weight passing the various sieves. Continuously grading aggregate for concrete
should contain particles ranging in sizes from the largest to the smallest.

2.7.4. Influence of Properties of Aggregates on Properties of Concrete

It is also important that the aggregate has good strength, durability and
weather resistance, that its surface be free from impurities such as loam, silt and
 23

organic matter which may weaken the bond with cement paste, and that no
unfavourable chemical reaction takes places between it and the cement.
Aggregate shall not contain any harmful material such as pyrites, coal, lignite,
mica, shale of similar laminated material, clay, alkali, soft fragments, sea shells and
organic impurities in such quantity as to affect the strength and durability of the
concrete. Aggregate to be used for concrete shall not contain any material liable to
attack the steel reinforcement. Aggregates which are chemically reactive with alkalis
of cement are harmful as cracking of concrete may take place. The maximum content
of chloride should be 0.02% and that of sulphate 1% in the aggregate. Sugar is
especially dangerous, as it hinders the binding of cement. Properties of concrete
influenced by aggregate properties is shown in Table 2.8.

Table 2.8. Properties of Concrete Influenced by Aggregate Properties [92Nyi]

Concrete Properties Relevant Aggregate Properties

Durability Soundness, Porosity, Pore structure

Permeability, Degree of saturation, Tensile
Resistance to freezing and thawing
Resistance to wetting and drying
Resistance to heating and cooling
Abrasion resistance
Alakali-aggregate reaction
Strength
Shrinkage
Coeficient of thermal exapansion, Modulus
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
Unit weight
strength, Texture and Structure
Presence of clay
Pore structure, Modulus of elasticity,
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Hardness
Presence of particular siliceous
constituents
Strength, Surface texture, Cleanness,
Particle size, Maximum size
Modulus of elasticity, Particle shape,
Grading, Cleanness, Maximum size,
Presence of clay
of elasticity
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
Specific gravity, Particle shape, Grading,
 24

Maximum Size
Modulus of elasticity Modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio
Tendency to polish, Particle shape,
Slipperiness
Grading, Maximum size
Economy Amount of passing required, Availability
2.8. Water
Water acts as the lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregates and acts
chemically with cement to form the binding paste for the aggregates and the
reinforcement. Water is also required for curing the concrete in its early stage of
development.
The vital influence of the quantity of water in the mix on the strength of the
resulting concrete will become clear. The quality of water is important because
impurities in it may interfere with the setting of the cement, may adversely affect the
strength of the concrete of cause staining of its surface, and may also lead to corrosion
of the reinforcement. For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing and curing
purposes should be considered. Clear distinction must be made between the effects of
mixing water. The aggressive water attacks on hardened concrete even beneficial
when used in mixing.
In many specifications, the quality of water is covered by a clause saying that
water should be fit for drinking. While the use of potable water is generally safe,
water not fit for drinking may be often pH (degree of acidity) of 6.0 to 8.0 which does
not taste saline of brackish is suitable for use, but a dark colour of a smell does not
necessarily mean that deleterious substances present. Natural water that are slightly
acidic are harmless but water containing humid or other organic acids may adversely
the hardening of the paste, such water as well as alkaline water, should be tested.
Sea water leads to slightly higher early strength but lower long-term strength;
the loss of strength is usually not more than 15%. It is also believed by some that use
of sea water increase the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement, especially in tropical
countries. Generally, satisfactory water for mixing is to compare the setting time of
cement the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question with the
corresponding result obtained using known good water or distilled water [92Nyi].