Vittal.

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Professor K.Srinivasan

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Department of Mechanical

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Engineering sz
Indian Institute of Science
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Bangalore
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Fundamental Concepts

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and Definitions

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THERMODYNAMICS:

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¾ It is the science of the relations between heat,

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Work and the properties of the systems.

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¾ How to adopt these interactions to our benefit?
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Thermodynamics enables us to answer this
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question.
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Analogy

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All currencies are not equal

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Eg: US$ or A$ or UK£ etc. Have a better purchasing

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power than Indian Rupee or Thai Baht or Bangladesh

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Taka

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similarly,all forms of energy are not the same.

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Human civilization has always endeavoured to obtain
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™ Shaft work
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™ Electrical energy
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™ Potential energy
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to make life easier

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Examples

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If we like to

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¾ Rise the temperature of water in kettle

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¾ Burn some fuel in the combustion chamber of an aero

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engine to propel an aircraft.

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¾ Cool our room on a hot humid day.
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¾ Heat up our room on a cold winter night.
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¾ Have our beer cool.

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What is the smallest amount of electricity/fuel we

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can get away with?

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Examples (Contd)

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On the other hand we burn,

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¾ Some coal/gas in a power plant to generate electricity.

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¾ Petrol in a car engine.

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What is the largest energy we can get out of these

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efforts? sz
™ Thermodynamics allows us to answer some of these
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questions
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Definitions

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¾ In our study of thermodynamics, we will choose a small part of

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the universe to which we will apply the laws of thermodynamics.

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We call this subset a SYSTEM.

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¾ The thermodynamic system is analogous to the free body

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diagram to which we apply the laws of mechanics, (i.e.
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Newton’s Laws of Motion).
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¾ The system is a macroscopically identifiable collection of matter

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on which we focus our attention (eg: the water kettle or the

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aircraft engine).
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Definitions (Contd…)

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¾ The rest of the universe outside the system close enough

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to the system to have some perceptible effect on the

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system is called the surroundings.

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¾ The surfaces which separates the system from the

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surroundings are called the boundaries as shown in fig
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below (eg: walls of the kettle, the housing of the engine).
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System
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Boundary Surroundings
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Types of System

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¾ Closed system - in which no mass is permitted to cross the

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system boundary i.e. we would always consider a system

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of constant mass.We do permit heat and work to enter or

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leave but not mass.

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Boundary Heat/work
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Out
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system
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Heat/work
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No mass entry or exit

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¾ Open system- in which we permit mass to cross the system

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boundary in either direction (from the system to surroundings

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or vice versa). In analysing open systems, we typically look at
a specified region of space, and observe what happens at the

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boundaries of that region.

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Most of the engineering devices are open system.

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Boundary
Heat/work Mass
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Out out
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System
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Heat/work
Mass in
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In
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• Isolated System- in which there is no interaction between

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system and the surroundings. It is of fixed mass and

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energy, and hence there is no mass and energy transfer

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across the system boundary.

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System
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Surroundings
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Choice of the System and
Boundaries Are at Our

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Convenience

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¾ We must choose the system for each and every problem

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we work on, so as to obtain best possible information on

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how it behaves.

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¾ In some cases the choice of the system will be obvious

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and in some cases not so obvious.
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¾ Important: you must be clear in defining what constitutes
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your system and make that choice explicit to anyone else

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who may be reviewing your work. (eg: In the exam

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paper or to your supervisor in the work place later)

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¾ The boundaries may be real physical surfaces or they may

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be imaginary for the convenience of analysis.

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eg: If the air in this room is the system,the floor,ceiling and

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walls constitutes real boundaries.the plane at the open doorway

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constitutes an imaginary boundary.

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¾ The boundaries may be at rest or in motion.

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eg: If we choose a system that has a certain defined quantity of
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mass (such as gas contained in a piston cylinder device) the
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boundaries must move in such way that they always enclose

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that particular quantity of mass if it changes shape or moves

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from one place to another

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Macroscopic and

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Microscopic Approaches

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Behavior of matter can be studied by these two

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approaches.

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¾ In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of

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matter is considered,without a concern on the events
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occurring at the molecular level. These effects can be
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perceived by human senses or measured by
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instruments.
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¾ eg: pressure, temperature

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Microscopic Approach

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¾ In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular

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motion is Considered.

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eg: At microscopic level the pressure of a gas is not

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constant, the temperature of a gas is a function of the

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velocity of molecules.
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Most microscopic properties cannot be measured with
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common instruments nor can be perceived by human

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senses
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Property

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¾It is some characteristic of the system to which some physically

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meaningful numbers can be assigned without knowing the
history behind it.

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¾These are macroscopic in nature.

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¾Invariably the properties must enable us to identify the system.
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¾eg: Anand weighs 72 kg and is 1.75 m tall. We are not
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concerned how he got to that stage. We are not interested what
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he ate!!.
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Examples(contd)

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We must choose the most appropriate set of

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properties.

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¾ For example: Anand weighing 72 kg and being 1.75 m

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tall may be a useful way of identification for police

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purposes.

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¾ If he has to work in a company you would say Anand
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graduated from IIT, Chennai in 1985 in mechanical
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engineering.
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¾ Anand hails from Mangalore. He has a sister and his

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father is a poet. He is singer. ---If you are looking at

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him as a bridegroom!!
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Examples (contd)

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¾ All of them are properties of Anand. But you

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pick and choose a set of his traits which describe

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him best for a given situation.

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¾ Similarly, among various properties by which a
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definition of a thermodynamic system is possible, a
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situation might warrant giving the smallest number
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of properties which describe the system best.

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Categories of Properties

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ƒ

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Extensive property:

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whose value depends on the size or extent of the system

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(upper case letters as the symbols).

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eg: Volume, Mass (V,M).

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If mass is increased, the value of extensive property also

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increases. sz
ƒ Intensive property:
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whose value is independent of the size or extent of the

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system.
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eg: pressure, temperature (p, T).

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Property (contd)

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Specific property:

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¾ It is the value of an extensive property per unit mass of

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system. (lower case letters as symbols) eg: specific volume,

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density (v, ρ).

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¾ It is a special case of an intensive property.
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¾ Most widely referred properties in thermodynamics:
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¾ Pressure; Volume; Temperature; Entropy; Enthalpy; Internal

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energy
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(Italicised ones to be defined later)

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State:

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It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its

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properties.

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It gives a complete description of the system.

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Any operation in which one or more properties of a system

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change is called a change of state.

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Phase: sz
It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in
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chemical composition and physical structure.

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e.g. solid, liquid, vapour, gas.

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Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as

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heterogenous system .
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I hope you can answer the following questions related to the

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topics you have read till now.

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Follow the link below

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problems

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Path And Process

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The succession of states passed through during a change of state

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is called the path of the system. A system is said to go through a

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process if it goes through a series of changes in state.

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Consequently:

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¾A system may undergo changes in some or all of its properties.

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¾A process can be construed to be the locus of changes of state
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Processes in thermodynamics are like streets in a city
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eg: we have north to south; east to west; roundabouts; crescents.

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Types of Processes

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¾As a matter of rule we allow •Isothermal (T)

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one of the properties to remain
•Isobaric (p)

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a constant during a process.

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¾Construe as many processes •Isochoric (v)

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as we can (with a different

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property kept constant during •Isentropic (s)

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each of them) sz •Isenthalpic (h)
¾Complete the cycle by
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regaining the initial state •Isosteric (concentration)
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•Adiabatic (no heat addition

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or removal
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Quasi-Static Processes
The processes can be restrained or unrestrained

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We need restrained processes in practice.

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A quasi-static process is one in which

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¾ The deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is

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or
infinitesimal.

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¾ All states of the system passes through are equilibrium

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states. sz
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Gas
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Quasi-Static Processes (Contd…)

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¾ If we remove the weights slowly one by one the

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pressure of the gas will displace the piston gradually. It

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is quasistatic.
¾ On the other hand if we remove all the weights at

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once the piston will be kicked up by the gas

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pressure.(This is unrestrained expansion) but we don’t

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consider that the work is done - because it is not in a
sustained manner
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¾ In both cases the systems have undergone a change
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of state.
¾Another eg: if a person climbs down a ladder from
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roof to ground, it is a quasistatic process. On the other

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hand if he jumps then it is not a quasistatic process.

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Equilibrium State

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¾A system is said to be in an equilibrium state if its properties

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will not change without some perceivable effect in the

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surroundings.

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¾Equilibrium generally requires all properties to be uniform

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throughout the system.

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¾There are mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibria
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Equilibrium State (contd)

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Nature has a preferred way of directing changes.

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eg:

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¾water flows from a higher to a lower level

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¾ Electricity flows from a higher potential to a lower one

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¾ Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to the one at
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a lower temperature
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¾ Momentum transfer occurs from a point of higher

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pressure to a lower one.

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¾ Mass transfer occurs from higher concentration to a lower

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Types of Equilibrium

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Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in

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ƒPressure

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Mechanical equilibrium
ƒPotential Electrical equilibrium

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ƒConcentration of species

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Species equilibrium
ƒTemperature

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Thermal equilibrium

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No interactions between them occur.
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They are said to be in equilibrium.
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Thermodynamic equilibrium implies all those together.

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A system in thermodynamic equilibrium does not deliver anything.

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Definition Of Temperature

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and Zeroth Law Of

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Thermodynamics

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¾Temperature is a property of a system which determines the

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degree of hotness.

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¾Obviously, it is a relative term.

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eg: A hot cup of coffee is at a higher temperature than a block of
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ice. On the other hand, ice is hotter than liquid hydrogen.
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Thermodynamic temperature scale is under evolution. What we

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have now in empirical scale.

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(Contd)

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¾Two systems are said to be equal in temperature,

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when there is no change in their respective observable

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properties when they are brought together. In other

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words, “when two systems are at the same temperature

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they are in thermal equilibrium” (They will not

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exchange heat). szo
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Note:They need not be in thermodynamic

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equilibrium.
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Zeroth Law

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¾If two systems (say A and B) are in thermal

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equilibrium with a third system (say C) separately

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(that is A and C are in thermal equilibrium; B and C

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are in thermal equilibrium) then they are in thermal

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equilibrium themselves (that is A and B will be in

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thermal equilibrium
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TA TB
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TC
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Explanation of Zeroth Law

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¾ Let us say TA,TB and TC are the temperatures of A,B and C

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respectively.

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¾ A and c are in thermal equilibrium.

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Ta= tc

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¾ B and C are in thermal equilibrium. Tb= tc

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Consequence of of ‘0’th law

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¾ A and B will also be in thermal
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equilibrium TA= TB
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¾ Looks very logical

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¾ All temperature measurements are based on this LAW.

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